Pavan Ravindra

English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
Alvarez, F. and J. Calderon. 1996. Distribution of Loxothylacus texanus (Cirripedia:
Rhizocephala) Parasitizing Crabs of the Genus Callinectes in the Southwestern Gulf of
Mexico. Gulf Research Reports 9 (3): 205-210.
This scientific paper discusses the distribution of number of externae per host of the
parasite Loxothylacus texanus, a species that is closely-related to the parasite Loxothylacus
panopaei, the subject of the research at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center.
Although the two are different species, they are closely-related to each other, and they have
many similar patterns in behavior, so by analyzing the behavior of the parasite Loxothylacus
texanus, a lot can be learned about the behavior of Loxothylacus panopaei. This article could be
of use, under the assumption that this distribution also applies to Loxothylacus panopaei. If this
distribution does not also reflect tendencies that are associated with Loxothylacus panopaei, this
data will be of no use, since this species of parasite is not even in the Chesapeake Bay.
Baird, Daniel, and Robert E. Ulanowicz. "The Seasonal Dynamics of The Chesapeake Bay
Ecosystem." Ecological Monographs 59.4 (1989): 329. Web.
This article details the general seasonal trends of predator-prey relationships in the
Chesapeake Bay. Because of the different levels of sun exposure in the different seasons, the
seasons with more sun exposure will have more producers. This increases the level of consumers
as well, as they have more food to eat. This increase in consumption helps to balance out the
increase in producers. The rest of the article details examples of these relationships. This article
has shown the different population trends for species in the Chesapeake Bay and the reasons as
to why these seasonal trends occur. Understanding these trends and the reasons why they occur is
essential in getting an understanding of the effects that different populations can have on each
other in the Chesapeake Bay.
"Capillariasis" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
Capillariasis is a roundworm that infects humans by exiting the human body through
fecal matter and then infecting any human that may come near the feces. It infects human
intestines and affects the digestive system of the parasitized host. This can be used in the paper
as an example of a parasite that infects humans. However, it should be used carefully, since it has
a significant negative impact on humans - it causes diarrhea and emaciation - so mentioning it
will probably paint a negative image in the readers mind. Using it near the end of the paper as
more of a conclusion would be most effective in providing the reader with an example of a
common human parasite.
C.W. Witham, E.T. Bauder, D. Belk, W.R. Ferren Jr., and R. Ornduff (Editors). Ecology,
Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems Proceedings from a 1996
Conference. California Native Plant Society, Sacramento, CA. 1998.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
This paper discusses the threats to vernal pools that have arisen over time. Most of these
threats are related back to how the people do not completely understand the importance of the
shrimp species that thrive in these pools. This paper also focuses on these shrimp species in the
pools. It does not talk about the other invertebrates that live in these pools; instead, the
importance and history of the shrimp species have been the main focal point of the paper. This
case of extinction is very different from the other cases that have been looked at, mainly because
it is about a species that is from the west coast. The other cases are primarily from the east coast,
specifically the Chesapeake Bay. Although the general principles behind the extinction are the
same, it is nice to have a change in location for a more varied selection of sources.
Fam, Shun Deng, Rick K. Wilson, David B. Lindenmayer, and Hugh P Possingham. "No
Excuse for Habitat Destruction." Science Magazine 10 May 2013: 680-82. Web. 30 Aug.
2015.
In this collection of articles, the authors talk about specific political actions that have
affected habitat destruction. These articles show government in a negative light, and the articles
main goal is to discredit politicians making decisions regarding the environment. For example,
the first article the authors criticize the government in a developed nation taking calculated
actions to drive an endangered species to extinction. As can be seen, these articles have a very
bitter tone, and this tone continues throughout all three articles. However, the articles arguments
are based on fact, and the authors do not ramble on and on about their complaints, so the articles
still have plenty of information that can be used. These articles provide specific examples of
species that have been pushed to extinction because of political decisions. For example, the
Leadbeaters possum that has been pushed very close to extinction because of excessive logging
in the reserves that were built to protect them. These specific examples can be used in the
research paper to show the effect that people have had on the global species crisis.
Fowler, Amy E., Tiia Forsstrom, Mikael Von Numers, and Outi Vesakoski. "The North
American Mud Crab Rhithropanopeus Harrisii (Gould, 1841) in Newly Colonized
Northern Baltic Sea: Distribution and Ecology." REABIC (2013): n. pag. Web. 20 Sept.
2015.
This paper discusses the spread of Rhithro and how it has spread to inhabit many
different ecosystems. This is very relevant to the project that is being conducted at SERC. The
spread of Rhithro across the east coast is probably the main cause for the spread of Loxo across
the east coast. Populations of Rhithro make slight movements along the coast, and the infected
Rhithro organisms bring the parasite with them, and this exposes a new population of Rhithro to
the parasite, and as time goes on, the parasite spreads across a coast, like Loxo has been doing.
Loxo is now found all the way down to the coast of Florida from much further up North because
of the spread of Rhithro. However, in the specific case of Loxo, this parasitic barnacle is also
able to travel on its own in the water, so that is yet another contributing factor to the spread of
Loxo.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
"Giardia" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
Giardia is another example of a parasite that is linked with a human disease, in this case,
giardiasis. Giardia is spread mainly through water sources that have come in contact with feces,
so it is more common in developing areas that dont have access to clear, filtered water. As with
the other human parasites, mentioning this parasite near the conclusion of the paper would give
the reader a better idea of how quickly they might spread, whereas mentioning it in the beginning
of the paper will probably paint a bad image of parasites in the readers head. However,
mentioning the parasite also does make parasitism more relatable to the reader.
Hogan, Michael, PhD. "Commensalism." The Encyclopedia of Earth. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Jan.
2016.
This article explores various aspects of commensalism, which is a type of symbiotic
relationship that occurs in nature in which one organism is benefitted and the other organism is
not affected in any significant way, This contrasts the idea of parasitism, which is the type of
symbiotic relationship that this paper focuses on. This information would be useful in the
background information sections, since it is not pertinent to understanding the main ideas of the
paper, yet it is very closely-related to parasitism, so it needs to be mentioned somehow in the
paper along with mutualism.
"Hookworm" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
Hookworm is a fairly common human parasite that lives in the small intestine.
Hookworm eggs are passed through the feces of the infected host. Once hatched, the hookworm
larvae can penetrate human skin, so even walking over buried feces can lead to a hookworm
infection, since the larvae can penetrate the skin on a humans foot. Hookworms are common, so
mentioning hookworms would effectively introduce an example of parasitism to the reader. By
referencing hookworms as an example of a parasite, the reader gets a much clearer understanding
of what a hookworm is, since it links these two ideas to one another.
Johnson, C. N. "Letters to Nature." Nature 394.6690 (1998): 272-74. Web. 23 Aug. 2015.
This excerpt discusses the relationship between range size, abundance, and the likelihood
of an organism to go extinct. Larger range size and higher abundance equates to a lower
likelihood of going extinct. The hypothesis that is provided is that over time, species either
become more locally abundant or spread out over a larger range. This is described very similarly
to evolution: the author treats it like a method through which species can adapt to avoid
extinction. An example of this adaptive radiation is the spread of the parasite loxothylacus
panopaei, which is the subject of this project at SERC.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
Kruse, Inken. "Genetic Diversity and Expanding Nonindigenous Range of the Rhizocephalan
Loxothylacus Panopaei Parasitizing Mud Crabs in the Western North Atlantic." (2013):
n. pag. Web. 4 Oct. 2015.
This paper identifies the parasite Loxo as it infects mudcrabs in the Long Island area.
This parasite is the focus of this projects research at SERC. Loxo is a parasitic barnacle that
infects crabs and seizes control of the crabs reproductive system and uses it to produce larvae of
its own. The crab is kept alive, but it is not able to reproduce to create new mudcrabs. This
completely removes infected mudcrabs from the gene pool, creating a very steep selective
pressure that speeds up local evolution of both the mudcrab and the parasite. The different
subspecies within the species Loxo are another point that the author brings up in this paper.
This paper is relevant to this project, since all of the research that is being done in SERC in
regards to Loxo is based on the findings of this paper along with other papers of similar topic.
This paper also lays out the foundation for the idea that Loxo has been spreading northward ever
since it was introduced to the Chesapeake Bay by humans. This paper also hypothesizes that the
original introduction of this species into the bay was through ship-based trade, which is also the
explanation that the researches at SERC believe to be true.
Laurance, William F. "Habitat Destruction: Death by a Thousand Cuts." (2010): 73-87.
Web. 30 Aug. 2015.
This article discusses the role that humans have had on habitat destruction across the
planet. It also provides various perspectives from which habitat destruction can be seen. It can be
measured in terms of either the species that have been lost/affected or the damage that has been
done to the biomes or ecosystems themselves. Humans largest impact on habitat destruction has
come from the agriculture industry. However, many other activities have contributed to habitat
destruction: coal mining, cutting down forests, carbon dioxide emissions, etc. This article has
been helpful, since it gives an overall summary of all of the concerns surrounding habitat
destruction. Although more articles that specifically explore this topic will need to supplement
this article, this has given a good outline for what will need to be done to in the future to learn
more about this topic.
"Lice" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
Lice is an example of a common parasite that most people know of. Head lice is spread
through proximity with someone who is infected by head lice. Most readers have heard of lice
before, so by mentioning it, most readers would be able to understand how quickly lice, and
other parasites, are able to spread from one host to another, which would also reinforce the idea
that Loxo has spread very quickly across the East Coast after its initial introduction into the
Chesapeake bay.
"Lymphatic Filariasis" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
Lymphatic Filariasis is a tropical disease that is spread from one person to the next by
mosquitoes. Although mosquitoes that carry this parasite are not affected, once they bite an
uninfected human being, the parasite enters the new hosts body and attacks its lymphatic
system, which is responsible for fighting off infections and diseases as well as maintain the
bodys fluid balance. This parasite has a huge negative impact on the communities that it
manages to infiltrate. This can be used as an example of a parasite that is very harmful to the
population that it infect, as opposed to Loxo, which in the end, infects a relatively small percent
of the total population of mud crabs.
"Mutualistic Relationships." Evolution. New England Complex Systems Institute, n.d. Web. 20
Jan. 2016.
This article explains the general concepts behind a relationship of mutualism, which is
another type of symbiotic relationship besides parasitism. Mutualism is often viewed as the
opposite of parasitism, so it would give the reader a contrasting view with the previouslymentioned idea of parasitism as well as provide the reader with a more complete view of
naturally-occurring symbiotic relationships, since it portrays how species will often rely on one
another to survive and compete in the wild. This information can be used in the background
information section to give the reader examples of other symbiotic relationships that are directly
beneficial to the two species that are involved.
"Parasites." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
This article describes the general characteristics of parasites as well as enumerate several
common types of parasites. However, this article comes from the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, which is only concerned with parasites if the parasites could possibly infect
humans. As a result, much of the information on this topic are specific to human parasites.
However, the article provides a solid background on the basics behind parasitism. The
information from this article can be incorporated into the background information section,
because it details some pretty important aspects of parasitism, such as the specificity of host
range as well as ectoparasitism.
Pimm, Stuart L., and Peter Raven. "Biodiversity: Extinction by Numbers." Nature 403.6772
(2000): 843-45. Web.
The author focuses on the association between habitat destruction and the species
extinction crisis. Clearly, the two are connected, but the author focuses on how long it can take
for the results of habitat to be seen. Even if humans stopped destroying habitats right now,
species would continue to go extinct from the habitats that have already been destroyed. Seeing
as habitat preservation is a main focus of SERC in general, understanding the effects of habitat
destruction is crucial to trying to explain the importance of minimizing it to others. Controversial
topics like habitat destruction have a huge impact on the different protocols and procedures that

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
need to be followed during a study, especially one that is being conducted over such a large area
of the US.
Projecto-Garcia, Joana. "High Regional Differentiation in a North American Crab Species
throughout Its Native Range and Invaded European Waters: A Phylogeographic
Analysis." (2009): n. pag. Web. 4 Oct. 2015.
This paper identifies Loxo as a unique species, but through analyzing population
genetics, the author determines that each population is very specific, which is evidence for local
adaptation to the nearby populations of Rhithro. This also means that the local populations of
Rhithro have also adapted to become more resistant to the local populations of Loxo. This
regional evolution resulted in the genetic variation between the different populations of Loxo.
This paper has huge significance, because it established that all populations of Loxo, despite the
fact that they can be very different, are all considered to be one species. This paper also
establishes the host-parasite relationship that is evident between Rhithro and Loxo, which are the
focus of this particular project at SERC.
Rothschild Bj, Ault Js, Goulletquer Philippe, Heral Maurice (1994). Decline of the
Chesapeake Bay oyster population : a century of habitat destruction and overfishing.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 111(1-2), 29-39.
The oyster population has been destroyed as a result of multiple human-induced factors.
The main two factors are the destruction of habitat and the overfishing of the oysters. The low
water quality of the area has also impacted the population of oysters, since it is harder for them
to survive in dirty water. Of these factors, the most prominent factor is the intense fishing that
has been occurring since the start of the century. This information can be used as an example for
a species that has been put in danger of extinction as a result of human destruction. The oyster
example can also be used to show how species frequency can change over a wide geographic
range. The time that it takes for a species to go extinct after something in its environment has
changed is very important. If this time is long enough, a species can be saved from extinction by
saving/preserving some organisms from that species so that they can be re-introduced into the
population once the environmental change has been reversed.
Symbionts, Parasites, Hosts, and Cooperation - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation
Society. Web. Accessed 16:19 PM 1/20/2016.
This article provides the reader with background information on the basic concepts
behind the idea of an arms race between two coevolving species. It explains the interspecies
competition between the parasite and its host as well as the competition within the host species
itself to select for traits that provide the most resistance to the parasite. It also gives background
on other types of symbiotic relationships, like commensalism and mutualism, which can be
mentioned in the paper as a foil to the idea of parasitism. The article can provide useful
information for the background information portion of the paper, since it contains general
information about parasites as well as the basic ideas behind other symbiotic relationships.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
Tepolt, Carolyn. "Adaptation to Parasitism across a Co-evolutionary Mosaic." (n.d.): n. pag.
Web.
This is my mentors budget proposal for the project that this paper focuses on. It is
extremely relevant since it discusses the procedures, methods, and materials that are being used
for this project. It also goes through the general concepts behind coevolution and other factors
that contribute to the parasite-host relationship between Loxo and Rhithro. This paper will be
really useful for giving the audience general background information on the topic, because it
does a good job of simply explaining the concepts behind coevolution.
Tepolt, Carolyn. "Invasion of the Body Snatchers." SERC Evening Lecture. SERC,
Edgewater. 15 Sept. 2015. Speech.
This lecture at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center was about a project that
Dr. Carolyn Tepolt is working on at SERC. The general idea is that there is a species of barnacles
that is parasitic to a species of mudcrabs. The species of barnacles is called Loxo, and it infects
Rhithro crabs. After infecting the crabs, Loxo takes over the reproductive system of the crab and
uses it to produce its own offspring. In doing this, it castrates the crab, thus removing it from the
gene pool. Because of this steep selective pressure, the crab population evolves very quickly to
select for any trait that would provide resistance against infection. This lecture was specifically
about the project that will be the focus of this paper, so it is very relevant and useful. It provided
a great background of the purpose of this project and of the behavior of Loxo and Rhithro.
Tepolt, Carolyn. Telephone interview. 24 Sept. 2015.
In this interview, Dr. Tepolt talks about different processes when it comes to how data is
handle at SERC and in the science field in general. Later, she talks about specifics in regards to
both Rhithro and Loxo and different examples of parasitism that also exist outside of the
Chesapeake Bay, including different life cycles of parasites, the various methods through which
Loxo has spread over the years, and hyperparasitism. Dr. Tepolt also talked about the
evolutionary history of some parasites, and how parasites will sometimes also branch off when
their host branches off into two unique species. This interview was focused specifically on topics
that are germane to this research paper, so all of the information that is discussed in this
interview is relevant to the research paper. Also, since this is a personal interview with an
experienced researcher, all of the information is very reliable, since the interviewee asked for
clarification whenever it was necessary.
Tindle, Stephen, Emily Boone, Jack O'Brien, and Anne Boettcher. "Effects of Salinity on
Larval Stages of the Rhizocephalan Barnacle Loxothylacus Texanus: Survival and
Metamorphosis in Response to the Host, Callinectes Sapidus." Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology (2003): n. pag. Web. 14 Sept. 2015.

Pavan Ravindra
English 11 AP
Period 6 IM I
This paper shows that Loxothylacus texanus larvae do not function well at low levels of
salinity; however, they are able to metamorphose normally at fairly high levels of salinity with
no problem. The paper also mentions that this has also been shown to hold true for Loxothylacus
panopaei, the closely-related species that is the subject of research at SERC. Because these
results can also be applied to Loxothylacus panopaei, this paper is of use, because it could also
explain the geographic distribution of parasitized crabs in the Chesapeake Bay: areas with low
salinity will have lower levels of parasitized crabs, since it is harder for the parasite to survive in
these locations.
"Trichuriasis" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.
Trichuriasis, also known as whipworm, is an intestinal parasite in humans. As are many
other human intestinal parasites, its eggs leave the infected host through his/her feces and are
able to infect other humans that come in contact with the feces. This is yet another common
example of a human parasite, and mentioning it would make the concept of parasitism more
relatable and understandable to the audience. Mentioning this parasite in addition to other,
similar, human parasites would help clarify the general concepts of parasitism by providing a
specific example that the reader can associate with the term parasite.