ECOLOGY OF MATERIALS AND

PROCESSES

JUNE 2, 2016
MINH QUAN DANG

CONTENTS
Contents .................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1

Environmental policy ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1

ISO 9000 Family of standards.................................................................................................................................. 4

1.1.1

contents .......................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1.2

Achieved .......................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.2

ISO 14000 Family of standards................................................................................................................................ 4

1.3

ISO 14001 based EMS ............................................................................................................................................. 5

1.3.1
1.4

EMAS (Eco-Management and Audit Scheme) ......................................................................................................... 5

1.4.1

EMAS requirements ..................................................................................................................................... 5

1.4.2

Steps in the implementation of EMAS ............................................................................................................ 5

1.5

REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals). .................................................... 5

1.6

Best Available Techniques (BAT) ............................................................................................................................. 6

1.7

Eco-design ............................................................................................................................................................... 6

WEE and RoHS Tin whiskers ............................................................................................................................................ 7

2.1

Lead-free electronics............................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.1

Regulations for Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment WEEE (2002/96/EC). ......................................... 7

2.1.2

Restriction on Hazardous Substances RoHS (2011/62/EU, older 2002/95/EC). .......................................... 7

2.1.3

Hazardous Substance Process Management (HSPM) ..................................................................................... 7

2.2

Steps of EMS implementation ........................................................................................................................ 5

Soft soldering Lead-free .......................................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.1

Thermal shock ................................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.2

Process changes .............................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.3

Reliability Risk ................................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.4

What is whisker? ............................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.5

Problems with whiskers .................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.6

Groove timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.7

Problems with whiskers .................................................................................................................................. 9

2.2.8

Mechanism of whisker growth ....................................................................................................................... 9

2.2.9

Effect of temperature on whisker growth ...................................................................................................... 9

2.2.10

Whisker test methods ..................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2.11

Mitigation strategy........................................................................................................................................ 10

WEEE Recycling ............................................................................................................................................................. 11

3.1

WEEE Directives ................................................................................................................................................. 11

3.2

The basic objectives of the directives ................................................................................................................... 11

3.3

CATEGORIES OF EEE COVERED BY WEEE DIRECTIVE............................................................................................. 11

3.4

Problems with WEEE recycling.............................................................................................................................. 11

3.5

Recycling in the product lifecycle ......................................................................................................................... 11

3.6

Recycling technology............................................................................................................................................. 12

3.6.1

Disassembly................................................................................................................................................... 12

3.6.2

Components recycling................................................................................................................................... 12

3.6.3

Process .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

Life cycle Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 13

4.1

Definition............................................................................................................................................................... 13

4.2

Why should I use LCA ............................................................................................................................................ 13

4.3

Standardization ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

4.4

Terms and definitions ........................................................................................................................................... 13

4.5

Phases in an LCA study: ......................................................................................................................................... 14

4.6

Ideal characteristics of LCA ................................................................................................................................... 15

4.7

Limitations of LCA ................................................................................................................................................. 16

4.8

Software tools ....................................................................................................................................................... 16

Reliability....................................................................................................................................................................... 16
5.1

Dependability ........................................................................................................................................................ 16

5.2

Reliability............................................................................................................................................................... 16

5.2.1

reliability modeling, ...................................................................................................................................... 16

5.2.2

reliability analysis and optimization,............................................................................................................. 16

5.2.3

reliability engineering, .................................................................................................................................. 17

5.2.4

reliability science, .......................................................................................................................................... 17

5.2.5

reliability technology,.................................................................................................................................... 17

5.2.6

reliability management. ................................................................................................................................ 17

5.3

Maintenance ......................................................................................................................................................... 17

5.4

Maintainability ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

5.5

Reliability during life-cycle .................................................................................................................................... 18

5.6

Bathtub curve........................................................................................................................................................ 18

5.7

Causes of failure .................................................................................................................................................... 18

5.8

Reliability Statistics ............................................................................................................................................... 19

5.9

Reliability Metrics Failure rate .............................................................................................................................. 19

5.10

Weibull Distribution .............................................................................................................................................. 20

5.11

Exponential Distribution ....................................................................................................................................... 20

5.12

Normal (or Gaussian) ............................................................................................................................................ 20

5.13

Log-Normal Distribution ....................................................................................................................................... 21

Reliability testing ........................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.1

Test Purposes ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

6.2

Acceleration Methods ........................................................................................................................................... 23

6.2.1

Overstressing ................................................................................................................................................ 23

6.2.2

Acceleration Factor ....................................................................................................................................... 24

6.2.3

Arrhenius Reaction Rate Model .................................................................................................................... 24

6.2.4

Eyring Relationship........................................................................................................................................ 25

6.3

Analysis Method.................................................................................................................................................... 25

6.3.1

Data Types - Complete Data ......................................................................................................................... 25

...................................................................................................................... 25

6.3.2

Data Types - Censored Data .......................................................................................................................... 25

6.3.3

Plots............................................................................................................................................................... 26

6.3.4

Probability Plot .............................................................................................................................................. 26

6.3.5

Failure rate plots ........................................................................................................................................... 26

6.4

Standard test methods ......................................................................................................................................... 26

6.5

Burn-In Test ........................................................................................................................................................... 27

6.6

Environmental Stress Screening ........................................................................................................................... 27

Environmental testing ................................................................................................................................................... 28

7.1

Climatic.................................................................................................................................................................. 28

7.1.1

7.2

Environmental Engineer........................................................................................................................................ 28

7.3

Types of Environmental Tests ............................................................................................................................... 28

7.3.1

Atmospheric test ........................................................................................................................................... 28

7.3.2

Laboratory test .............................................................................................................................................. 28

7.3.3

Failures by Type of Test................................................................................................................................. 28

Electronic device durability ........................................................................................................................................... 29

8.1

Definition....................................................................................................................................................... 28

CORROSION ........................................................................................................................................................... 29

8.1.1

Classification of metal corrosion ................................................................................................................... 29

8.1.2

Type of surface treatment ............................................................................................................................ 29

Temporary corrosion protection for period of transport and storage ......................................................................... 30

9.1

atmospheric corrosion .......................................................................................................................................... 30

9.2

Parameters for temporary protection choice ....................................................................................................... 30

9.3

Period of protection .............................................................................................................................................. 30

9.4

Transport chain (delivery circuit) .......................................................................................................................... 30

9.5

Survey of step of temporary protection application ............................................................................................ 30

9.6

Conservation means ............................................................................................................................................. 30

9.7

Protective effect corrosion inhibitors ................................................................................................................ 30

9.8

Special paints primer.......................................................................................................................................... 30

9.9

Packaging/Wrapping systems ............................................................................................................................... 30

9.10

Application of volatile inhibitors ........................................................................................................................... 30

9.10.1

Mechanisms of VCI action ............................................................................................................................. 30

9.10.2

Volatile corrosion inhibitors .......................................................................................................................... 30

9.11

Temporary protection of closed spaces ................................................................................................................ 30

1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
1.1 ISO 9000 FAMILY OF STANDARDS

1.1.1 contents
ISO 9000:2005 Fundamentals and vocabulary
ISO 9001:2008 Quality management system requirements
ISO 9004:2009 Managing for sustained success of organizations
ISO 19011:2002 Guidelines for quality and/or environmental management systems auditing
1.1.2 Achieved
internal objectives:
o provide assurance to management that the organizational processes and activities are under
environmental control
o assure employees that they are working for an environmentally responsible organization.
external objectives:
o provide assurance on environmental issues to external stakeholders such as customers, the
regulatory agencies etc.
o comply with environmental regulations
o support the organization's claims and communication about its own environmental policies, plans
and action etc.

1.2 ISO 14000 FAMILY OF STANDARDS

Standards deal with environmental management systems (EMS):

ISO 14001:2004 Environmental management systems - Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 14004:2004 Environmental management systems- General guidelines on principles, systems and support
techniques.
ISO 14004:2004 - guidelines on the elements of an EMS and its implementation, and discusses principal issues
involved.

ISO 14001:2004 specifies the requirements for such an EMS. Fulfilling these requirements demands objective
evidence which can be audited to demonstrate that the environmental management system is operating
effectively in conformity to the standard.
EN14047:2003 - Environmental management - Life Cycle Assessment - Examples of application of ISO 14042

1.3 ISO 14001 BASED EMS

Management tool enabling an organization of any size or type to:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

identify and control the environmental impact of its activities, products or services, and to
improve its environmental performance continually, and to
implement a systematic approach to setting environmental objectives and targets, to achieving these and to
demonstrating that they have been achieved.
1.3.1 Steps of EMS implementation
Definition of environmental policy in the company.
Preliminary review of the environmental effects (factors).
Overview of legal requirements and compliance with them.
Determination of the environmental program with specific goals.
Training and education programs for all employees.
Adequate documentation.
Measurement, regular monitoring, improving mechanisms.
Internal and external audits, verification.
Internal and external communications, annual report on the environment.

1.4 EMAS (ECO-MANAGEMENT AND AUDIT SCHEME)

EMAS is a voluntary instrument of environmental policy, whose main objective is to promote continual improvement of
environmental organizations

1.4.1 EMAS requirements

full compliance of the environmental management system with requirements of ISO 14001
improving environmental performance and reducing environmental load
compliance with environmental legislation
regular publication of environmental statement.

1.4.2 Steps in the implementation of EMAS

Planning
Implementation
Checking
Improvement

1.5 REACH (REGISTRATION, EVALUATION, AUTHORIZATION AND RESTRICTION OF CHEMICALS).

The aim is to:

improve the protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier identification of
the intrinsic properties of chemical substances.
enhance innovation and competitiveness of the EU chemicals industry.

REACH doesnt cover:

Waste,

radioactive substances,
food.

1.6 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT)

Principle:

Technical level of the new equipment is assessed in terms of emission levels and quantities of waste material
and energy demands, methods and tools of environmental management is compared with the best available
techniques BAT.
Reference documents BREF

1.7 ECO-DESIGN
establishing a framework for the setting of eco-design requirements for energy using products
Eco-design is a method of designing products that takes into account their impact on the environment at all stages
of their life cycle.
Principle

to ensure high level protection of the environment due to decrease in environment impact.
to fact find and to spread eco-design knowledge and information obtain in companies during eco-design
application.

2 WEE AND ROHS TIN WHISKERS

2.1 LEAD-FREE ELECTRONICS
2.1.1 Regulations for Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment WEEE (2002/96/EC).
The purpose of the WEEE directive is the reduction of waste electrical and electronic equipment, and to promote the
reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of such wastes as to reduce the disposal of waste.
2.1.1.1

The main impact of the WEEE Directive

Manufacturers must:

Register their products in each EU country where they will be sold.

Arrange for the collection/proper disposal of discarded products, including providing disassembly & warning
information to recyclers.
Pay into a recycling fund in these EU countries.
Mark their products with the crossed-out wheelie bin (EN 50419).

2.1.2 Restriction on Hazardous Substances RoHS (2011/62/EU, older 2002/95/EC).

The purpose of the RoHS directive is the restriction of the use of hazardous substances and to contribute to the
environmentally sound recovery and disposal of WEEE.
The materials listed below is restricted
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Cadmium (Cd)
Hexavalent Chromium (Cr6)
Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBB)
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDE)

2.1.2.1 RoHS in the world

EU: Restriction on Hazardous Substances RoHS (2011/96/EU).
China: Administration on the Control of Pollution Caused by Electronic Information Products.

2.1.3 Hazardous Substance Process Management (HSPM)

Processes for identifying, managing, quantifying and reporting the contents of HS in electrical and electronic
components and HS content in electrical and electronic components and products must be identified and
understood so that all interested parties could learn HSF condition
IECQ QC 08000

2.1.3.1 Main features HSPM certification

Process Control, additional to ISO 9001
The organization must have established QMS
Alternatively, non-certified QMS
Can be used to apply to all restricted substance (but especially for the 6 substances listed in the RoHS)
May include already existing regulations (eg required by Major OEMs)

2.1.3.2 Affect
Material choices.
Component choices.
Manufacturing/testing/repair processes.

Design rules.
Qualification of materials/components/processes.
Reliability testing.

2.2 SOFT SOLDERING LEAD-FREE

2.2.1 Thermal shock
20-40 seconds at the peak temperature is usually required because most lead-free solders have much poorer wetting
than tin-lead solders.

2.2.2 Process changes

Process changes force the manufacturer to completely re-qualify a PCB/product, even if there werent any
design changes.
We have very little field history for lead-free electronics.
Most of the lead-free products is designed for maybe a one-year lifetime before they are expected to be
discarded.

2.2.3 Reliability Risk

Lead-free solders are very susceptible to the following failure modes, which have been almost unknown/unheard-of
with lead-bearing solders:

Tin whiskers.
Tin pest.
Sensitivity to shock, causing solder joints to crack if the product is dropped onto a hard surface.
Kirkendall voids, causing opens.
Conductive anodic filaments, causing shorts inside PCBs.
2.2.4 What is whisker?
Description: Hair-like, metallic crystals that UNPREDICTABLY grow out from a metal surface.
Definition: A spontaneous columnar or cylindrical filament, usually of monocrystalline metal, emanating from
the surface of a finish.
Sources: Tin, Zinc and Cadmium coatings are most common, Indium, Gold, Silver, Lead, and other metals.
Characteristic: Electrically conductive
2.2.5 Problems with whiskers
Not on all Tin, Zinc or Cadmium Surfaces will Grow Whiskers
Current theories and test methods DO NOT enable prediction of the time-dependence of population Density,
Length, Thickness
2.2.6

Groove timeline

2.2.7

Problems with whiskers

2.2.7.1

Basic Whisker Failure Modes

2.2.7.2 Whisker Induced Failures

1986 Heart Pacemaker Recall Tin whisker shorts from pure tin-plated housing of crystal cause complete loss
of
pacemaker output.
1986 Radar F-15 Tin whisker shorts inside hybrid microcircuit. Whisker from pure tin-plated hybrid
microcircuit lids.
1988, 1993 U.S. Missile Program Tin whisker growing from pure tin-plated TO-3 transistor can shorts
collector to case. Short sends a false command to turn on an electrical unit.
1994 Apnea Monitor Failures short of switch (Zn whisker).
2004 Phoenix Air to Air Missile Tin whisker shorts inside hybrid microcircuit. Whisker from pure tin-plated
hybrid microcircuit lids.
Satellites: Galaxy IV, Galaxy VII a Solidaridad 1 Complete loss of satellite operations. Tin whisker short (metal
arc in
vacuum) from pure tin plated relays.

2.2.8 Mechanism of whisker growth

Dislocation theory
Recrystallization theory.
Intermetallic model.

2.2.9 Effect of temperature on whisker growth

It seems, whiskers growth rapidly in the temperature range 20 75 C with the optimal temperature 50 C.
Growth stop when temperature exceed 150 C or -40C.

2.2.10 Whisker test methods

Three kinds of tests two test with constant temperature and humidity and one test using temperature cycles.

2.2.11 Mitigation strategy

Basic mitigation strategies:

Avoid Use of Whisker Prone Surface Finishes.

Remove/Replace Tin Finishes When Practical.
Use matte Tin Finishes.
Use nickel under layer.
Use thick layers.
Eliminate mechanical load.
Solder dip.
Conformal Coat - Electrically Insulating Barriers

3 WEEE RECYCLING
3.1 WEEE DIRECTIVES

Regulations for Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment WEEE (2012/19/EU, older2002/96/EC).
Restriction on Hazardous Substances RoHS (2011/62/EU, older 2002/95/EC).

3.2 THE BASIC OBJECTIVES OF THE DIRECTIVES

Prevention of WEEE.
The increase of reuse, recycling and other ways of using them.
Minimize the accumulation of WEEE as unsorted municipal waste.
The responsibility falls on the manufacturer of electrical equipment across the entire product lifecycle = main
principle.

3.3 CATEGORIES OF EEE COVERED BY WEEE DIRECTIVE

1.
2.
3.
4.

Temperature exchange equipment

Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens having a surface greater than 100 cm 2
Lamps
Large equipment (any external dimension more than 50 cm) including, but not limited to: Household appliances;
IT and telecommunication equipment; consumer equipment; luminaires; equipment reproducing sound or
images, musical equipment; electrical and electronic tools; toys, leisure and sports equipment; medical devices;
monitoring and control instruments; automatic dispensers; equipment for the generation of electric currents.
This category does not include equipment included in categories 1 to 3.
5. Small equipment (no external dimension more than 50 cm) including, but not limited to: Household appliances;
consumer equipment; luminaires; equipment reproducing sound or images, musical equipment; electrical and
electronic tools; toys, leisure and sports equipment; medical devices; monitoring and control instruments;
automatic dispensers; equipment for the generation of electric currents. This category does not include
equipment included in categories 1 to 3 and 6.
6. Small IT and telecommunication equipment (no external dimension more than 50 cm)

3.4 PROBLEMS WITH WEEE RECYCLING

High cost of obtaining materials from end of life products.

Too large proportion of unused waste to landfills as a hazardous waste, and the associated increased costs.
Technical problems in the management of end of life product.

3.5 RECYCLING IN THE PRODUCT LIFECYCLE

3.6 RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY

3.6.1 Disassembly
Manual disassembly
o contacts with visible gold contacts medium valuable contacts with a large number of components
o few valuable contacts without visible damage
o separation of hazardous/useful components (batteries, capacitors and components with Hg, motors,
large parts of Al).
Automatic disassembly (identification system)
o Targeted disassembly - separated only part with the aspects of the ecological, technological, or
economic.
o Complete disassembly - screened out components that are not necessary from a technological point of
view.
o Disassembly with classification - identification of parts before and after assembly. It allows for example
testing some components for further use.
The "See and pick" identifying X-ray or thermal radiation
The "Pick all and sort 'remove all components from the board, post-separation
3.6.2 Components recycling
disassembly of parts
o unscrewing
o extraction
o cut out
o disordering
time-consuming
large amount of human labor
automated disassembly - Intelligent Systems
o sorting technology
electrostatic principle, eddy currents (separation of metals from plastics)
density of the material (many substances with completely different properties can have a similar
density)
combined technology (crushing - energy intensity)
3.6.3 Process
The first stage - the assessment
o staff must be trained to recognize the components to disassembly
o When the robot reaches the DPS, he does not know, it cannot perform disassembly and sorting
o automatic non-destructive disassembly - a better result for the re-use of components
Second stage - modification
o prepared scrap is fed into the crushing equipment,
o Staff are looking for other hazardous components and larger metal parts on the belt.
Third stage processing
o Further comminution of the material and subsequent granulation, sieves classified granulate of various
sizes,
o coarser iron pieces are magnetically captured,
o subsequently non-ferrous metal separator separates a mixture of plastics and nonferrous metals.

4 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

4.1 DEFINITION

LCA compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product
system throughout its life cycle;
LCA includes all stages of the product's life cycle from raw material acquisition through production, use phase
and the disposal of the product.
Determination of environmental profile - a description of inputs and outputs with measurable physical
quantities.

4.2 WHY SHOULD I USE LCA

identifying opportunities to improve the environmental performance of products during their life cycle,
informing decision-makers in industry, government
the selection of relevant indicators of environmental performance
marketing

4.3 STANDARDIZATION

EN ISO 14040:2006 (SN EN ISO 14040:2006) Environmental management Life Cycle Assessment Principles
and Framework
EN ISO 14044:2006 (SN EN ISO 14044:2006) Environmental management Life cycle assessment
Requirements and guidelines

4.4 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

life cycle interlinked stages of a product system;

process set of interrelated activities that transforms inputs into outputs
product system collection of unit processes with elementary and product flows, performing one or more
defined functions, and which models the life cycle of a product;
elementary flow material/energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the
environment without previous human transformation, or material or energy leaving the system being studied
that is released into the environment without subsequent human transformation;
energy flow input/output to/from a unit process or product system quantified in energy units;
Allocation partitioning the input or output flows of a process between one or more product systems;
functional unit quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit;
reference flow measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfill the function
expressed by the functional unit

4.5 PHASES IN AN LCA STUDY:

1. the goal and scope definition,
o The specification of the product and its functions,
o the purpose of an LCA study (internal/external),
o the specification of the functional unit and of the reference flow
o system boundary.
System boundary determines which unit processes shall be included within the LCA.
Selection of the system boundary shall be consistent with the goal of the study.
The criteria used in establishing the system boundary shall be identified and explained.
where the unit process begins, in terms of the receipt of raw materials or intermediate
products,
the nature of the transformations and operations that occur as part of the unit process,
and
where the unit process ends, in terms of the destination of the intermediate or final
products.
There are four main options to define the system boundaries:
Cradle to Grave
Cradle to Gate
Gate to Grave
Gate to Gate

2. the inventory analysis,

o Life Cycle Inventory - LCI
o Life cycle inventory contains a definition and quantification of inputs and outputs for a given product
during the whole life cycle or a single process.
o The data are sorted into the LCI table.
3. the impact assessment,
o Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) identifies and evaluates the amount and significance of the
potential environmental impacts arising from the LCI.
For LCA method are available several methods for assessing the environmental impact of data
outputs from the inventory.
LCIA methodology contains a set of characterization models transferring the value of
elementary flows to all categories of impact indicators.
Methods: EDIP 97, TRACI, IMPACT 2002+
o Inputs/outputs are first assigned to impact categories,

o their potential impacts quantified according to characterization factors.

4. the interpretation.
o In the interpretation phase the results are checked and evaluated.
o This phase includes two primary steps:
identification of significant issues;
evaluation

4.6 IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LCA

Clearly defined concept applicable to all types of products including services

Coverage of all environmental impacts related to products life cycle
Clear answer one number as a final score

The aim is to overcome shifts of environmental impacts across life cycle stages, time, regions and
environmental areas

4.7 LIMITATIONS OF LCA

Not all environmental areas represented

Generality and linearity
Cannot act as a single method

4.8 SOFTWARE TOOLS

SimaPro (www.pre.nl)
GaBi (www.gabi-software.com)
BOUSTEAD
CMLCA
Umberto

5 RELIABILITY
5.1 DEPENDABILITY

5.2 RELIABILITY

5.2.1 reliability modeling,

model building to obtain solutions to problems in predicting, estimating, and optimizing the survival or
performance, the impact of unreliability, and actions to mitigate this impact.
Reliability modeling involves:
o model selection,
o parameter estimation,
o Validation
modeling process begins with a qualitative model
o block diagram = structure of the product logical structure is represented by series or parallel
configuration, combinations of these, or complex patterns
5.2.2 reliability analysis and optimization,
Qualitative verification of the various failure modes and causes that contribute to the unreliability.

Quantitative using real failure data (obtained, for example, from a test program or from field operations) in
conjunction with suitable mathematical models to produce quantitative estimates of product reliability.
analysis of the underlying causes of failure, the mechanisms of failure, and its consequences.
Tools used in the design stage for identifying failures and determining their consequences:
o Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA)
technique for analysis of a system in terms of its subsystems, assemblies down to the part level,
to determine failure causes.
The analysis addresses:
How can part fail (failure modes)?
What will happen to the system and its environment if this part does fail in each of the
ways available to it (failure effects)?
how the failures are detected?
what can be done to compensate for the failure?
Process
Define the system to be analyzed (charts, descriptions, diagrams, component lists].
Break the system down into convenient and logical elements
Establish a Coding System to identify system elements.
Analyze (FMEA) the elements.
o Failure modes and effects and criticality analysis (FMECA)
the same technique as FMEA but also containing criticality of each possible failure
o Fault tree analysis
logic diagram that shows the relationship between a potential event affecting the system and
the possible underlying causes for this event

5.2.3 reliability engineering,

the design and construction of products, taking into account the unreliability of its parts and components. It also
includes testing and programs to improve reliability.
5.2.4 reliability science,
the properties of materials and the causes for deterioration leading to part and component failures. It also deals with
the effect of manufacturing processes (e.g., casting, annealing, assembly) on the reliability of the part or component
produced.
5.2.5

reliability technology,

5.2.6 reliability management.

the various management issues in the context of managing the design, manufacture, and/or operation and maintenance
of reliable products and systems.

5.3 MAINTENANCE
These actions are a part of maintenance and maintainability. There are two primary types:

Preventive maintenance actions taken to increase the length of its lifetime and/or its reliability
Corrective maintenance - actions taken to restore a failed product to an operational state.

5.4 MAINTAINABILITY

accessibility of parts for repair,

standardization of parts,
modular construction,

and development of diagnostic procedures.

5.5 RELIABILITY DURING LIFE-CYCLE

5.6 BATHTUB CURVE

5.7 CAUSES OF FAILURE

Overstress fracture, buckling, deformation, deadhesion

wear out corrosion, wear, diffusion, crack initiation, and propagation, radiation
Failures may be classified as
o mechanical (deformation, buckling, fracture, cracking, creep, and creep rupture),
o electrical (electrostatic discharge, dielectric breakdown, junction breakdown, and others),
o thermal (overheating, thermal expansion, and contraction),
o radiation (radioactivity, secondary cosmic rays),
o chemical (corrosion, oxidation, etc.), or
o combinations of two or more of these.

5.8 RELIABILITY STATISTICS

5.9 RELIABILITY METRICS FAILURE RATE

5.10 WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION

Can represent any of the three bathtub regions.

Used mostly in microelectronics for modeling infant mortality.
Three-parameter model, but only two are commonly needed (third parameter represents a time shift).
Appropriate for accelerated life tests.

5.11 EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION

Constant failure rate.

Describes only the flat (steady-state) portion of bathtub curve.
One-parameter model.

5.12 NORMAL (OR GAUSSIAN)

Two-parameter bell-shaped curve model.

Used for process monitoring and control charts.

5.13 LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Two-parameter distribution.
Can represent any of the three bathtub regions.
Used mostly in microelectronics for modeling wear out.
Replaces time to fail by its logarithm.
Appropriate for accelerated life tests.

6 RELIABILITY TESTING
6.1 TEST PURPOSES

From a product life cycle perspective, ARTs can be classified into three categories:
o Design,
1. Compare and assess the reliability of materials and components (vendors).
2. Determine optimal design alternatives.
3. Conrm the effectiveness of a design change.
4. Evaluate the relationship between reliability and stress.
5. Discover potential failure modes.
o Development
1. Demonstrate that the design achieves a specied reliability target.
2. Estimate the reliability of the design (competitiveness and warranty cost).
o Qualification,
1. Demonstrate that the manufacturing processes capable of producing products that meet a
specied reliability target.
2. Estimate the product reliability.
o Production.
1. Identify the special causes for a statistically signicant process shift.
2. Duplicate the critical failure modes observed in the eld for determination of the failure
mechanisms
3. Acceptance sampling.
The purposes of these tests are usually different.

6.2 ACCELERATION METHODS

6.2.1 Overstressing
The most common acceleration method, consists of running test units at higher-than-use levels of
stresses.
Such stresses include environmental, electrical, mechanical, and chemical stimuli:
temperature,
humidity,
thermal cycling,
radiation, voltage,
electrical current,
vibration,
mechanical load.
Stress may be applied indifferent patterns over time:
constant stress,
steps tress,
progressive stress,
cyclic stress,
random stress.

6.2.1.1 Constant-stress testing

The stress level of a unit is held constant over time.
An ALT may have several groups of units, each subjected to a different constant level of stress.
The units at high stress yield shorter lives.
This test method is most common in practice because of the simplicity of stress application and data analysis.
6.2.1.2 Step-stress testing
Units are subjected to a stress level held constant for a specied period of time, at the end of which, if some
units survive, the stress level is increased and held constant for another specied period.
This process is continued until a predetermined number of units fail or until a predetermined test time is
reached.
A step-stress test yields failures in a shorter time than does a constant-stress test.
Thus, it is an effective test method for discovering failure modes of highly reliable products.
However, models for the effect of step stressing are not well developed and may result in inaccurate
conclusions.

6.2.1.3 Progressive stress testing

The stress level is increased constantly (usually, linearly) until a predetermined number of test units fail or until
a predetermined test time is reached.
The slopes of the straight lines are the rates at which the stress levels are increased and represent these verity
of the stress.
The higher the rate, the shorter the times to failure.
Like step-stress testing, the test method is effective in yielding failures and imposes difculties for modeling the
data.
6.2.1.4 Cyclic stress loading
The stress level is changed according to a xed cyclic pattern.
Common examples of such stress are thermal cycling and sinusoidal vibration.
6.2.1.5 Random stress
Changes of stress are random and has a probabilistic distribution.
Random vibration is a typical example of random stress.
The loading patterns are used primarily for the purpose of simulating the actual stress that a product will
encounter in the eld.

6.2.2

Acceleration Factor

6.2.3

Arrhenius Reaction Rate Model

6.2.4

Eyring Relationship

6.3 ANALYSIS METHOD

Data: complete/censored
Reliability estimation: graphical/numerical
Select a Life Distribution: Normal/Log-normal/Weibull
6.3.1

Data Types - Complete Data

6.3.2

Data Types - Censored Data

Interval Censored Data: data reflects uncertainty as to the exact times the units failed within an interval.
Left Censored Data: failure time is only known to be before a certain time.
6.3.3

Plots

6.3.4

Probability Plot

6.3.5

Failure rate plots

6.4 STANDARD TEST METHODS

SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Automotive, Aero-space and Transportation

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
Telcordia Technologies (Bellcore)
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
IEC (International Electro Technical Commission)
DOT (Department of Transportation)
DOD (Department of Defense)
FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
GMW (General Motors Worldwide)
FMC (Ford Motor Company)
Boeing

CNS (Chinese National Standards)

JISC (Japanese Industrial Standards Committee)
DIN (German Standards)

6.5 BURN-IN TEST

A test in which finished product is subjected to elevated temperatures over a period of time to accelerate failure modes
which follow the Arrhenius reaction rate model.

6.6 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS SCREENING

A screening process in which a product is subjected to environmentally generated stresses to precipitate latent
product defects. The environmental stresses may be any combination of temperature, vibration or humidity.
Highly Accelerated Stress Screen A screening process like ESS with stress levels typically beyond product
operating ranges but within the product destruct ranges.

7 ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING
7.1 CLIMATIC

7.1.1 Definition
Climatic is the science of measuring, analyzing, controlling and testing with climatic, weather, or
meteorological conditions.
Climatic deals with variables of temperature, pressure, moisture, corrosive environments, sand & dust, icing,
solar radiation, and combinations.

7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER

Functions include participation in the design, testing, and manufacturing procedures:

Determine life-cycle requirements for systems, sub-systems, and components.

Supply environmental design and test requirements with proper margins for types of hardware and phase
development.

7.3 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS

7.3.1 Atmospheric test

Long-term tests slow rate the exposure to last for 1 year, 2 years, 5 years, 10 years or 20 years,
Materials,

7.3.2 Laboratory test

Accuracy,
repeatability,
acceleration.
7.3.2.1

7.3.2.2

Mechanical testing
7.3.2.1.1

Vibrations

7.3.2.1.2

Shock

Climatic testing
7.3.2.2.1

Temperature

7.3.2.2.2

Temperature Cycles/Shocks

7.3.2.2.3

Humidity

7.3.2.2.4

Test stress Rain

7.3.2.2.5

Altitude low pressure

7.3.3 Failures by Type of Test

Operational Testing - must meet all functional criteria during exposure to environment.
Storage and Transportation - Does NOT need to work during exposure, but must meet all operational criteria
X minutes after exposure.

8 ELECTRONIC DEVICE DURABILITY

8.1 CORROSION

8.1.1 Classification of metal corrosion

according to environment atmospheric, in soil, in water, etc.
according to mechanism uniform, local

8.1.2 Type of surface treatment

pretreatment
metallic coatings
inorganic non-metallic coatings
organic coatings
combined coatings
post-treatment

9 TEMPORARY CORROSION PROTECTION FOR PERIOD OF TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

9.1

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION

9.2 PARAMETERS FOR TEMPORARY PROTECTION CHOICE

9.3 PERIOD OF PROTECTION
9.4 TRANSPORT CHAIN (DELIVERY CIRCUIT)
9.5 SURVEY OF STEP OF TEMPORARY PROTECTION APPLICATION
9.6 CONSERVATION MEANS
9.7 PROTECTIVE EFFECT CORROSION INHIBITORS
9.8 SPECIAL PAINTS PRIMER
9.9 PACKAGING/WRAPPING SYSTEMS
9.10 APPLICATION OF VOLATILE INHIBITORS
9.10.1 Mechanisms of VCI action
9.10.2 Volatile corrosion inhibitors

9.11 TEMPORARY PROTECTION OF CLOSED SPACES