xX wewgore 71 A ENCYervind Management ° Guidance Materia For theTie: HE Frequency Management Guidance Material Edtod by: acc Editor ose Joaquim Cabral Date: 30 September 2008 Published by NavsPG Contact Nicleo de Procedimentos © Padres Operaclonals do Aanic| (POPATL) ‘eroporta de Santa Maria (9580 Via do Porto Phone: +361 296820510 Fax +951 206820552 Ema eabral@navst Obs:OPERATIONAL CONCEPT... 210.eWen. 22H vem corso 2 SRiaoreamcnn Newone 23 Denon 2 32NAT Rinoriomw Newwone Counaron 233 SPmomes or Noone Onno 234Preamees row tah 23. Seanm.snenr o smn 23 Stemware cr coment 23.7Crmnearon ne 2ASELCALorenron pence wl st 2 12 2 13 18 16 18 [NAT FAMILIES AND FREQUENCIES ALLOTMENT PLAN ovr £.1F maven Aor Pun ror ve Atnnsren. Monts Seca (AMS) 53.1.2Maoe loo Aa Rost Ane Nomr Aran (MNVARA NAT) 3 SMWARA” NAT Frucns SU4NAT aor SY SNAT Sweneracns. {NAT FAMILIES AND FREQUENCIES ALLOCATION PRINCIPLES. “4 3Goena oencnies 4 2Fam alcemon enon 42 APamur Aon Sorarrrom A. £22F mur B mo Con Seneracme Bo 6 42.36 nau D ox StaverwoneD 424P eur Eon Sontmom E 42. 6F mar Fon SieveoneF 4 3Pronaney aLoeon mor, GENERAL NOTESrennnnnnn 5 Hours o owes, Perso cone. 5 SGoamnuncn reac, $4Pcon HE rromanon coc. 16 48 7 7 ry 18 19 20 2 2 a oe) 2 2 23 Ey[APPENDIX - HF MEDIUM CHARACTERISTICS, os APPENDIX. = BODO RADIO STATION INFORMATION. GANDER RADIO STATION INFORMATION. APPENDIX B-4 APPENDIX APPENDIX. [NEW YORK RADIO STATION INFORMATION... .SANTAMARIA RADIO STATION INFORMATION, 'SHANWICK RADIO STATION INFORMATION, - 8000 RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE. [APPENDIX C2 GANDER RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE, APPENDIX. APPENDIX C-4 APPENDIX CS ICELAND RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE... NEW YORK RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE, - SANTA MARIA RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE. - SHANWICK RADIO STATION FREQUENCIES HOURS OF SERVICE. 2s 2 a = Pa a aVenion2 113. Deleted, re-mumbering paragraphs from 1.4 through LL. 113. Newrnumbenng, pisgraph eraed 1a New numbesng, paragraph edafed Lis New numbering, paragraph eafed Lis "New numbering, paragraph redrafed Version Listof New ctr aided Acroayns Sexton? | Now seton add Verna Thiet Tp Taso Now canes alist Section 4] New secon Sad Seton] Rew secon ed Tanase Nev actor aided Various | Alldosumnent | Change Rizo iz Retated papas TUTTE LTT TR TTT 1.tand 122 Seaton? Reafed paragraphs 212,213, 31% 275, 2817 2321,2522,2525,2324, 2521, 2522,2523, Removed references Annex 10in2.33,23.4,2.35, 2362 31,and 24 Removed 25.23 Sersond —_—_] Redrated pursraphe SST STAT STARTS BUSI, 321,32241,52258) and 32282 Seaton Telatcd pasa SLL Sa ATS ISAT 4211,4212,42.13,4221,4222,4223,423.. 4232,4238,4241, 42424243, 4251,4252 4261,4262/4263,431,432,433and 434 ‘New paragraphs 423.4,42.34and 435 ‘Section § Rede paragraphs $.1.2, $2.1, $31, $32 and 6Annexes Vernion.6 Table of Sexton | Section 2 Seston 3 Sestion pated Update, Removed references to VOLMET. Removed references to VOLMET on 1.2.2 Review 22, cocetion on 23.22, removed efrences to VOLMET on224~ Table 1, dale 2S Correction on 3.15.1, delete 32 Rodrafed £22, Deleted 42.3. Reaumber 426 ing of 42.310 Appendiet | Renamed to Appendixes, Nw section format New Appeadis A. Delete old Annex 7,8 and 9 slated to VOLMET Broadcast Plan, Varn | eer Tenamed ACROTSAC Prefce Renamed ACSG t9 ACG Listof Renamed ACSG t9 ACG Acronyns Section 5 Insert new 54 and 54.1 reganng Poor HF propagation conditions Appendixes | Changes on AppenditesB- 16, igcusion of SATCOM, ‘numbers onal sation, addres infration on Gander Information several changes on Bodo Station as proposed ‘Changes on Appendix C-3, hous of operation io Santa Mana Staton ast wil be publish on State ATP aRer he vation rl. Renamed ACSG to ACG.ACARS ace. Ac ‘CID Ale FTN AMS ‘ARINC ‘ARP are an AIN Ars ‘Ise ‘TSU CAA, ens EMG FAP FPS FIR Fe EMS op Ps HE cao 1D mu Doc kite LF tur MET MF Mite MUP MWAR MWARA NAT NAT SPC NOTAM ca, Pos ‘Alrrat Communication Addressing and Reporting System ‘sect Conia Cente ‘cronsutea Communications Group ‘Avera Hsien “Asronatsal Information Pabiation ‘Asronautial Fixed Telecommmunicaion Network ‘Acronautcal Mobile Service ‘Asronautial Rag INC ‘Air Report Message ‘ir Trafic Control ‘Ai Tae Management “Acronautcal Telecommniaton Network ‘Air Tralic Services ‘it Traffic Serves Message Processor ‘ir Trafic Services Unit, Civil Aviation Authority Commancations, Navigation and Surveillance Emesgeney Message Frequency Allotment Plan Flight Data ProveerngSyetom lpi Information Retion Flight Management Compote Flight Management System General Prapose Global Positioning Sytem igh Frequeney (to 30 M2) Inierational Civil Aviation Organization Interface Contol Document Intemational Telscomminications Union ‘Long Distance Operations Consol Kilohertz Low Frequency (300 300 kz) Lowest Usable Frequency Meteorological ‘Medium Frequeny (300 to 3000 KH) Megaherz ‘Maximum Usable Frequeney Major World Ae Route ‘Major World Ai Route Area ‘Nowth Aetic ‘Noh Adan Systems Planning Group [Notice to Airmen (Oceanic Conta Ares ICAO Postion Repor Message Repional and Domestic Ae Rovlos Regional and Domestic Ar Route Area2.44 The Aeronautical Mobile Service fs a service reserved for sl-ground communications relates wit the safety and regulary of fights, fying pimariy along natonal or ternational fv routes 2.1.2 nares tke the North Alani, where VHF coverage is insuficiont due to range tnitation to over all porions of the routes Town, the use of HF frequencies are necessary because they provde long. range communications coverage, not only for airground voice ‘communications, but also forthe broadeast of ATS or Meteo information, 2.8 Far various reasons, same technical, others economical, environmental, physical, natura, ‘tc, coverage of a wide area by a single station with equipment located in a single place are impractical 2.14 Taking these factors into account, the most practical option is to employ a number of Stations sharing a range of Frequencies and working as network to provi the faites and services required for the AMS. 2.4.8 To work asa network the AMS should follow appropriate principles of operation in order to achieve the hignest possible level of capacty and efficiency, otherwise, is purpose wil not be achieved and the saety ane regulanty of ights wil be afected 2.2 HF medium characteristics 22:1. This section presents only a short description on the HF medium characteristics, a more deta desertion can be found in Appondix. 22.2. Asa genera ule, radio signals travel in straight nes that i, they fallow great ccle paths ‘over the surface of the earth, Under certain circumstances, however, the path of signal may change directon, this change of drecton Is called reftacton. Reaction examples are hasta, atmospherc and ionospheric, and the amount of reaction varies considerably ‘depending on cerain conditions. Those conditions could be a change in direction when Signal crosses a coastline (coastal refraction), a change in direction due toa variation in femperature, pressure and humidity, pariculary at low alttude (atmosphere retracton), of a change in direction when the radio wave passes through an ioised layer (ionospheric refraction) 22.3. The ionosphere is sil unr investigation bu itis known that several dafritejnised layers ‘exist within During daytime hours there are four main ionisation layers designated D, E. Fr and Fin ascending order of height. At night when the sun's radiation ie absent ionisation stil persists but tis less intense, and fewer ayers are found (O and F layers), Factors tat affect the ionosphere layers is strength of the sun's radiation, ence i varios with Tattude causing thatthe structure of te lonasphere varies widely over the earth's Surface, andthe state ofthe sun, since sunspots affect the amount of uira-wlet radonAreas Bands between: (MiHz)_| Sharing conditions TIWARR area Tand es Tight propagation Tand 13 ay propagation Higher han To Day sropagaton Table T= Frequency band usage (et ITU Appendix 27 Aer2) 2.3, Radiotelephony Network 23.1. Definition 2344 ‘A radiotelephony network Is defined as a group of radiotelephony aeronautical stations hich operate on ané guard frequencies trom the same family and which support each ther ina. defined “manner to. ensure maximum —dependablity of ai-ground ‘communications and issomnation of al-ground afc 2.3.2. NAT Radiotelephony Network Composition 2324 2322 inthe NAT there are six aeronautical siatons, one per each of the Oceanic FIRS, responsible for the provision of air-ground communications as part of the Aeronautical Mable Service. They are: Bodo Radio (Norway, Bodo ACC), Gander Radio (Canada, Gander OACC), Iceland Rado (Icoland. Reykjavik ACC), New York Radio (USA, Now York OAC), Santa Maria Radio (Portugal. Santa Maria OACC) and Shanwick Radio (Wreland, Shanwick OACC), in adcton to those six aeronautical stations, there are two other stations that operate NAT froquoncies. They aro Canaras Radio which sorves Canarias ACC and Arctic Radio serving Edmonton, Winnipeg and Montreal ACC's.2.38.1. The aeronauttal stations ofa rasiteleghony network should assist each other in order to provide the ai-ground communication service requied of tne network by aieraf fying on the ar routes for which the network responsibe. 2.33.2 When the network comprises a large number of stations, network communications for fights on any Individual route segment should be provided by selected salons, termed regular stators" for that segmert. In principio, the regular statan wil be those serving the locations immediately concemed with fights on that route segment, Le, points of take of and lancing and appropriate fight information centres or area crtal cartes. 23.3.3 In areas or on routes where radio conditions, length of fights or distance between ‘aeronautical stafone require adltional measures to ensure contnuty of air-ground ‘communications troughout the route segment, the regular stalons should share between thom a responsibilty of primary guard whereby each station wil provide the primary guard for that portion of the fight during which the messages from the aieraR can be handled ‘most effectively by that station 2.3.3.4 During its tenure of primary guard, each regular station shoul, among other things a) be responsible for designating sultale primary and secondary frequencies for its ‘commacations with the arrat. by receive all postion reports and handle other messages from ane tothe alrrat essential to the safe conduct ofthe fight be responsible forthe action required incase of alure of communication 23 4 Frequencies to be used 2.34.1. Alreraft stations shall oporato on the appropriats radi froquoncie. 2.3.4.2 The air-ground radio station shall designate the frequency(es) to be used under normal concitions by aircraft stations operating under ts conta. 2.3.4.3 In network operation, the inal designation of primary and secondary frequencies should be made by the network stabon with which the airrak makes prefight check oF ina Contact alter tako-of Thi staton should algo ensure that other network stations are fdvised, a required, ofthe fraquency(es) designated,2354 2352 2353 2384 Arrat stations shall f possible, communicate drecty with the ai-ground contol radio Station appropriate tothe area in which the alrera ara fying I unable to do so, ara Stations shall use any elay means avallable and appropriate to vansmit messages to the air-ground contol radio station, \When normal communications trom an aeronautical station to an areal station cannot be established, the aeronautical station shall use any relay means avaiable and appropriate to transmit messages to the arcraft staton. If ths efforts fal, the orginator shall be advised When, in network operation, communication between an aircraft staon and a regular Staion has not been established ater cals on the primary and secondary frequencies, aid shouldbe rendered by one ofthe other reguiar stations for that fight. either by caling te fattention of the sation fest called orn ease of a call mada by an alrrat station, by answering the call and taking the ta, (Other stations of the network should render assistance by taking simlar acion only i altompts to establish communication by th regular slalons have proved unsuccessful 2.3.6 Transfer of communications 2361 2362 2363 ‘The transfer of primary guard ‘rom one station tothe next will normaly take place at the Lime of the traversing of fight infomation region or conto! area boundaries, ths guard being provides at any me, as far as possibie, by the staon serving te fight information ‘enire or area contol centre in whose area the aera is fying [An aircraft station should be advised by the appropriate aeronautica! station to transfer from one radiofrequency or network to another. the absence of such advice, the arrat station should natty the appropriate aeronautical station before such transfer takes place inthe case of transfer from one network to another, the transfer should preferably take place while the area is in eommunieaton with a station operating In botn networks to fensure continuity of communications. if, however, te change of network must take place Concurrently withthe tansfer of communication to anathar network station, the transfer Should be co-ordinated by the two network stations prot to. advising or authorizing the frequeney change. The avcraf should also be advised of tie primary and secondary frequencies tobe used after the twanste,23.7.1 When an aircraft station fas to establish contact with the aeronautical station on the Gesignated ‘fequency, 't shal attempt to establish contact on another Fequency ‘appropriate tothe route. If this atleot fas, th aicrat station shal attempt to estabish communication ‘wth ther arerat or other aeronautical staons on frequencies appropiate fo the route, In adtion, an arerat operating within a network shall monitor the appropriate VHF frequency for calls tam nearby aircra. 23.72 When an aeranautca staton has been unable to establish contact with an airrat station ‘after calls onthe frequencies on which the areas believed tobe lstenng,k shall 1) Request other aeronautical stations to render assistance By calling the aircraft and relaying trafic, necessary; bb) Roguest area onthe route to attempt lo establish communication with the aieraft and relay vat, i necessary. 23.7.3 The air-ground contol rac station shall notty the appropriate sir afc services unit and the aircrat’ operating agency, as soon as possible, of any falure In alr-grouné ‘communications 24 SELCAL operation 2.4.1 Wit the selecive caling system known as SELCAL, the voice call is replaced by the ‘wansmission of coded tones to the alrrat over the radilolephory channels. A elngie Selective call consists of a combination of four preselected audio tones whose ‘wansmission requires approximately two. seconds. The tones are generated in the ‘aeronautical station coder ard are received by a decoder connected tothe aucio output of ‘he arbome recelver. Recspt of the assigned tone code activates a cockpit cll system in ‘the form of ight andor chime signalsFigure 1 ~MWARA NAT (Ref, ITU Appendix 27 Aer2) 3.1.39 MWARA- NAT Frequencies 3.13.1 The frequencies allocated to the MWARA — NAT includes a number of frequencies in a range of bands designed to provide twenty-four hour area coverage and are contained in Table 2,3.14.1 The NAT Families were defied utilising the frequencies allocated forthe purpose of providing an AMS throughout the covorage area required 3.14.2 Each Family comprises a range of frequencies drawn from each frequency bang and selected in Such a way as to provide, to the extent possible, contruaus service in the area of responsibilty at all mes of day and under varying propagation conditions. 3414.3 The organisation of the NAT HF Famies and corresponding frequencies are contained in Table WAT Famili Frequencies, A 3076, SSUR, BOUE TaUS and Yass wee | 2800, S616. 864 T3201 and 17OA wie C_| 2672. Sea0 7971996, 13906 and T7ONS D1 2671-75-80" 1127913201 and 17946 Ke E | 2699, 678.6875. 71300-13964 and 17346 Wiz “3476, 6672. B85" 75201 and 1Ted6 wile Frequency 15806 kFiz is sared between Faniies Rand © Frequoncy 19291 kHz is shared between Familias, 8, Dand F Frequency 17946 kHz is shaved by al the Famiies Frequoncy 13364 kHz is shared with RDARASS and 7 “Table 9 NAT famites and frequencies 3.1.5. NAT Sub-networks 3.1.8.1 Based on the defniton of a raditelephony network as described in paragraph 2.3.1 above, the NAT Radiotelephony Network comprises sx sub-networks, one per each ofthe NAT Families. These sub-networks are described in Table 4.sander Radio New York Radio Santa Maria Radio Shanwick Radio Gander Racio leeland Radio Shanwick Radio Gander Raio loeland Radio Shanwick Radio Bodo Radio Gander Racio Iceland Radio Shanwick Rado ‘Arcte Radio () Canarias Radio (* Now York Radio. Santa Maria Radio Gander Rao Shanwick Rado {Ate Rasio is rot a NAT Staion, (*) Ganarias Radio isnot a NAT Station Included as Interface between NAT and AFI Table 4 NAT Sub-networks4.1.1 In accordance wit the principles of network operation, as described in paragraph 2.3.3, the frequencies assigned to an arcat should belong to the same sub-network, wrich includes athe stations that may be affected by tne alcaf fight route. 4.2. The frequency assignment should always take into account the propagation conditions, route of fight, distance fom station, possible affected stations and even dstibuton over nelwors frequencies, especialy during peak porods, 4.18 Frequency assignment shoulé, whenever possibe, be done in such a way that radlo stations could take advantage of al the avaiable operational frequencies, and thereby avoid or shorten the delay ime usualy associated wth tne current systom 41.4 Frequencies should be guarded only during the periods when they are usable, as described In paragraph 2.2, instead of maintaining te current twenty-four our watch practice. 41.8 During oftpeak periods, when itis unnecessary to guard all frequencies and families, radio stations should use common families to achieve more ecient use of staf resources, 4.18 There should be regular tactical co-ordination of network resources between sub-network stations to meet changing operational requirements, 4.7 Stations experiencing peak demand should, following co-ordination with over network Stations, be facitated In sharing avalable network frequencies, 42. Family allocation principles 4.21 Family A or Sub-network A 42.1.1 This family should, whenever possible, be assigned to aircraft whose route or potion of route transits Gander, New York, Santa Maria and Shanwick areas, especially those lteraft fying routes with reporing point coordinates betwoon 43N and 47N, 42:12 Stations should not assign Fanrily Ato arcratfying routes outside tho area éofine in 4.2.1. due to overoading of other families or for ether operatonal reasons, without prior coordination with and agreement of other sub-network stations in order to minimsse ‘adverse impact on existing sub-network traf 42.1.8 During off peak petiods, and when water is reduced on athe families, Family A shoula remain the primary assignment for arerat fying soutrely routes.4224 42.22 4223 4224 ‘This Family should, whenever possible, be assigned to aircraft fying on eastbound of westbound tracks whose route. portion of route es within the Gander, leeland and Shanwick areas, pariculay aircraft ying routes with reporting point coordinates betwoon 47M ano 68N Stations should not assigned Family 8 and C to aircraft fying routes outside the aroa efi in 42.2, due to overloading of other familes of for other operational reasons, without prior co-ordination with and agroement of the other sub-network stations in arder to minimise adverse impact on existing sub-network rat. [At all mes Family ® and C should remain the primary assignment for contal routes, era yng in order to ensure even peakctime dstrbution of traffic between Family B and C, aircraft may be assigned to either family on the basis of, stato of registy, Alfine Company or ‘ther such erteria as agreed between Shanwick Radio and Gander Radio, 4.23 Family D or Sub-network D 42a4 4232 4233 ‘This Family should, whenever possible, be assigned to area whose route or portion of route ies vithin the Bodo, Gander, leland and Shanwick areas, pariculaly those arcrat fying routes with reporting point edorcinates north of 62N, ‘Stations should not assign Family D to aircraft fying routes outside the area defined in 4.2.2. due to overloading of other families or for other operatonal reasons, without ror coordination with and agreement of other sub-network stations in order to minimsse ‘adverse impact on existing sub-network traf During off peak periods, and when watch is reduced on other famiios, Family D should remain the primary assignment for arcraf fying northerly routes, 4.24 Family E or Sub-network E 4244 4242 4243 This Family should, whenever possible, be assigned to arc whose route or portion of route transis New York and Santa Maia areas, especaly Hose aircrat fying routes wth reporing point coordinates south of43N, ‘Stations should not assign Family E to aircraft fying routes outside the area defined in 4.24. due to overoading of other families or for other operatonal reasons, without prior coordination with and agreement of other sub-network stations in order to minimse ‘adverse impact on existing sub-network traf During off peak periods, and in the caso of reduction of the number of availabe families, the guard ofthis family shoud be discontinued.43:1. Taking into account the characterises of the HF medium, the general prncpies for frequency assigrment used by radio station personnel is as oulned in 22 and contained in ‘able. Bands between: (Wiz) — Sharing conditions Tend Tight propagation Tang Day propagation Higher than TS Day propagation Table 7 General principles for frequency assignment 43.2 As a general rule, when assigning primary and. secondary frequencies, radlo station personnel should assign lower frequoncies as primary and highor frequencies as socondary for alrrat fying away from the Station, Conversely, for alrraf rotting towards the station, the higher frequencies should be assigned as primary and lawor frequencies as secondary. 4.33 Im circumstances wore sunspot or solar flare activity is expected to affect propagation condions tha radio station personnel should always inform the fight crews and in adcion to assigning the primary and secondary ‘fequencles, they shauld advse the hghes ‘roquencios in use atthe stalon asa precautionary measure. 4.34 In accordance with the principles governing transfer of communications as defiod in paragraph 2.2.6, talons sharing @ common boundary should, whenever possible, sign Eommon requencies for the transfer of communicatons, 43.5 Airrat routing along common boundaries, or fying a route or portion ofa route within 60 NM of a common boundary, should be assigned frequencies common to the stalons sharing those boundaries.NAT Family Figure 3 NAT Family usage areas5.2.1. Contact details of the station managers and watch supervisors for each radio station are containe inthe Annexes section as follows: Appendix B-1 (Bodo), Appendix B-2 Gander} ‘Appendix 8-3 (leeland), Appendix 6-4 (New York), Appendx 5 (Santa Mara) and ‘Appondlx 8-6 (Shank) 5.3 Coordination principles 5.3.1. For routine day-to-day operations such as iner-staton tactcal co-ordination of frequency and family assignments, network co-operation ane support, et., contact shoud be made withthe duly superisodwatch manager using the contact means specified in Appendixes Bo2.3,4, Sand. 5.2. When the coordination between stations involves subjects such as procedures, institutional Issues, or Issues affecing the Network as a wiole, ele, the contact to the station of Stations should be made fo the station manager tough the points of contact define in Appendixes 8-1, 2,3, 4, 5 and 6, 5.4 Poor HF propagation conditions 5.4.1 Whenever a radio station duty supervisorwatch manager have access to information of warnings rogaing poor HF propagation canditons or high levels of solar activites, that wll ‘fect the normal HF operations, ne should ney the on duty Supenisor ofthe ATC uni in ‘hich the station provide the serve.41.1 The tom frequency Is used to state the numer of eyles accusing in one second, taking into accourt that eyes maans a complete oscilation of the atomating current. The distance traveled by a radio sighal during the tansmission of one cycle fs caled wavelength Wavelength is inversely proporional to frequency, 60 that If frequency is Increased the wavelength wil decrease. 1.2 fan aterating curent of suitably high frequency is fe toa transiting aerial, the anergy is rot confined to the metal ofthe aerial but radiates out into space in the form of electro ‘magnetic waves (raha waves). This radiation of energy through space compieesalterating ‘ane magnetic folds at ight angles to each other. 1.3 As a general rule, radio signals travel in straight lines, that Is, they folow great cre paths ‘over the surface ofthe eartn, Under certan circumstances, however, the path of a signal ‘may change direction, this change of direction is called retraction. Retraction examples are Coastal, atmospheric ‘and ionospheric, and the amount of retraction varies considerably ‘sepending on eertain conditions. Those conditions could be a change in direction when a signal crosses a coastine (coastal reftacion), a change in direction due to a variation in temperature, pressure and humidity, parcularly at low aude (atmospheric refraction), or a change in ditection whan the radio wave passes trough an ionsed layer (anosphetic refraction). 4.4 The path ofa radio wave from a ransmiter toa recelver many miles away isnot necessary irwct, ane in many cases, the signal may be reaching the receiver by more than ane path at the same time. Because ef the efferent path lengths there willbe phase differences between the signas, and this fact wil affect the resultant signal stength, phenomenon known as fading 1.5. The main propagation pate betwoen a transmitter and a receiver are, dtect wave, ground reflected wave. space wave, surface wave, ground wave and sky wave, 1.5.1. When a signal travels in straight line between the transmitter and receiver itis called dlreet wave and Is se I imited because af the earth curvatre. Ite ragio wave arive to the receiver allot reflection atthe earths surface itis calee ground.relected wave, These ‘wo waves are joitly known as the space wave and under normal condone ifs the only ‘ropagaton pat for frequencies above 30 Mh. 1.52 When a signal follows the curvature ofthe cath, tis pat is called surface wave, ané is normally eaused by a phenomenon ealled dracon. Difracton occurs forall types of wave ‘motion, and allows te wave to pass round earth obstacles and depends on te wavelength in relation to tho radus of the cath. The range of surface wave dopends on tho ‘Wavelengins, with longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) the elfracton effect becomes more pronounced with consequenty improved surface wave range, the typo of surface, because afferent surfaces absorb diferent amounts of radia energy resufng in different Fates of attenuation, being higher over fand than aver soa, and the fequency Used, with lower frequencies suflening less attenuation along the surface anc therefore providing beter surface wave range.