ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND

APPARATUS

JUNE 3, 2016
MINH-QUAN DANG

Contents
Electrical apparatus
1

SWITCHING DEVICES ....................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.1

Purposes .................................................................................................................................................................. 6

1.2

Classification ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.2.1

By rated voltage .............................................................................................................................................. 6

1.2.2

Type of current................................................................................................................................................ 6

1.2.3

Place of installation ......................................................................................................................................... 6

1.2.4

Extinguishing medium ..................................................................................................................................... 6

1.3

Definition................................................................................................................................................................. 7

1.4

Disconnectors.......................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.5

Earthing Switches .................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.6

High-speed Earthing switches ................................................................................................................................. 7

1.7

Switches .................................................................................................................................................................. 7

1.8

Contactors ............................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.9

Fuses ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.10

Spark Gaps............................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.11

Surge arresters ........................................................................................................................................................ 8

1.12

Fault current limiters .............................................................................................................................................. 8

1.13

Starters .................................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.14

Switching regulators ............................................................................................................................................... 8

1.15

Electrical relays ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

1.16

Circuit breakers ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

1.17

Disconnecting Circuit breakers ............................................................................................................................... 9

SF 6 Circuit Breakers ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

2.1

Property of SF6........................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.2

Arc-extinguishing in SF6 medium............................................................................................................................ 9

2.3

Double-pressure systems ...................................................................................................................................... 10

2.4

Single-pressure systems ........................................................................................................................................ 10

2.4.1

Single-pressure HV systems .......................................................................................................................... 10

2.4.2

Single-pressure EHV systems ........................................................................................................................ 11

2.5

Encapsulated distribution substations .................................................................................................................. 12

2.5.1

characteristics ............................................................................................................................................... 12

2.5.2

Advantages .................................................................................................................................................... 12

3
3.1

Oil and air circuit breakers ............................................................................................................................................ 12

Working Principle .................................................................................................................................................. 12

3.2

Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker ................................................................................................................................ 13

Air blast circuit breakers ............................................................................................................................................... 14

Low voltage protecting apparatus ................................................................................................................................ 15

5.1

Fuses ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15

5.2

Circuit breaker....................................................................................................................................................... 16

5.2.1
6

Residual current circuit breaker RCCB ....................................................................................................... 16

Vacuum circuit breakers ............................................................................................................................................... 17

6.1

Characteristics ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

6.2

Application ............................................................................................................................................................ 17

6.2.1

Principles ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

6.2.2

Vacuum extinguishing chamber .................................................................................................................... 18

6.2.3

Characteristics of the SF6 and vacuum current interrupting technologies. ................................................. 18

Electrical Machinery
1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 21

1.1

Electromagnetic Energy Conversion ..................................................................................................................... 21

1.2

Energy Efficiency ................................................................................................................................................... 21

1.3

Mechanical Loads .................................................................................................................................................. 21

1.4

Equation of Motion ............................................................................................................................................... 21

1.5

Maxwell Equations ................................................................................................................................................ 22

1.6

Magnetic Circuit .................................................................................................................................................... 22

1.6.1

Magnetic circuit with air gap ........................................................................................................................ 23

1.6.2

Analogy Magnetic x Electric ....................................................................................................................... 23

1.7

Electromagnetic Induction .................................................................................................................................... 23

1.8

Lorentz Force ........................................................................................................................................................ 24

1.9

Magnetization curve ............................................................................................................................................. 24

1.10

Rotating Magnetic Field ........................................................................................................................................ 25

DC MACHINES ............................................................................................................................................................... 25

2.1

DC MACHINE MAIN PARTS .................................................................................................................................... 25

2.2

SCHEMATIC DRAWINGS ........................................................................................................................................ 26

2.3

THREE BASIC TYPES OF DC MACHINES .................................................................................................................. 26

2.4

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION................................................................................................................................... 26

2.5

GENERATOR ACTION ............................................................................................................................................. 27

2.5.1

BASIC EQUATIONS OF DC GENERATORS ....................................................................................................... 27

2.5.2

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR ............................................................................................................... 28

2.5.3

VOLT-AMPERE (LOAD) CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................... 28

2.5.4

ARMATURE REACTION .................................................................................................................................. 28

2.5.5

COMMUTATION PROCES .............................................................................................................................. 29

2.5.6

AUXILIARY COMMUTATION POLES ............................................................................................................... 29

2.5.7

SHUNT GENERATOR ...................................................................................................................................... 29

2.5.8

EXCITATION OF SHUNT GENERATOR ............................................................................................................ 30

2.5.9

COMPARISON OF GENERATORS ................................................................................................................... 30

2.5.10

ENERGY BALANCE (POWER DIVISION) .......................................................................................................... 30

2.6

MOTOR ACTION .................................................................................................................................................... 31

2.6.1

BASIC EQUATIONS OF DC MOTORS .............................................................................................................. 31

2.6.2

DC Motor Basic Description .......................................................................................................................... 31

2.6.3

SEPARATELY EXCITED .................................................................................................................................... 32

2.6.4

SHUNT EXCITED ............................................................................................................................................. 35

2.6.5

SERIES EXCITED ............................................................................................................................................. 36

2.6.6

COMPARISON OF MOTORS ........................................................................................................................... 39

2.6.7

STARTING AND ROTATION REVERSAL ........................................................................................................... 39

Transformers ................................................................................................................................................................. 40

3.1

Principle of Function ............................................................................................................................................. 40

3.2

Single-Phase Transformer ..................................................................................................................................... 40

3.3

Fundamental Transformer Equation..................................................................................................................... 40

3.4

Real Transformer with Sinusoidal Supply ............................................................................................................. 41

3.5

Electromotive Force Ui in Winding ..................................................................................................................... 41

3.6

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer ......................................................................................................................... 41

3.7

No-Load Operation ............................................................................................................................................... 42

3.7.1

Iron Losses P Fe ........................................................................................................................................... 42

3.8

Short-circuit operation .......................................................................................................................................... 43

3.9

Losses and Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................. 44

3.10

Voltage Drop over Load ........................................................................................................................................ 45

3.11

Connection ............................................................................................................................................................ 45

3.11.1

Star ................................................................................................................................................................ 45

3.11.2

Triangle.......................................................................................................................................................... 45

3.11.3

Zigzag............................................................................................................................................................. 46

3.12

Vector group (hour angle)..................................................................................................................................... 46

3.13

Parallel operation of transformers ....................................................................................................................... 46

3.13.1

no-load .......................................................................................................................................................... 47

3.13.2

Loaded ........................................................................................................................................................... 47

3.14

Autotransformer ................................................................................................................................................... 47

3.15

Current Instrument Transformer .......................................................................................................................... 48

3.16

Voltage Instrument Transformer .......................................................................................................................... 49

3.17

Connection of Transformer in No-Load Operation to Grid ................................................................................... 49

3.18

Short Circuit of Transformer in Steady-State No-Load Operation ........................................................................ 50

3.18.1

Limitation of Short-Circuit Current ............................................................................................................... 51

3.18.2

Mechanical Stress of Transformers............................................................................................................... 52

Induction machine ........................................................................................................................................................ 53

4.1

Applications........................................................................................................................................................... 53

4.2

Construction .......................................................................................................................................................... 53

4.3

Principle ................................................................................................................................................................ 54

4.3.1

Rotating magnetic field ................................................................................................................................. 54

4.3.2

Magnetic field in air gap................................................................................................................................ 54

4.3.3

Stator winding ............................................................................................................................................... 55

4.3.4

Pitch factor .................................................................................................................................................... 55

4.3.5

Distribution factor ......................................................................................................................................... 55

4.3.6

Stator slots .................................................................................................................................................... 56

4.4

Main speed terms ................................................................................................................................................. 56

4.5

Park transformation .............................................................................................................................................. 56

4.6

Equivalent circuit................................................................................................................................................... 56

4.7

Equations .............................................................................................................................................................. 57

4.8

Torque-speed characteristic ................................................................................................................................. 57

4.9

Circle diagram ....................................................................................................................................................... 58

4.10

Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................................... 62

4.11

Starting .................................................................................................................................................................. 62

4.12

Breaking ................................................................................................................................................................ 64

4.13

Speed control ........................................................................................................................................................ 64

4.14

Single-phase IM ..................................................................................................................................................... 65

Synchronous Machines ................................................................................................................................................. 66

5.1

Construction .......................................................................................................................................................... 66

5.2

Fluxes and Reactance ............................................................................................................................................ 66

5.3

Synchronous Alternator with a Cylindrical Rotor ................................................................................................. 67

5.4

Voltage Equations ................................................................................................................................................. 67

5.5

Asynchronous Run-up of a Synchronous Motor ................................................................................................... 68

5.6

Loading of a Synchronous Motor .......................................................................................................................... 69

5.7

Loading of a Synchronous Generator Alternator ............................................................................................... 69

5.8

Basic Equivalent Circuit of a Turbomachine.......................................................................................................... 69

5.9

Phasor Diagram of an Overexcited Turbomachine ............................................................................................... 71

5.10

Loading at a Constant Excitation while Connected to a Strong Grid .................................................................... 72

5.10.1

Torque of a Turbomachine............................................................................................................................ 72

5.10.2

Torque of a Salient Pole Synchronous Machine ........................................................................................... 73

5.10.3

Power (Torque) Overload Capacity ............................................................................................................... 73

5.10.4

Stand-alone Alternator ................................................................................................................................. 74

5.11

Synchronization of Generator (Connecting to the Grid) ....................................................................................... 74

5.12

Dimensions of Turbomachines ............................................................................................................................. 74

5.13

Excitation Systems of Synchronous Machines ...................................................................................................... 75

5.13.1

Excitation from rotary converters ................................................................................................................. 75

5.13.2

Excitation from alternate driver.................................................................................................................... 75

5.13.3

Excitation with carried rectifier..................................................................................................................... 75

5.13.4

Excitation from a system with a rotary transformer .................................................................................... 76

5.13.5

Excitation from a static converter ................................................................................................................. 76

5.13.6

Excitation with permanent magnets ............................................................................................................. 76

5.14

Brushless DC Motor .............................................................................................................................................. 77

Electrical apparatus
1 SWITCHING DEVICES
1.1

PURPOSES

1.2 CLASSIFICATION
1.2.1
-

By rated voltage
Low voltage < 1kV

High voltage > 1kV

Extra-high voltage 245 kV<Un< 800 kV

Ultra high voltage Un > 800 kV

1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
-

Type of current
DC
AC
Place of installation
Indoor
Outdoor
Extinguishing medium
Air

Oil

Compressed air

Vacuum

SF6

sand

1.3

DEFINITION

1.4

DISCONNECTORS

1.5

EARTHING SWITCHES

1.6

HIGH-SPEED EARTHING SWITCHES

1.7

SWITCHES

1.8

CONTACTORS

1.9

FUSES

1.10 SPARK GAPS

1.11 SURGE ARRESTERS

1.12 FAULT CURRENT LIMITERS

1.13 STARTERS

1.14 SWITCHING REGULATORS

1.15 ELECTRICAL RELAYS

1.16 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

1.17 DISCONNECTING CIRCUIT BREAKERS

2 SF 6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
2.1

2.2

PROPERTY OF SF6

Colourless

Odourless

Non-toxic

Non-flammable

Chemically-resistant

Stabile up to high temperatures

ARC-EXTINGUISHING IN SF6 MEDIUM

Simple contacts separation

Arc-extinguishing in liquid SF6 medium

Arc-extinguishing using energy of electric arc

Rotation of electric arc

Double-pressure extinguishing chamber

2.3

Single-pressure extinguishing chamber (impulse puffer system)

DOUBLE-PRESSURE SYSTEMS
1. Jet
2. Fix contact lamella
3. Sparking contact
4. Moving contact
5. Lamellas of moving contact
6. Main closing valve - ventil
7. Drive lever Pka pohonu

2.4 SINGLE-PRESSURE SYSTEMS

1. Fix contact (rod-shape)
2. Moving contact (tulip - shape)
3. Kluzn kontakty slippery contacts
4. Vlcov komora moving tube chamber
5. Fix piston
6. Driving rod

2.4.1

Single-pressure HV systems
1. Svorka - Terminal
2. Izolan pouzdro- Insulation box
3. Zhec tryska extinguishing jet
4. Pohybliv opalovac kontakt moving arcing contact
5. Pohybliv kontakt- movable contact
6. Pevn opalovac kontakt - fixed arcing contact

7. Pevn kontakt fixed contact

8. Izolan thlo insulating pull rod
9. Ventil zabraujc explozi- anti-explosion valve

2.4.2

Single-pressure EHV systems

1. Horn vodi proudu upper terminal
2. Nepohybliv opalovac kontakt fixed arcing contact
3. Pohybliv opalovac kontakt -movable arcing contact
4. Puffer prostor Puffer volume
5. Doln vodi proudu- lower current conductor
6. Tryska - Jet
7. Nepohybliv hlavn kontakt- fixed main contact
8. Pohybliv hlavn kontakt- movable main contact
9. Puffer vlec puffer cylindr
10. Plnc ventil charging valve
11. Nepohybliv pst fixed piston

2.5

ENCAPSULATED DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS

2.5.1 characteristics
Voltage from 50 up to 800 kV
1. Vypna -Circuit breaker
2. Ppojnicov odpojova- bus bar disconnecting switch
3. Odpojova od zem- grounding disconnecting switch
4. Odpojova od zem- grounding disconnecting switch
5. Transformtor proudu current transformer
6. Transformtor napt- voltage transformer
7. Izoltorov prchodka SF6 vzduch- insulating bushing SF6-air
8. Hydraulick pohon- hydraulic drive
9. Ovldn odpojova- disconnecting switch control boxes
10. Ovldac sk control cabinet
2.5.2

Advantages
1. Needs small area for installation
2. Possibility to install distribution substations in the city centre
3. Operational High safety level
4. Quick installation
5. Low cost maintenance
6. High operational reliability
7. More expensive

3 OIL AND AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

3.1

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The ionized gas around the arc sweep away through upper vent and cold oil enters into the arcing chamber through the
lower vent in axial direction as soon as the moving contact tip crosses the lower vent opening and final arc quenching in
minimum oil circuit breaker occurs.
The cold oil occupies the gap between fixed contact and moving contact and the minimum oil circuit breaker finally comes
into open position.

Whereas in case of radial venting or cross blast, the gases (mostly Hydrogen) sweep the arc in radial or transverse
direction. The axial venting generates high gas pressure and hence has high dielectric strength, so it is mainly used for
interrupting low current at high voltage. On the other hand radial venting produces relatively low gas pressure and hence
low dielectric strength so it can be used for low voltage and high current interruption. Many times the combination of
both is used in minimum oil circuit breaker so that the chamber is equally efficient to interrupt low current as well as high
current. These types of circuit breaker are available up to 8000 MVA at 245 KV.
In oil circuit breakers, the arc is drawn in oil inside a special compartment of the interrupting chamber called the explosion
pot. The intense heat of the arc decomposes the oil and produces gases, mainly composed of hydrogen, generating high
pressure that produces a fluid flow through the arc and out of the explosion pot through vents situated on its walls. Thus
extending the arcs column and carrying its energy away until its total extension see Fig 3.

3.2

MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

As the volume of the oil in bulk oil circuit breaker is huge, the chances of fire hazard in bulk oil system are more. For
avoiding unwanted fire hazard in the system, one important development in the design of oil circuit breaker has been
introduced where use of oil in the circuit breaker is much less than that of bulk oil circuit breaker. It has been decided that
the oil in the circuit breaker should be used only as arc quenching media not as an insulating media. Then the concept of
minimum oil circuit breaker comes. In this type of circuit breaker the arc interrupting device is enclosed in a tank of
insulating material which as a whole is at live potential of system. This chamber is called arcing chamber or interrupting
pot. The gas pressure developed in the arcing chamber depends upon the current to be interrupted. Higher the current
to be interrupted causes larger the gas pressure developed in side the chamber, hence better the arc quenching. But this
put a limit on the design of the arc chamber for mechanical stresses. With use of better insulating materials for the arcing
chambers such as glass fiber, reinforced synthetic resin etc, the minimum oil circuit breaker are able to meet easily the
increased fault levels of the system.

4 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS

This type of circuit breakers, is those kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric pressure. After
development of oil breaker, the medium voltage air circuit breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in
different countries. But in countries like France and Italy, ACBs are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also
good choice to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker. In America ACBs were exclusively used for the system
up to 15 KV until the development of new vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.

In Axial Blast ACB the moving contact is in contact with fixed contact with the help of a spring pressure as shown in the
figure. There is a nozzle orifice in the fixed contact which is blocked by tip of the moving contact at normal closed condition
of the breaker. When fault occurs, the high pressure air is introduced into the arcing chamber. The air pressure will counter
the spring pressure and deforms the spring hence the moving contact is withdrawn from the fixed contact and nozzle hole
becomes open. At the same time the high pressure air starts flowing along the arc through the fixed contact nozzle orifice.
This axial flow of air along the arc through the nozzle orifice will make the arc lengthen and colder hence arc voltage
become much higher than system voltage that means system voltage is insufficient to sustain the arc consequently the
arc is quenched.

In this type of axial blast air circuit breaker, the moving contact is fitted over a piston supported over a spring. In order to
open the circuit breaker, the air is admitted into the arcing chamber when pressure reaches to a predetermined value, it
presses down the moving contact; an arc is drawn between the fixed and moving contacts. The air blast immediately
transfers the arc to the arcing electrode and is consequently quenched by the axial flow of air.

The working principle of Cross Blast Air Circuit Breaker is quite simple. In this system of air blast circuit breaker the blast
pipe is fixed in perpendicular to the movement of moving contact in the arcing chamber and on the opposite side of the
arcing chamber one exhaust chamber is also fitted at the same alignment of blast pipe, so that the air comes from blast
pipe can straightly enter into exhaust chamber through the contact gap of the breaker. The exhaust chamber is spit with
arc splitters. When moving contact is withdrawn from fixed contact, an arc is established in between the contact, and at
the same time high pressure air coming from blast pipe will pass through the contact gap and will forcefully take the arc
into exhaust chamber where the arc is split with the help of arc splitters and ultimately arc is quenched.

5 LOW VOLTAGE PROTECTING APPARATUS

5.1

FUSES

Melting characteristics

Dependence of melting time as a function of current passing through fuse

5.2

CIRCUIT BREAKER

Time-current switching off characteristics

Extuinguishing chamber

Electromagnetic release

Bimetal release

5.2.1

Residual current circuit breaker RCCB

6 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

6.1

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Up to 10 000 switching operation does not need maintenance
2. High longevity and operational safety
3. Non-burnable
4. Without gas and flames emission
5. Silent operation
6. Low wear out
7. Low hub of contacts
8. Very low arc voltage and extinguishing energy

6.2

APPLICATION
1. Short circuits currents disconnecting
2. Cables and out-door lines switching
3. Transformers switching
4. Generators switching
5. Motors switching
6. Switching of arc furnaces
7. Switching of trolley lines

6.2.1

Principles
Extinguishing of electric arc in vacuum

At contacts disconnecting arise electric arc created by metallic vapours separated from contact material.

Arc in vacuum has cone shape with top on cathode. Anode contact shape of the arc is big and enable
temperature good spreading without overheating of anode surface.

Under nominal current diffusion type of arc is established over all shape of electric contact.

When disconnecting current arises over nominal current, arc is by magnetic forces contracted on anode and
cathode.

To increase breaker disconnecting ability anode spot must be eliminated.

It is possible by means:
1. Contact material property
2. Contacts shape arrangement
3. By means of electro-dynamic forces rotate the arc bottom round the anode
4. Contact dimensions increasing
5. External magnetic field excitation
6. To restrict over-voltage at low inductive currents disconnecting, chopped current must be minimised.
7. Low arc voltage, short time of arc relates to minimum arc energy and small contacts erosion =>
extinguishing system is maintenance free.
6.2.2

Vacuum extinguishing chamber

6.2.3

Characteristics of the SF6 and vacuum current interrupting technologies.

SF6 Circuit Breakers

Criteria

Puffer Circuit Breaker

Vacuum Circuit Breakers

Self-pressuring circuit-breaker Contact material-Chrome-Copper

Operating energy
requirements

Operating Energy
requirements are high,
because the mechanism must
supply the energy needed to
compress the gas.

Arc Energy

Because of the high conductivity of the arc in the SF6 gas, the Because of the very low voltage
arc energy is low. (arc voltage is between 150 and 200V.)
across the metal vapour arc,
energy is very low. (Arc voltage is
between 50 and 100V.)

Contact Erosion

Due to the low energy the contact erosion is small.

Arc extinguishing
media

The gaseous medium SF6 possesses excellent dielectric and arc No additional extinguishing
quenching properties. After arc extinction, the dissociated gas medium is required. A vacuum at
molecules recombine almost completely to reform SF6. This a pressure of 10-7 bar or less is an
means that practically no loss/consumption of the quenching almost ideal extinguishing
medium occurs. The gas pressure can be very simply and
medium. The interrupters are
permanently supervised. This function is not needed where
sealed for life so that supervision
the interrupters are sealed for life.
of the vacuum is not required.

Switching behavior The pressure build-up and

in relation to current therefore the flow of gas is
independent of the value of
chopping
the current. Large or small
currents are cooled with the
same intensity. Only small
values of high frequency,
transient currents, if any, will
be interrupted. The deionization of the contact gap
proceeds very rapidly, due to
the electro-negative
characteristic of the SF6 gas
and the arc products.

Operating Energy
requirements are low, because
the mechanism must move
only relatively small masses at
moderate speed, over short
distances. The mechanism
does not have to provide the
energy to create the gas flow

The pressure build-up and

therefore the flow of gas is
dependent upon the value of
the current to be interrupted.
Large currents are cooled
intensely, small currents
gently. High frequency
transient currents will not, in
general, be interrupted. The
de-ionization of the contact
gap proceeds very rapidly due
to the electro-negative
characteristic of the SF6 gas
and the products.

Operating energy requirements

are low, because the mechanism
must move only relatively small
masses at moderate speed, over
very short distances.

Due to the very low arc energy,

the rapid movement of the arc
root over the contact and to the
fact that most of the metal vapour
re-condenses on the contact,
contact erosion is extremely small.

No flow of an extinguishing
medium needed to extinguish the
vacuum arc. An extremely rapid
de-ionization of the contact gap,
ensures the interruption of all
currents whether large or small.
High frequency transient currents
can be interrupted. The value of
the chopped current is
determined by the type of
contact material used. The
presence of chrome in the
contact alloy with vacuum also.

No. of short-circuit
operation

1050

1050

30100

No. full load

operation

500010000

500010000

1000020000

No. of mechanical
operation

500020000

500020000

1000030000

Electrical Machinery
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY CONVERSION

1.2

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

1.3

MECHANICAL LOADS

1.4

EQUATION OF MOTION

1.5

MAXWELL EQUATIONS

1.6

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

1.6.1

1.6.2

1.7

Magnetic circuit with air gap

Analogy Magnetic x Electric

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1.8

LORENTZ FORCE

1.9

MAGNETIZATION CURVE

1.10 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

2 DC MACHINES
2.1

DC MACHINE MAIN PARTS

2.2

SCHEMATIC DRAWINGS

2.3

THREE BASIC TYPES OF DC MACHINES

2.4

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

2.5

2.5.1

GENERATOR ACTION

BASIC EQUATIONS OF DC GENERATORS

2.5.2

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

2.5.3

VOLT-AMPERE (LOAD) CHARACTERISTICS

2.5.4

ARMATURE REACTION

2.5.5

COMMUTATION PROCES

2.5.6

AUXILIARY COMMUTATION POLES

2.5.7

SHUNT GENERATOR

2.5.8

EXCITATION OF SHUNT GENERATOR

2.5.9

COMPARISON OF GENERATORS

2.5.10

ENERGY BALANCE (POWER DIVISION)

2.6

MOTOR ACTION

2.6.1

BASIC EQUATIONS OF DC MOTORS

2.6.2

DC Motor Basic Description

2.6.3

SEPARATELY EXCITED

2.6.3.1

DC SEM Characteristics

2.6.3.2

DC SEM speed + mechanical curves

2.6.3.3

INFLUENCE OF Ra ON n=f(T) CURVE

2.6.3.4

DC SEM Starting

2.6.3.5

DC SEM Braking

2.6.3.6

DC SEM Reversal

2.6.3.7

DC SEM Speed Change

2.6.4

SHUNT EXCITED

2.6.4.1

DC SHM Characteristics

2.6.4.2

DC SHM Behavior

2.6.5

SERIES EXCITED

2.6.5.1

DC SRM Characteristics

2.6.5.2

DC SRM speed + torque + mechanical curves

2.6.5.3

DC SRM Starting

2.6.5.4

DC SRM Braking

2.6.5.5

DC SRM Reversing

2.6.5.6

DC SRM Speed Change

2.6.6

COMPARISON OF MOTORS

2.6.7

STARTING AND ROTATION REVERSAL

3 TRANSFORMERS
3.1

PRINCIPLE OF FUNCTION

3.2

SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER

3.3

FUNDAMENTAL TRANSFORMER EQUATION

3.4

REAL TRANSFORMER WITH SINUSOIDAL SUPPLY

3.5

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE UI

3.6

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

IN WINDING

3.7

3.7.1

NO-LOAD OPERATION

Iron Losses P Fe

3.8

SHORT-CIRCUIT OPERATION

3.9

LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

3.10 VOLTAGE DROP OVER LOAD

3.11 CONNECTION
3.11.1

Star

3.11.2

Triangle

3.11.3

Zigzag

3.12 VECTOR GROUP (HOUR ANGLE)

3.13 PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

3.13.1

no-load

3.13.2

Loaded

3.14 AUTOTRANSFORMER

3.15 CURRENT INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

3.16 VOLTAGE INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

3.17 CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER IN NO-LOAD OPERATION TO GRID

3.18 SHORT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER IN STEADY-STATE NO-LOAD OPERATION

3.18.1

Limitation of Short-Circuit Current

3.18.2

Mechanical Stress of Transformers

4 INDUCTION MACHINE
4.1 APPLICATIONS

4.2 CONSTRUCTION

4.3 PRINCIPLE
4.3.1

Rotating magnetic field

4.3.2

Magnetic field in air gap

4.3.3

Stator winding

4.3.4

Pitch factor

4.3.5

Distribution factor

4.3.6

Stator slots

4.4 MAIN SPEED TERMS

4.5 PARK TRANSFORMATION

4.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

4.7 EQUATIONS

4.8 TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTIC

4.9 CIRCLE DIAGRAM

4.10 EFFICIENCY

4.11 STARTING

4.12 BREAKING

4.13 SPEED CONTROL

4.14 SINGLE-PHASE IM

5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
5.1

CONSTRUCTION

5.2

FLUXES AND REACTANCE

5.3

SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATOR WITH A CYLINDRICAL ROTOR

5.4

VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

5.5

ASYNCHRONOUS RUN-UP OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

5.6

LOADING OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

5.7

LOADING OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR ALTERNATOR

5.8

BASIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TURBOMACHINE

5.9

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF AN OVEREXCITED TURBOMACHINE

Loading at a Constant Power while Connected to a Strong Grid

5.10 LOADING AT A CONSTANT EXCITATION WHILE CONNECTED TO A STRONG GRID

5.10.1

Torque of a Turbomachine

5.10.2

Torque of a Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

5.10.3

Power (Torque) Overload Capacity

5.10.4 Stand-alone Alternator

5.11 SYNCHRONIZATION OF GENERATOR (CONNECTING TO THE GRID)

5.12 DIMENSIONS OF TURBOMACHINES

5.13 EXCITATION SYSTEMS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

5.13.1

Excitation from rotary converters

5.13.2

Excitation from alternate driver

5.13.3

Excitation with carried rectifier

5.13.4

Excitation from a system with a rotary transformer

5.13.5

Excitation from a static converter

5.13.6

Excitation with permanent magnets

5.14 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR