Honors Biology Final Exam!

The Introduction to Biology !

The Scientific Method !
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1) Question/Observation !

2) Hypothesis !

3) Experiment !

4) Analyze Data !

5) Conclusion !

6) Publish !

Homeostasis !
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The ability or tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a stable internal environment !

by adjusting it physiological process !

Purpose and Hypothesis!

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Hypothesis must be testable. Can be rejected/eliminated but not confirmed with absolute

certainty. !

Variable Independent, Dependent, Control/Experimental Groups!

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Independent !

Dependent !

Control Variable !

Experimental Variable !

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What is tested !

Changes based on independent variable !

Remain the same throughout groups !

Manipulated variable !

Classification !
Characteristics of Life!
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1) All living things are made of cells!

2) Multicellular organisms display organization !

3) All living things obtain and use energy !

4) All living things respond to a stimulus !

5) Maintain homeostasis !

6) All living things reproduce !

7) All living things grow and develop !

8) Taken as a group, living things evolve!

*All cells contain DNA* !

Binomial Nomenclature!
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Genus Species !

Homo sapiens !
(genus)(species) !

Categories of Biological Classification !

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Domain !

Kingdom !

Phylum !

Class!

Order

Family!

Genus !

Species !

Three Domains!
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1) Archaea!

2) Bacteria!

3) Eukarya!

- Kingdom - archaebacteria !

- Kingdom - eubacteria !

- Divided into kingdoms !

Protista (protozoans, algae)!

Fungi (mushrooms, yeasts)!

Plantae (multicellular plants)!

Animalia (multicellular animals) !

Six Kindgoms !
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1) Animalia !

- Eukaryotic !

- Multicellular!

- Ingestive heterotrophs (consume food and digest it inside their bodies) !

- Feed on plants and animals!

- 950,000 species !

2) Eubacteria !

- Some may cause disease!

- Found in all habitats except harsh ones!

- Important decomposers for environment !

- Commercially important in making cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, etc. !

3) Archaea!

- Probably the 1st cell to evolve!

- Live in harsh environments!

- Found in:!

Sewage treatment plants (methanogens) !

Thermal or volcanic vents (thermophiles)!

Hot springs or geysers that are acidic!

Very salt water (halophiles)!

4) Protista!

- Eukaryotic !

- Unicellular/Multicellular !

- Autotrophic/Heterotrophic !

- Aquatic - flagella and cilia !

- Plant-like/Animal-like !

- 200,000 species (identified & catalogued) !

5) Fungi !

- Eukaryotic!

- Multicellular (except yeast) !

- Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food outside their body and then absorb it)!

- Cell walls made of chitin !

- Non-motile (spores) !

- More than 75,000 species !

6) Plantae !

- Eukaryotic!

- Multicellular !

- Autotrophic !

- Absorb sunlight to make glucose (photosynthesis)!

- Cell walls made of cellulose (we cannot digest) !

- Non-motile but respond to stimulus !

- 290,000 species !

Evidence of Biological Evolution !

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- Fossils!

- Morphology (homologous structure) !

- Molecular evidence (DNA, amino acids) !

- Similar embryo development!

Cladograms!
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- Adaptations change over time !

- Show relations among organisms !

(Biological) Species Concept !

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- A group of organisms that can interbreed naturally and successfully !

Analogous and Homologous Structures !

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- Analogous structures appear similar but actually come from completely independent !

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origins!
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Birds and butterflies have wings!

- Homologous structures have traits that stem from a common evolutionary ancestor!

Bat wing and cat arm !

The Chemistry of Life !

Matter, Elements, Atoms, Compounds !
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- Matter is composed of atoms !

- Elements are composed of only one type of atom!

- Atoms are the basic unit of a chemical element !

Have electrons that move in orbits around the center of the atom !

Have a nucleus containing protons and neutrons !

- Compounds are things that are composed of two or more separate elements!

Properties of Water: Adhesion, Cohesion, Hydrogen Bonds!

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- Adhesion is when water molecules stick to a surface!

- Cohesion is when water molecules stick to each other !

- Hydrogen bonds are the bonds between two water molecules!

Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic!
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- Hydrophobic - water-fearing, water-repelling!

Non-polar compounds!

Insoluble in water!

- Hydrophilic - water-loving, attracted to water !

Ionic compounds dissolve in water!

Polar molecules (generally) are water soluble !

Polar/Non-polar !
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- In polar molecules electrons are not equally shared!

- In non-polar molecules electrons are equally shared!

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Hydrophilic !

Hydrophobic !

Location and Charge of Protons, Electrons, Neutrons !

Particle Name

Location

Charge

Mass

Electron

Orbitals

-1

~0

Proton

Nucleus

+1

Neutron

Nucleus

no charge

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Atomic Number v. Mass Number!
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- Atomic number is the number of protons!

- Atomic mass is the number go protons plus neutrons !

protons = electrons!

neutrons = atomic mass - atomic number !

Differences in Types of Bonds: Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogen !

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- Covalent bonds!

Atoms share one or more electrons with each other to form the bond!

Each atom is left with a complete outer shell!

A covalent bond forms between two nonmetals !

- Ionic bonds!

Atoms will transfer one or more electrons to another to form the bond !

Each atom is left with a complete outer shell !

- Hydrogen bonds!

Bond between water molecules !

Slightly negative regions of one molecule are attracted to the slightly positive !

regions of nearby molecules, forming a hydrogen bond!

Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up to four neighbors!

Solution, Solute, and Solvent !

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- Solution is made up of a solute and solvent!

- Solute is the substance being dissolved !

- Solvent is the substance doing the dissolving !

Water is the universal solvent !

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Monomers and Polymers!
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- Monomers are building blocks of an organic molecule !

- Polymers are molecules made of monomers that are linked together by a series of !

covalent bonds !

Hydrolysis and Condensation Reaction !

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- Hydrolysis is the addition of a water molecule to break a bond!

- Condensation reaction is the loss of a water molecule to form a bond !

Also called dehydration synthesis !

Carbohydrates !
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- CHO!

- Function: energy and energy storage !

- Monosaccharide (monomer)!

Glucose!

Galactose !

Fructose !

- Disaccharide: sucrose!

Maltose!

Lactose !

- Polysaccharide (polymer)!

Starch (plant storage)!

Cellulose (plant walls)!

Glycogen (animal storage)!

Chitin!

Ratio: 1 C - 2 H - 1 O!

Lipids: Phospholipids, Fats: Saturated and Unsaturated !

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- CHO!

- Function: long term energy storage!

- Monomer: fatty acids!

- Polymer: triglyceride !

3 fatty acids, 1 glycerol !

Butter!

- Saturated fats!

Single bonds!

Flat line!

Carbons full of Hs!

Solid at room temperature !

Ex: butter, animal fat!

- Unsaturated fats!

Double bonds!

Less Hs!

Fatty acid kinks/bends!

Liquid at room temperature!

Ex: vegetable oil, olive oil !

Proteins: Amino Acids !

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- CHON!

- Function: shape determines function !

- Monomer: amino acids!

- Polymer: protein !

R group determines differences in amino acids !

Polypeptides - long chains of amino acids !

Enzymes and Activation Energy, Catalyst, Substrate, Active Site, Denaturation !

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- Enzymes are biological catalysts !

Lower activation energy !

Never used up!

Very specific !

Can denature!

- Catalysts speed up reactions !

- Activation energy is the energy needed to activate molecules to a state in which they !

can undergo a chemical reaction!

- Substrates are the biological molecules that the enzyme will work on !

- The active site is the uniquely shaped area of the enzyme that fits around the substrate !

- Denaturation is the act of destroying a protein !

Protein loses all levels of organization besides the primary level!

Temperature and pH affect enzyme action !

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA !

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- Monomer: nucleotides!

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DNA and RNA!

Cell Structure and Function !

Compound Microscope Magnification!
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- Magnification!

On the eyepiece: 10X!

On the scanning objective (first and largest number): 4X!

On the low power objective: 10X!

On the high power objective: 40X!

- High power allows you to see the most detail!

- Scanning power allows you to see the largest section of specimen !

Three Principles of the Cell Theory!

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1) All organisms are composed of one or more cells!

2) The cell is the basic unit of organizations of organisms !

3) All cells come from preexisting cells !

Parts of the Cell, Their Function and Location !

Cell Part

Function

Cytoplasm

All cell contents that lie between

the cell membrane and the
nucleus (organelles + cytosol)

Cell Membrane/Plasma
Membrane

Structure
Made up of fluid and organelles
except for nucleus

Regulates materials entering and Two layers of phospholipids,

exiting the cell
proteins

Nucleus

Control center. Regulates DNA

& RNA actions

Membrane bound, contains DNA

Nuclear Envelope

Regulates what enters and exits

the nucleus

Double layer of lipids

Nucleolus
DNA
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosomes

Produces RNA,which are used to Inside nucleus, separate from

make all proteins
DNA
Information on how to make
proteins

Made up of nucleotides, locked

in the nucleus

Transportation route for proteins.! Tubes and channels

- Smooth ER: has ribosomes !
- Rough ER: no ribosomes
Makes proteins

Small circular organelles

Vacuoles & Vesicles

Storage for water, nutrients, or

waste

Small membrane-bound
organelle

Lysosomes

Packet of enzymes that break

down materials in a cell

Small membrane-bound
organelles

Produce energy for the cell. Site

of cellular respiration. The
powerhouse.

Double membrane-bound,
kidney shaped

Packages, labels, and ships

proteins out of the cell

Pancake-shaped layered
organelle

Cytoskeleton

Provide support and structure for

the cell

Tubules

Centrioles (Animals Only)

Microtubules that help divide the

cell during cell division

Tubules

Provides movement for the cell

or objects moving by the cell

Flagella - 1 long fiber!

Cilia - many short fibers

Site of photosynthesis
(converting sun & CO2 into
sugar)

Membrane bound organelles that

contain chlorophyll

Provides support for the cell and

the plant

Made of cellulose

Mitochondria

Golgi Apparatus

Cilia & Flagella

Chloroplasts (Plants Only)

Cell Wall (Plants Only)

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Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes !
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- Prokaryotes !

Domain Bacteria and Archaea!

Does not contain a nucleus and organelles w/ membranes around them !

DNA found in a single loop!

Most unicellular!

- Eukaryotes !

Domain Eukarya: Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals !

Contain a nucleus and organelles w/ membranes around them !

DNA organized into chromosomes!

Multicellular and unicellular organisms!

Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells !

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- Plant cells contain a cell wall, large central vacuole, and chloroplasts!

- Animal cells contain centrioles, vesicles, and vacuoles!

Nature of the Cell Membrane, Phospholipid Bilayer, Semi-Permeable Membrane, and Fluid
Mosaic Model !
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- Cell membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer and is selectively permeable !

- Phospholipids form a bilayer !

- A semi-permeable membrane allows specific substances into a cell (small & non-polar)!

- In the fluid mosaic model, molecules continuously move (solid, liquid, or gas) randomly!

All objects in motion have kinetic energy!

Phospholipids - form a bilayer!

Integral proteins - extend through the entire membrane !

Peripheral proteins - found only on one side!

Cholesterol - affects fluidity of membranes !

Proteins and cholesterol inside this bilayer !

Passive Transport, Osmosis, Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Concentration Gradient !

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- Passive transport is the transport of particles which does not require energy !

- Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of

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higher water concentration to lower water concentration until equilibrium !

- Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of their high concentration to an
area of their low concentration !

- Facilitated diffusion has the help of integral/channel proteins !

- Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of a substance across a space !

Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic Solutions !

- Hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes outside of cell than inside of !

cell!

- Hypotonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes inside of cell than outside of !

Cells shrink/shrivel (crenate)!

cell!

- Isotonic solution has equal concentrations in and out of cell!

Cells burst (lysis)!

Active Transport Requires ATP, Endocytosis, and Exocytosis!

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- Active transport pushes materials against the concentration gradient !

- Endocytosis (Phagocytosis) !

Solids!

White blood cell engulfing bacteria !

Vesicles as aid!

Cell Eating!

- Exocytosis (Pinocytosis) !

Liquids!

Hormones !

Vesicles as aid !

Cell Drinking !

Requires energy (ATP)!

Ion Channels !
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- Sodium-potassium pump!

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Protein pump moves ions across !

Cellular Energy !
Photosynthesis !
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- Photosynthesis is the process of plants converting light energy to chemical energy!

- Reactants: carbon dioxide!

- Products: glucose and oxygen !

Getting Energy from ATP!

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- Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts !

The Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle !

Photosynthesis Reaction Equation !

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6CO2 + 6H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2!

Water and carbon dioxide yields glucose and oxygen!

Chloroplast, Chlorophyll, Pigments !

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- Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis !

- The chloroplast contains chlorophyll !

- Chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs light energy !

Light Reactions, Dark Reactions !

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- Light Reactions!

Purpose: to convert light energy into chemical energy!

Location: thylakoids!

Produces ATP + NADPH! !

Sunlight + H2O > chemical energy!

- Dark Reactions !

Purpose: carbon dioxide fixing!

Location: stroma!

Uses ATP + NADPH!

H+ + CO2 > sugar (C6H12O6) !

Calvin Cycle !
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- Dark Reactions!

Electron Transport Chain!

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- A series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron ! !

acceptors!
- Transfer of H+ ions across a membrane !

ATP Synthase!
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- Channel protein that produces ATP!

- Adds P to ADP creating ATP through this protein !

Phosphorylation !
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- Making ATP by the addition of a phosphate to ADP !

Glycolysis !
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- Splits glucose into pyruvate !

Cellular Respiration, ATP - How much is formed at each step!

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- Cellular respiration makes ATP by breaking down sugars!

- Uses oxygen to release the energy captured through photosynthesis to be used by !

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organisms to maintain life !

- Creates cell energy !

Respiration Reaction Equation !

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- O2 + C6H12O6 > CO2 + H2O!

Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration !

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- Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen !

- Aerobic respiration requires oxygen !

Fermentation!
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- Allows the production of a small amount of ATP without oxygen !

- Anaerobic process that allows glycolysis to continue but does not produce ATP on its !

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own!
- Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation!

Cell Growth and Division !

Cell Cycle!
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- The cells cycle of growing and dividing !

- G1: Normal cell activities and growth!

- S: Synthesis replicating DNA

- G2: Getting ready to divide !

- Mitosis: Nuclear division !

- Cytokinesis: The division of the rest of the cell !

G1 to G2 called interphase, the time between divisions!

Chromosomes/Chromatids/Homologous Chromosomes !
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- Chromosomes are one piece of DNA!

- Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere and later separate to become !

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individual chromosomes!
- Homologous chromosomes carry the same traits !

Binary Fission !
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- Asexual reproduction (common form of reproduction in prokaryotes)!

- After replicating its genetic material, the cell divides into two nearly equal sized ! !

daughter cells!

Replication of Chromosomes !
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- Diploid # - full set of chromosomes (humans - 46)!

- Haploid # - half set of chromosomes (humans - 23)!

Mitosis!
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- Interphase !

- Prophase!

Nuclear envelope disappears!

Chromosomes condense and become visible !

Spindle fibers attach to sisters!

- Metaphase!

- Anaphase!

Time between divisions!

Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate!

Spindle fibers shorten!

- Telophase!

Chromosomes reach the ends of poles!

Nuclear envelope reforms !

Chromosomes uncoil and become invisible !

Pull chromatids apart and to opposite ends!

Cytokinesis!
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- Division of cytoplasm !

- Animal cells - cleavage - pinching in two!

- Plant cells - new cell walls form !

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Meiosis and Mendel !

Meiosis!
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- Prophase I !

- Metaphase I !

- Anaphase I!

- Telophase I!

- Prophase II!

- Metaphase II !

- Anaphase II !

- Telophase II !

Crossing Over!
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- The exchange of corresponding segments between two homologous chromosomes!

Further increases genetic variability!

Occurs between Prophase I and Metaphase I!

Mitosis vs Meiosis !
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- Mitosis!

Purpose: cell growth and repair!

Type of cells involved: body cells !

Number of daughter cells: 2!

Kind of daughter cells made: diploid!

Change in chromosomes number: remains the same!

Number of phases: 4!

Number of divisions: 1!

Crossing over: does not occur!

Difference in DNA of parent and daughter cells: none/identical DNA!

- Meiosis !

Purpose: sexual reproduction!

Type of cells involved: sex cells (gametes) !

Number of daughter cells: 4 !

Kind of daughter cells made: haploid !

Change in chromosomes number: reduced by half !

Number of phases: 8!

Number of divisions: 2!

Crossing over: does occur !

Name of gametes: egg and sperm !

Differences in DNA of parent and daughter cells: unique !

Diploid and Haploid!

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- Diploid #: full set of chromosomes (humans: 46)!

- Haploid #: half set of chromosomes (humans: 23) !

Egg, Sperm, Fertilization, and Zygote!

- Egg is the female sex cell! !

- Sperm is the male sex cell !

- Fertilization is the union of two gametes, followed by the joining of their nuclei !

- Zygote is the cell formed by the union of a male sex cell and a female sex cell!

Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes !

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- Autosomes are chromosomes 1 through 22; we have 22 pairs of chromosomes !

- Sex chromosomes comprise on pair of the total of 23 pairs of chromosomes !

The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are calles autosomes !

How Sex is Determined!

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- Determined by a specific set of chromosomes!

Two X chromosomes (XX) = female!

One X and one Y (XY) = male !

- Mature females will produce eggs, each with one X chromosome !

- Mature males will produce sperm with either an X or Y chromosome !

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DNA!

Structure!
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- Double helix!

- Made up of millions of nucleotides! !

Replication!
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- DNA copies itself exactly!

- Occurs within the nucleus!

- Any mistake in copying = mutation !

- Complementary base pairing makes replication possible !

- Process of DNA replication !

Enzyme helicase unwinds and unzips the double helix!

DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides using the old strand as a template!

Chargaffs Rules !
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- Erwin Chargaff, an Australian biochemist, formats his rules in 1950!

- The amount of adenine is always the same as the amount of thymine!

- The amount of cytosine is always the same as the amount of guanine !

Nucleotides!
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- Purines: Guanine, Adenine!

- Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine!

- Adenine bonds with Thymine!

- Cytosine bonds with Guanine !

- Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA!

Differences in DNA and RNA!

DNA

mRNA

Double Helix

Shape

Single Helix

ATCG

Nitrogen Bases

AUCG

Deoxyribose

Sugars

Ribose

Nucleus

Location

Nucleus > Ribosomes in

Cytoplasm

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Transcription!
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- First part of protein synthesis !

- Takes place in the nucleus !

- DNA is decoded into mRNA!

- Leaves through the nuclear pore!

- Goes to the ribosome!

Translation!
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- Second part of protein synthesis!

- tRNA codons bonds with mRNA codons!

- rRNA creates peptide bonds between amino acids, creating a protein !

3 Types of RNA!
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- mRNA!

Messenger RNA!

Read by ribosome to assemble amino acids !

- tRNA!

Transfer RNA !

Transfers amino acids into ribosome !

- rRNA!

Ribosomal RNA!

RNA in the ribosomes

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RNA editing !
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- Cut out introns!

- Splice exons together !

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Genetics !
Trait, Gene, Allele !
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- Trait is a characteristic!

- Gene is a section of DNA that codes for a trait!

- Alleles are the different forms (variations) of a trait!

Dominant, Recessive!
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- Dominant is a genetic trait that is expressed when its alleles are homozygous or !
heterozygous!
- Recessive is a genetic trait that is not expressed when paired with the contrasting trait!

Genotype and Phenotype!

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- Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism as indicated by its set of alleles !

- Phenotype is the observable characteristics of an organism !

Heterozygous and Homozygous!

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- Homozygous refers to an individual with two identical alleles for a trait!

- Heterozygous refers to an individual with two different alleles for a trait!

Monohybrid Cross!
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- Cross involving one pair of contrasting traits!

Dihybrid Cross!
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- Cross involving two pairs of contrasting traits !

Complete Dominance, Incomplete Dominance, Codominance, Sex-Linked, Multiple Alleles!

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- Complete dominance - the dominant allele shows up in the offspring and the recessive !
allele gets covered up and doesn't show !

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- Incomplete dominance - both alleles partially show by blending together how they are !
expressed !

- Codominance - both alleles completely expressed at the same time (spots or stripes) !

- Multiple alleles - the existence of more than two alleles !

- Sex-linked traits are traits associated with a gene that is carried only by the male or !

female parent!

Using Punnet Squares to Predict Offspring !

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