Biology:

Material Exchange
Diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion is the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration to
areas of low concentration along a concentration gradient. It is a passive process due to
the random movement of particles.
When all the particles are evenly spread it is called equilibrium.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane from areas of
low concentration to areas of high concentration. (I.e. to where there is less water, it
dilutes)
Active Transport is a process which moves molecules against a concentration gradient,
it requires energy. It is controlled by proteins.

The Lungs
The lungs remove waste carbon dioxide from respiration, and transfer oxygen into the
blood.
Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli.
The Alveoli:

Have an enormous surface area to

increase rate of diffusion.

Moist lining to dissolve gases.

Very thin walls to allow molecules to

pass through easily.

A copious blood supply to keep the

concentration gradient.

The Gut
Once food has been broken down in the gut the useful substances must be transferred
to the blood. This happens in the small intestine.
It works because there is a high concentration of food molecules in the gut, and a low

concentration of food molecules in the blood diffusion.

The lining of the small intestine is made of tiny villi; these increase the surface area
which increases the rate of diffusion. It also has a large blood supply to keep the
concentration gradient high.

Other animals:
Fish use gills which have a large blood supply and are very thin, but provide a large
surface area. They do not need to keep the gills moist because they live in water. If a
fish is taken out of water the gills suffocate because they stick together and reduces
the surface area not enough oxygen can be obtained.
Frogs also have gills when they are tadpoles, older frogs breath through their skin
which is constantly moist with a large blood supply. Frogs also have a simple lung
system.

Plants
How are leaves specialised?
The leaf is flat to increase the
surface area for diffusion. This also
reduces the distance between the air
and photosynthesising cells.
How does gas exchange work in
plants?
They have openings known as stomata which are opened and closed by the guard cells,
this controls water loss by opening at specific times to allow carbon dioxide in and out,
but closing when the rate of transpiration is too great.
They have a waxy cuticle which is gas and waterproof, this reduces water loss.
Roots are thin and have a large surface area, like the gut they have microvilli which
increase the surface area for diffusion.

What is transpiration?
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the surface of the leaves.
As water is lost through the stomata, it is pulled up through the xylem.
This movement is known as the transpiration stream.
Hot conditions increases the rate of evaporation.
Dry conditions increases the concentration gradient of water.
Windy removes the humid air around the plant and so increases the concentration gradient.

When plants wilt they are reducing the water loss because they reduce the surface
area.

Transporting substances around the body

The Circulatory System

The human circulatory system has two different blood systems so is
called a double circulation.
One system transports blood from the heart to the lungs and back
again.
The other takes blood around the rest of the body.

Blood vessels:
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, it is usually oxygenated blood. Your pulse is
the arteries stretching as blood is forced through them.
Veins carry blood towards the heart, usually low in oxygen and deep purple in colour.
They contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.
Capillaries are junctions between arteries and veins. The walls are only a single cell

thick so substances can easily diffuse.

The Human Heart

Blood Transport
The liquid part of our blood is called plasma. It contains:
Cell
Function
Red Blood Cells
Transport
White Blood Cells
Immune system
Platelets
Blood clotting
Carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma. Oxygen is carried in the red blood cells.
Urea, is carried by the plasma to the kidneys. Digested food is carried by the plasma.

Biconcave discs to increase the

surface area.
Haemoglobin; pigments which can
carry oxygen.
No Nucleus means more room for
haemoglobin and diffusion.

Exercise and the body

Mitochondria in cells supply energy through respiration.

glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

When exercising you need more energy and so need to respire faster. During exercise:
Heart rate and arteries dilate this increases the blood flow to exercising
muscles which increases oxygen and glucose supply and increase the rate of
carbon dioxide removal.
Breathing rate you breathe more often and draw in more air, increasing the
amount of oxygen that can be picked up by red blood cells.
Vigorous exercise can cause anaerobic respiration to begin, as there is not enough
oxygen supplied. It is not as efficient.

glucose lactic acid (+ energy)

Lactic acid is what gives a stitch. After exercise we have to break down the lactic
acid, this requires oxygen and is known as an oxygen debt.

lactic acid + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

The Kidneys
The kidneys filter the blood and reabsorb what is needed. Example; All sugar is
reabsorbed by active transport, but water and dissolved mineral ions are selectively
absorbed. Urine concentration depends on how much you have taken in and giving out.

Dialysis

The blood is filtered through partially permeable membranes.

Then through dialysis fluid which contains the perfect concentration of

substances to ensure diffusion of waste substances into the fluid, but glucose
remains in the blood.

The unwanted substances build up after a few days, so regular dialysis must be
done. The dialysis fluid is at exactly the right concentration so there is no net
movement of glucose and mineral ions.Kidney Transplants
Advantages

Disadvantages

Kidney
Transplants

No restricted diet.
No regular hospital
appointments.

Expensive.
Long waiting list.
Hard to find a match.
Immunosuppressant drugs!
They arent permanent the
kidney will shut down after about
9 years.

Dialysis

Readily available.

Restricted diet.
Regular hospital sessions or a
home care nurse.

Microbiology
Harmful microorganisms are known as pathogens.
To grow microbes in a lab we use a culture medium which contains carbohydrates,
mineral ions and sometimes proteins in an agar jelly which is first sterilised, warmed to
add the nutrients then poured into a sterilised petri dish and left to cool. The dishes
need to be kept warm and oxygenated for good growth.
To prevent cross contamination
1. Work near a Bunsen burner this creates a convection current and prevents
other microorganisms from falling on the dish.
2. Use a Bunsen burner to sterilise the equipment before and during the
inoculation.
We leave the petri dishes upside down to stop the condensation from falling onto the
growing bacteria.
In a classroom we cannot store these dishes at temperatures more than 37C as this
could grow potentially harmful bacteria.

Yeast
Single celled organisms with a nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane with a cell wall.
They respire aerobically the same as plants and animals, however when they respire
anaerobically they produce ethanol not lactic acid. This process is known as
fermentation.
Aerobic respiration is better because it provides more energy. Yeast do NOT
reproduce under anaerobic conditions.
Malting; is where barley grains are soaked in water to keep them warm and germination
begins, here enzymes break the starch down into sugars.
The sugars are then removed and yeast ferments the mixture to produce alcohol
(ethanol) hops are added to give flavour.
In making wine natural sugars are used for the yeasts energy source.

Other bacteria and food

How to make yoghurt:

1. adding a culture of the right type of bacteria to warm

milk
2. keeping the mixture warm so the bacteria grow
reproduce and ferment
3. as the bacteria break down the lactose, lactic acid is
produces (this gives yoghurt the
sharp, tangy taste) this process is lactic fermentation
4. the lactic acid causes the milk to clot and solidify to form
a yoghurt
5. Further bacterial action gives the yoghurt its creamy
texture
Cheese also uses bacteria that converts lactose to lactic acid, the cheese curdles and
you can separate the curds from the whey. The curds are what make the cheese, and
whey is used to feed animals.

Microbes on mass production

Antibiotics are usually made in

fermenters that are continuously harvested because we want what the microbes
produce not the microbes themselves.

Industrial fermenters have:

-

Oxygen so the microorganisms can respire.

Stirrers to keep the temperature constant and make sure oxygen and food
supply are evenly spread.

A water cooled jacket to remove excess heat from respiration.

Measuring devices to maintain constant conditions (i.e. pH and temperature)

Mycoprotein
A fungus known as FUSARIUM.
It requires aerobic conditions. It is usually produced in batches.
It serves as a high-protein, low-fat meat substitute.

Antibiotics
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.

Modern penicillin production is grown in a medium containing sugar, amino acids, mineral
salts and other nutrients. There is a lag in production because only when the nutrients
have been used does the fermentation start that produces penicillin. Nutrients are
repeatedly added and broth removed to get the maximum yield.

Biogas
The main component of biogas is methane, the rest is Carbon Dioxide, Water and
Hydrogen.
They tend to work best at 30C and the reaction is exothermic.

Ethanol
Is a carbon neutral fuel because the plants take in the same amount of carbon dioxide
that they release when burnt.
The starches in the plant must first be broken down by enzymes before being
fermented. Ethanol does not produce carbon monoxide or sulphur dioxide.
It can be combined with petrol to make Gasohol. This reduces carbon emissions.