CHAPTER 22: EVOLUTION

12/04/2014

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Elizabeth A. Gilbert wrote the biography of Geerat Vermeij
Geerat J. Vermeij top malacologist
o Studied Nerita
o Spouse: Edith Zipser
o Evolutionary arms race predator and prey keep up with
each other
o Can see gastropod mollusks with his hands
REPRODUCTION -> ECOLOGY -> EVOLUTION -> DIVERSITY
ADAPTATIONS
Mother of pearl plant Graptopetalum paraguayense fleshy,
succulent leaves to thrive in crevices of rock walls that do not
have much water
Trinidad leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis breeding aggregations
Fog-basking beetle/Darkling beetle Onymacris ungulcularis
catches fog droplets, water drops roll onto the insects mouth
Tweeblaarkanniedood Welwitschia mirabilis endemic
gymnosperm in Namib desert
Lichens, Namagua chameleon
Peringueys adder Bitis peringueyi
Palmato gecko Palmatogecko rangei
Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.

Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)

Charles the greatest biologist of all time Darwin On the Origin of

Species, 1859
Focused on diversity of organisms
Current species are descendants of ancestral species
3 domains and common ancestor of all life
EVOLUTION descent with modification
o Pattern and process
Scala Naturae and Classification of species
Aristotle species are fixed and arranged on a scala naturae
Old Testament: species were individually designed by God and
are perfect
Carolus Linnaeus founder of taxonomy
o The Creator designed each species for a purpose
o Binomial nomenclature
Changes Over Time
Fossils remains or traces of organisms from the past, appears
in strata in sedimentary rock
o Younger strata (above) have more recent fossils
o Older strata (below) have older fossils
Paleontology study of fossils

o Developed by Georges Cuvier

Cuviers catastrophism each boundary between
strata represents a catastrophe
James Hutton and Charles Lyell changes in Earths surface can
result from slow continuous actions still operating today
o Lyells uniformitarianism mechanisms of changes are
constant over time

Lamarck species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Mechanisms proposed are unsupported by evidence (acquired
traits cannot be inherited)
Darwins childhood
Medicine (drop) + Theology, Cambridge University
Unpaid companion for Captain Robert Fitzroy on HMS Beagle
Collected specimens of South American specimens
Fossils resembled living species from same region, living species
resembled other species from nearby regions
Earthquake in Chile -> uplift of rocks
Influenced by Charles Lyells Principles of Geology, earth was
>6000 y/o
Galapagos islands
Darwins Focus on Adaptation
Adaptation to environment is related to origin of species
o GALAPAGOS FINCHES
Beak variation for cactus, insect, and seed-eaters

1844: Natural Selection individuals with favored inherited traits

are more likely to survive and reproduce
June 1858: Alfred Russell poor British naturalist Wallace
theory of Natural Selection similar to Darwin
1859: The Origin of Species was published
o Three broad observations:
Unity
Diversity
Match between organisms and environment
o Never used evolution
o descent with modification Darwins perception of the
unity of life; all organisms related through descent from an
ancestor that lived in the past
Tree with branches representing diversity of life
Linnaeus hierarchy

Selections, and Adaptation

Humans have modified other species by selecting individuals to
breed (Artificial Selection)
o Ex. Darwins pigeons
o Ex. Wild mustard Arabidopsis thaliana is selected:
Leaves Kale
Lateral buds Brussels sprouts
Apical buds Cabbage
Flower and stem Broccoli
Stem Kohlrabi

Observations:
o Members of a population often vary in inherited traits
o All species can produce more offspring than the
environment can support, and many fail to survive and
reproduce
Inferences:
o Those whose inherited traits give a higher probability of
surviving and reproducing in an environment tend to leave
more offspring
o Unequal ability to survive -> accumulation of favorable
traits over generations
Thomas Malthus potential for human population to increase
faster than food supplies and other resources
Accumulation of advantageous inherited traits increases the
frequency of individuals with these traits
o This explains the match of organisms with their
environment

Natural Selection
Individuals with certain heritable characteristics survive and
reproduce better than others
Increases the adaptation of organisms to the environment over
time
If an environment changes over time, natural selection may
result to adaptation to these new conditions and may give rise to
new species
Ex. Camouflage
o Mantids (flower mantids in Malaysia, leaf mantids in
Borneo)
INDIVIDUALS DO NOT EVOLVE (sorry Pokemon), POPULATIONS
EVOLVE OVER TIME
Natural selection can only increase or decrease heritable traits
that vary in a population
Adaptations vary with different environments
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

New discoveries fill Darwins holes :>

Natural selection evidence:
o Natural selection due to introduced plant species
Soapberry bugs Jadera haematoloma use long beak
to feed on seeds in balloon vine Cardiospermum
corindum fruits
They use short beak to feed on seeds in goldenrain
tree Koelreuteria elegans with smaller fruit
Only 35 years of evolution!!
o Drug-resistant bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus
Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is dangerous
S. aureus became resistant to penicillin after 2
years
S. aureus became resistant to methicillin after
2 years
METHICILLIN
Inhibits protein in bacterial cell walls
MRSA use different protein unaffected by
methicillin
MRSA are now resistant to many antibiotics
ADAPTATIONS:
Methicillin resistance
Ability to colonize hosts
Increased disease severity
Increased gene exchange within species,
toxin production
GALAPAGOS FINCHES

Cactus ground finch Geospiza scandens

Green warbler finch Certhidea olivacea
Large ground finch Geospiza magniroscis
MEDIUM GROUND FINCH Geospiza fortis studied by Peter
and Rosemary Grant in Daphne Major, Galapagos Islands
Wet years: many seeds, soft -> adapted small beaks
Dry years: few seeds, hard -> adapted large beaks
Natural selection does not make traits, rather it edits/selects
already present in the population
Local environment determines which traits are selected
o
o
o
o

Golden banded hermit Dardanus brachyops

Day octopus Octopus cyanea
Graceful decorator crab Oregonia gracilis
HOMOLOGY similarity resulting from common ancestry
Homologous structures anatomical resemblances that
represent variations on a structural theme present in a common
ancestor
o Ex. Forelimbs of human, cat, whale, bat
Comparative embryology reveals anatomical homologies not
present in adult organisms
o Ex. Pharyngeal pouches and post-anal tail in chick and
human embryos
Vestigial structures remnants of features that served important
functions in ancestral organisms
Molecular homology: genes shared among organisms inherited
from a common ancestor

EVOLUTIONARY TREES hypotheses about the relationships among

different groups
Nested patterns in evol. trees
Can be made from different types of data (eg. anatomical and
DNA sequence)
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION Evolution of similar (analogous)
features in distantly related groups
Analogous traits arise when different groups independently
adapt to similar environments in similar ways
DO NOT PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT ANCESTRY
Ex. Sugar glider (Australia) and flying squirrel (North America)
FOSSIL RECORD provides evidence of extinction, the origin of new
groups, and changes within groups over time
Ex. Ankle bones of Canis (dog), Pakicetus, Sus (pig), and
Odocoileus (deer)
Diacodexis early even-toed ungulate
Can document important transitions (ex. Transition from land to
sea of cetacean ancestors)
BIOGEOGRAPHY the geographic distribution of species
Provides evidence of evolution
PANGAEA
Continent movement + modern distribution of species = where
and when different groups evolved
Endemic species species not found anywhere else in the world
o Usually found in islands, their species are closely related to
species on the nearest mainland or island
Species on islands gave rise to new species as they
adapted to new environments

o Madagascar orchid Angraecum sesquipedale has long

floral tube
o Hawkmoth Xanthophan morganii praedicta has 28cm
proboscis to feed on A. sesquipedale
ECOLOGY
The scientific study of interactions between organisms and the
environment.
o American beaver Castor canadensis has chisel-shaped
incisors that keep growing; they build dams that modify
the environment
These interactions determine the distribution and abundance of
species
o Pencil Sea Urchin
More widespread, slower, preferred by predators
o Green Sea Urchin
Shallow water, fast and active
Early ecology was primarily descriptive and on natural history
Early ecologists studied plant associations which gave rise to
community ecology
Earnst Haeckel (1834 1919) Father of Ecology
o Animal ecologist; studied invertebrates, protists, embryonic
development, and comparative vertebrate anatomy
Victor E. Shelford (1877 1968) community succession
(changes that happen in an area)
Henry C. Cowles (1869 1939) succession in dunes
Charles S. Elton (1900 1991) population ecology, invasive
species
Animal ecology started on Marine Animal Ecology and on animals
with economic and medical importance
o Ex. Schistosoma and other intestinal nematodes
o Copepods parasites parasitized by flatworms
(monogeneans)
o Stenoma catenifer Avocado seed moth

Parasitized by Cotesia sp. (parasitoid)

Parasitized by hyperparasitoid
Parasitized by superparasitoid
o Praying mantises female eats males head during sex to
release hormones that wipe away the males inhibitions
#wuw
o Dung beetles feed on feces
George Evelyn Hutchinson (1903 1991) father of modern
Limnology
o N-dimensional niche
Eugene P. Odum (1913 2002)
o The whole of the ecosystem is larger than the sum of its
parts.
o Fundamentals of Ecology, 1953
o Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia -> Eugene P.
Odum School of Ecology
o Studied the salt marsh-estuarine ecosystem with his
brother Howard in Sapelo island, Georgia
Euryhaline plants (able to adapt to changes in
salinity)
Detritus
Howard P. Odum (1924 2002) ecological model (Silver
Spring)
o First complete analysis of natural ecosystem
William Eugene Odum (1942 1991)
Armando Acosta dela Cruz

MODERN ECOLOGY
Requires observation and experimentation

Microcosms small ecological setups that are within the lab, all
factors are controlled and may be manipulated
o Ex. Daphnia magna studied in plexiglass chambers on a lab
bench
Mesocosms larger-scale experiments done outdoors, where the
environment cannot be controlled
o Ex. Daphnia pulex studied with ambient factors
o Ex. BioCON (1997) in the University of Minnesota
Biodiversity, CO2 and N in the Cedar Creek
Ecosystem Science Reserve
Studied plant community response to the ff:
Increase in atmospheric CO2
Increase in N deposition
Decrease in biodiversity
o Ex. FACTS-I (1995) in Duke University, Pennsylvania
6 plots (3 control, 3 with elevated CO2 levels)
It was found that every year, there was 15% more
wood in the plots with elevated CO2 levels
Macrocosms
Whole Ecosystem Approach
o Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario, Canada
58 small lakes and drainage basins
David Schindler increasing nutrient levels ->
decrease in water quality
Experiment in Lake 226
Southern side with C and N no bloom
of cyanobacteria
Northern side with C, N, P bloom of
cyanobacteria

low in nutrients = oligotrophic

Ex. Hungabea Lake (Canadian Rockies)

high in nutrients = eutrophic

Ex. Lake Taihu (China)
Poor water quality, poor clarity, presence
of cyanobacteria
Low levels of DO, fish die off and are offflavor
Mercury level in ELA: measured in enclosures
(mesocosms) by Orihel, et al. in 2006
Hg -> CH3Hg
o Hubbard-Brook Experimental Forest example of longterm ecological research
Nutrient cycling in forest ecosystem, studied since
1963
E1: one valley -> trees were cut and valley sprayed
with herbicide
Construction of dam onsite to monitor water and
mineral loss -> 60% precipitation exits through
streams and 40% through evapotranspiration
30-40% more loss in deforestrated site
60x higher NH3 levels in deforestrated site outflow
Conclusion: human activities can affect ecosystems
Modern ecology is:
o More experimental; quantitative
o Long-term; large-scale
o Multidisciplinary; enhanced by powerful computing and
statistical analysis
o Data is shared and disseminated; extensive use of
instruments
Secchi disk measures depth of effective light
penetration in water (clarity)

Lake

Lake

Portable meters measure abiotic factors such as DO,

pH, temperature
Multi-parameter Benchtop Meter: measures
DO, turbidity, cyanobacteria, pH, ammonia
levels
Plankton nets sample small, floating (or weakswimming) plankton
Moored Autonomous pCO2 buoy for ocean
acidification research
o EXPENSIVE

TIMELINE OF ECOLOGY (LOOL)

~1700: Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and carbon and
their importance to living things
1858: Robert Angus Smith connected acid rain to pollution
1877: Earnest Haeckel coins ecology
1875: Eduard Seuss defines biosphere
1879: symbiosis first described
late 1800s: animal camouflage studied and described
1901: Henry Chandler Cowles studies ecological succession
o succession in dunes, Lake Michigan
1915: Ecological Society of America was founded
1931: Charles Elton makes concept of food chains and webs part
of ecology
o Elton studied population ecology, invasive species, and
created the Eltonian Pyramid of Biomass
1939: Aldo Leopold writes Game Management
1935: Dust Bowl crisis
1935: Arthur Tinsley defines ecosystem

1940s: Ruth Patrick and independence of organisms (freshwater)

o developed methods to measure the health of a stream
1950s: harmful effects of pollution to ecosystem
1951: Nature Conservancy was founded
1953: Eugene and Howard Odum wrote the first ecology
textbook Fundamentals of Ecology
1970s: James Lovelock and Gaia
1975: Acid rain and lakes by Harold Harvey
1983: Conservation Biology established as a discipline
1980s: Ozone hole first discovered
o Water pollution reduced due to new sewage treatment
practices
o Air pollution reduced in cities as unleaded gas and catalytic
converters are used in cars

ECOLOGY AND SPECIES DISTRIBUTION

Influenced by biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors
o Ex. Climate, interspecific interactions, etc. affect the
distribution of every species
ABIOTIC FACTORS vary in space and time, affect distribution of
species
o Temperature
o Water
o Sunlight
o Nutrients
o Rocks and soil

BIOTIC FACTORS
o Predation
o Herbivory (ex. Sea urchins affect seaweed distribution)
o Competition
Harlequin Toad Atelopus varius was nearly discovered in Costa
Rica, population decimated by chytrids
o Yellow-legged toads Rana mucosa also killed by chytrids in
the Sixty Lake Basin in California
o Batrachochytrium dendrobatis chytrids that cause
amphibian deaths

SCOPE OF ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Ecologists work at levels ranging from individual organisms to
the biosphere
o Organismal Ecology studies how an organisms anatomy,
physiology, and behavior meet environmental challenges
Physiological, evolutionary, and behavioral ecology
Ex. Hammerhead shark
o Population Ecology POPULATION: a group of individuals
of the same species living in an area
Focuses on factors affecting population size over time
Ex. Grasshoppers
Ex. African Elephants in the Kruger National
Park, South Africa
Culling reduction of population
Rapid growth of organisms exponential growth (Jshaped graph)
Carrying capacity K maximum number of
individuals the environment can support
For logistic growth (S-shaped graph)

Number of organisms levels out at K,

population growth begins slowing
o Community Ecology COMMUNITY: a group of organisms
of different species
Studies hierarchy and deals with the whole array of
interacting species in a biotic community
Ex. Forest community
Ex. Acacia tree and ants Pseudomyrmex
Ex. Coral reefs
o Ecosystem Ecology ECOSYSTEM: a community of
organisms in an area and the physical factors with which
they interact
Deals with the energy flow and chemical cycling
among biotic and abiotic components
Ex. Grassland ecosystem
Ex. Mountain lake
Ex. Spring-fed pool in a cave
o Landscape Ecology LANDSCAPE: a mosaic of connected
ecosystems
Focuses on the exchange of energy, materials, and
organisms across multiple ecosystems
o Global Ecology BIOSPHERE: the global ecosystem, the
sum of all ecosystems
Examines the influence of energy and materials in
organisms across the biosphere
Emergent properties are present at each ecological level
o POPULATION ECOLOGY: dispersion
Clumped (ex. Sea stars)
Uniform (ex. Penguins)
Random (ex. Taraxacum officinale)
o COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: species diversity, interactions,
succession

Interactions:
Predation (ex. American snowshoe hare Lepus
americanus preyed on by Canadian lynx Lynx
canadensis)
Competition (ex. Barnacles and mussels)
Succession: forest fires, etc.
o ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY: energy flow and nutrient cycling
Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus carries H5N1 virus
o H haemagglutinin
o N neuraminidase
o Ecologists study the spread of the virus through migratory
birds

ECOSYSTEM all organisms living in a community, as well as the

abiotic factors with which they interact
Ex. Unusual community of organisms (including
chemoautotrophic bacteria) living below a glacier in Taylor Valley,
Antarctica
o BLOOD FALLS subglacial ecosystem in the Taylor Glacier
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron
Ecosystems range from a microcosm such as an aquarium, to a
large area such as a lake or forest.
o Ex. Desert spring
TWO MAJOR PROCESSES: energy flow and nutrient cycling
o Energy flows through ecosystems, matter flows within
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Laws of physics and chemistry

First law of thermodynamics energy cannot be created or

destroyed, only transformed
o Energy enters an ecosystem as solar radiation, is
conserved, and is lost from organisms as heat
Second law every exchange of energy increases entropy
o Some energy is always lost as heat

CONSERVATION OF MASS
Matter cannot be created or destroyed
Elements continually recycled
In a forest ecosystem, most nutrients enter as dust or solutes
and are washed away with water
ECOSYSTEMS ARE OPEN SYSTEMS ABSORBING ENERGY AND
MASS AND RELEASING HEAT AND WASTE
ENERGY, MASS, TROPHIC LEVELS
Autotrophs build molecules using photo/chemosynthesis as an
energy source
o Ex. Chemoautotrophic bacteria, plants
Heterotrophs depend on biosynthetic output of autotrophs
Energy and nutrients pass through producers, primary (and
secondary and tertiary etc) consumers.
Detritivores decomposers; invertebrates that reduce the size of
detritus
o Derive energy from detritus (nonliving organic matter)
Prokaryotes and fungi
o Decomposition connects all trophic levels
o Ex. Termites, ants, millipedes, earthworms, dung beetles,
fungi

PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

PRIMARY PRODUCTION the amount of light energy converted
to chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time period
o In some ecosystems, chemoautotrophs are the primary
producers
o Extent of photosynthetic production sets spending limit for
an ecosystems energy budget
o Only a small fraction of solar energy actually strikes
photosynthesizers, and even less is usable
Blue and red light are most effective in driving
photosynthesis
GROSS AND NET PRODUCTION
o Total primary production = GPP
Conversion of chemical energy from photosynthesis
per unit time
o NPP = GPP R
Jyr-1m2 or gyr-1m2
The amount of new biomass added in a given time
period
Only this is available to consumers (since producers
dont really respire???)
o Standing crop total biomass of photosynthesizers at a
given time
o Ecosystems vary greatly in NPP and contribution to the
total NPP of earth
o Tropical rain forests, estuaries, and coral reefs most
productive ecosystems per unit area
o Marine ecosystems relatively unproductive, but contribute
much to global production because of volume
MOST: S. AMERICA, INDONESIA??
LEAST: AFRICA, POLES, WATER??
Net Ecosystem Production (NEP) measure of total biomass
accumulation in a given period

o GPP Rtot
o Comparing net flux of CO2 and O2
Release of O2 means storage of CO2
PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Light and nutrients control primary production
Depth of light penetration affects primary production in an
ocean/lake
o Photic and aphotic zones
Nutrients limit primary production in geographic locations of
aquatic ecosystems
Limiting nutrient must be added for production to increase in
an area
o N or P
o In Sargasso Sea (Subtropical Atlantic Ocean), Fe is the
limiting nutrient
Full of Sargassum that drifted along the Atlantic
through currents
Upwelling of nutrient-rich waters in parts of the oceans
contributes to regions with high primary production
o Transports nutrients from deeper waters to subsurface
waters
o Addition of large amounts of nutrients to lakes has
ecological impact
EUTROPHICATION
May be caused by sewage runoff
May lead to loss of most fish species
In lakes, P limits cyanobacterial growth more often than N
o Led to use of phosphate-free detergents

o DUCKWEEDS
PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Temperature and moisture
o Primary production increases with moisture
Actual evapotranspiration water transpired by plants and
evaporated from a landscape
o Affected by precipitation, temperature, and solar energy
o Related to NPP
Soil nutrients often limiting factors
o N is most common limiting nutrient
o P, in older soils
Adaptations that allow plants to access limiting nutrients
o Form mutualisms with N-fixing bacteria (rhizobia)
o Form mutualisms with mycorrhiza
o Root hairs
o Enzymes that increase availability of limiting nutrients
SECONDARY PRODUCTION amount of chemical energy in food
converted to new biomass during a given period of time
Production Efficiency fraction of energy stored in food that is
not used for respiration
o PE = NSP/PP x 100%
o Ex. Caterpillar feeds on leaf -> 1/6 of energy from leaf is
used for secondary production

OF 200 J PLANT MATERIAL

100 J not assimilated (feces)
67 J cellular respration
33 J growth (new biomass, secondary
production)
o Birds and mammals have efficiencies 1-3%
o Fish 10%
o Insects & microorganisms at least 40%
Trophic Efficiency percentage of production transferred from
one trophic level to another
o Usually under 10% with a range of 5-20%
o Multiplied over a length of the food chain
o ~0.1% of ChE fixed by photosynthesis reaches tertiary
consumers
o Pyramid of net production illustrates loss of energy with
each transfer
In a biomass pyramid, each tier represents dry weight of all
organisms in one trophic level
o Show sharp decrease at successively higher tiers
o Some ecosystems have inverted pyramids producers are
consumed so quickly they are outweighed by primary
consumers
Ex. Aquatic ecosystems involving phytoplankton and
zooplankton
o Turnover time ratio of standing crop biomass to
production
The energy flow in an ecosystem has great implications for the
human population.
o Meat is an inefficient way of tapping photosynthetic
production
o BULLSHIT ABOUT CORN AND BURGERS ETC
Eating corn as herbivore: 2.2 cal E -> 1 cal P

OUT

Eating corn as 2ndary consumer: 40 cal E -> 1 cal P

Eric Schlosser Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of
the AllAmerican Meal
Mark Bittman Food Matters: A Guide to Conscious
Eating
Michael Pollan In Defense of Food

NUTRIENT CYCLING
Life depends on the recycling of chemical elements
Biogeochemical cycles nutrient circuits in ecosystems that have
biotic and abiotic components
o C, O, S, N appear in atmosphere and are cycled globally
o Less mobile elements: P, K, Ca
o Cycle locally in terrestrial, more broadly in aquatic
Models of nutrient cycling contain main reservoirs of elements
and processes that transfer elements between reservoirs
All elements cycle between organic and inorganic reservoirs
IN CYCLING WATER, C, N, AND P, FOUR FACTORS ARE
CONSIDERED
o Biological importance
o Forms in which chemical is available or used
o Major reservoirs for each
o Key processes that drive the movement of the material
WATER CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

DECOMPOSITION
Detritivores play key roles in general pattern of chemical cycling
Rates of decomposition vary greatly, and result in different rates
of nutrient cycling
o Controlled by temp, moisture, and nutrient availability
Higher temp, higher rate of decomposition
o Rapid decomposition -> low levels of nutrients in soil
Ex. In tropical rainforest, material decomposes
rapidly, most nutrients tied to trees/other organisms
o Cold and wet ecosystems store large amounts of
undecomposed organic matter
Decomposition slow in anaerobic mud
RECALL: HUBBARD BROOK EXPERIMENTAL FOREST
RESTORATION ECOLOGY
Biological communities can recover from disturbances over time
RE seeks to initiate/speed up the recovery of degraded
ecosystems
Bioremediation use of living organisms to detoxify ecosystems
o Prokaryotes, fungi, plants
These guys take up and sometimes metabolize toxic
molecules
Ex. Shewanellea oneidensis can metablolize
radioactive uranium and other elements to
insoluble forms
Biological Augmentation uses organisms to add essential
materials to a degraded ecosystem
o N-fixing plants

o Mycorrhiza
Restoration Projects alternative solutions
o Kissimmee River, Florida
o Truckee River, Nevada
o Tropical dry forest, Costa Rica
o Rhine River, Europe
o Succulent Karoo, S. Africa
o Coastal Japan
o Maungatautari, NZ
o
Scientists have named and described 1.8M species
Estimated 10-200M species exist on earth
Tropical forests most diverse, being destroyed at alarming rates
Humans pushing many species towards extinction
Wattled smoky honeyeater Melipotes carolae
Newly described bird species in West Kalimantan
Tropical deforestation is destroying the habitat of M. carolae
Lesula monkey Cercopithecus lomamiensis top 10 new species of
2013, chosen by IISE (Intl Institute of Species Exploration)
Lyre sponge Chondrocladia lyra
Eternal light mushroom Mycena luxaeterna bioluminescent
Varanus bitatawa

Hydraena ateneo
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY seeks to preserve life and integrates
several fields
Ecology
Physiology
MBB
Genetics
Evolutionary biology
THREE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic genetic variation within population and between
populations
Species variety of species in an ecosystem or throughout
biosphere
o Endangered in danger of becoming extinct throughout all
or a significant portion of its range
o Threatened likely to become endangered
o 12% birds, 20% mammals, 32% amphibians in danger of
being threatened with extinction
o Worlds Sexiest Fruit: THE BANANA
Known for its distinct phallic look
Propagated in jungles of SEA, 7-10k years ago in
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
Musa acuminata seeds that are virtually inedible
At an evolutionary standstill because of its
vegetative mode of reproduction
Easily attacked by fungi that cause Panama
disease and Black Sigatoka

o
o

There are wild varieties with resistant

genes
Emile Frisson of International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)
France
GMO Bananas (the food crop)
Dan Koeppel Banana: The Fate of the Fruit That
Changed the World (2008)
Edward O Wilson
Lord of the Ants
Naturalist in Harvard University
JAMES WATSON VS ED WILSON 9/9/9
Hundred Heartbeat Club critically endangered species
Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi
Yangtze river dolphin Lipotes vexillifer
Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus
Sumatran rhino Dicerorhinos sumatrensis
Tamaraw Bubalus mindorensis
Philippine crocodile Crocodylus mindorensis
Local extinction of one species has a negative impact on
the species around it
Ex. Flying foxes Pteropus mariannus are important
pollinators
Human biophilia allows us to recognize the importance of
biodiversity for its own sake
Species biodiversity brings humans practical benefits
Species related to agricultural crops have impt
genetic qualities
Virus-resistant rice bred by crossing
commercial rice with wild species

Prescription drugs
Rosy periwinkle Catharanthus roseus contains
alkaloids that inhibit cancer growth
o Loss of species loss of genes and genetic diversity
o Enormous genetic diversity potential for great human
benefit
Ecosystem life-sustaining services such as nutrient cycling and
waste decomposition
o Services
Air/water purification
Detoxification and decomposition of waste
Nutrient cycling
Moderation of weather extremes
o Wetlands
Biodiversity havens
Filter pollutants
Help protect floods
Store nutrients

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Habitat destruction
o Human alteration of habitats
o Leads to loss of biodiversity
Ex. Prairie is <0.1% of its original area

93% of all coral reefs have been damaged by human

activities
Introduced species those that humans move from native
locations to new geographic regions
o No native predators or competitors so they grow and
reproduce wildly
o Those that gain foothold in their new habitat disrupt their
adoptive community and displace native species
o Sometimes introduced by accident
Ex. Brown tree snake Boiga irregularis ate endemic
bird species in Guam
Mark Jaffe And No Birds Sing (1997)
To control: poison mice (acetaminophen)
o Sometimes the road to hell is paved with good intentions
CHAR
Ex. Kudzu Pueraria lobata
S. USA, 1876
Fast-growing capabilities make this species
highly invasive
THE PLANT THAT ATE THE SOUTH
Overharvesting harvesting of wild organisms at rates exceeding
the rate of recovery
o Large organisms with low reproductive rates are vulnerable
Elephant populations decline bc of ivory harvesting
o DNA analysis help conservation biologists identify the
source of illegally obtained animal products
o Overfishing decimated fish populations
Ex. North Atlantic Bluefin Tuna decreased by 80% in
ten years
Pacific Bluefin Tuna Thunnus orientalis
Global change

o Alterations in climate, atmospheric chemistry, ecosystems

Acid precipitations, pH <5.4
Kills plants, pollutes water systems, erodes
stonework
HNO3 and H2SO4 from burning of wood and
fossil fuels
Freshwater bodies acidified, altered water
chemistry, aquatic food webs disrupted, fish
and lake-dwelling lifeforms killed
Decomposition rates slow down
Not just local, may move downwind since it is
atmospheric
CLRTAP prevents acid precipitation
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
2 main approaches
o Small-population approach considers conditions that can
make small populations become extinct
Small populations prone to interbreeding and genetic
drift that may draw it down an extinction vortex
Loss of genetic variation necessary to enable
evolutionary response to environmental change
Ex. Greater Prairie Chicken Tympanuchus
cupido
Illinois population of T. cupido
fragmented by agriculture, only 50% of
all eggs hatched
To test extinction vortex hypothesis,
genetic variation was introduced
Low genetic variation vortex
Minimum Viable Population minimum population
size at which species can survive
Dependent on factors that affect the chances of
a species survival
Effective Population Size based on the breeding
potential of the population

 Ne = 4NfNm/Nf+Nm
Viability Analysis is used to predict a populations
chances of survival over a particular time interval
Ex. Grizzly bear Ursus arctos horribilis
100 bears, 95% survucal for 200 years
States: WA, ID, WY, MT
Introducing individuals from other
populations can increase genetic
variation
o Declining Population Approach focuses on threatened and
endangered populations that show a downward trend
regardless of size
Emphasizes environmental factors that cause
populations to decline
Ex. Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
Ex. Red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides borealis
Require living pine trees
Low undergrowth
Forced to decline by habitat destruction
and fire suppression
Rebounded through habitat maintenance
and excavation of breeding cavities
Pinus contorta/banksiana firestimulated serotinous seed cones

JUST READ THE REST OF THE SLIDES PUTA DI KO NA KAYABELLS SAKIT

PO SA ULO
TRINIDAD LEAF FROG Phyllomedusa trinitatis
MOTHER-OF-PEARL PLANT Graptopetalum paraguayense
DARKLING BEETLE Onymacris ungulcularis

TWEEBLAARKANNIEDOOD Welwitschia mirabilis

PERINGUEYS ADDER Bitis peringueyi
PALMATO GECKO Palmatogecko rangei
WILD MUSTARD Arabidopsis thaliana
SOAPBERRY BUG Jadera haematoloma
GOLDENRAIN TREE Koelreuteria elegans
BALLOON VINE Cardiospermum corindum
MRSA Staphylococcus aureus
CACTUS GROUND FINCH Geospiza scandens
GREEN WARBLER FINCH Certhidea olivacea
LARGE GROUND FINCH Geospiza magnirostris
MEDIUM GROUND FINCH Geospiza fortis
GOLDEN BANDED HERMIT Dardanus brachyops
DAY OCTOPUS Octopus cyanaea
GRACEFUL DECORATOR CRAB Oregonia gracilis
MADAGASCAR ORCHID Angraecum sesquipedale
HAWKMOTH Xanthophan morganii praedicta
AMERICAN BEAVER Castor canadensis
BLOOD FLUKE Schistosoma sp.
AVOCADO SEED MOTH Stenoma catenifer
WASP Cotesia sp.

HARLEQUIN TOAD Atelopus varius

YELLOW-LEGGED FROG Rana mucosa
CHYTRID Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
ANT Pseudomyrmex
AMERICAN SNOWSHOE HARE Lepus americanus
CANADIAN LYNX Lynx canadensis
GYRFALCON Falco rusticolus
WATTLED SMOKY HONEYEATER Melipotes carolae
LESULA MONKEY Cercopithecus lomamiensis
LYRE SPONGE Chondrocladia lyra
ETERNAL LIGHT MUSHROOM Mycena luxaeterna
BANANA Musa acuminata
PHILIPPINE EAGLE Pithecophaga jefferyi
YANGTZE RIVER DOLPHIN Lipotes vexillifer
JAVAN RHINO Rhinoceros sondaicus
SUMATRAN RHINO Dicerorhinos sumatrensis
TAMARAW Bubalus mindorensis
PHILIPPINE CROCODILE Crocodylus mindorensis
FLYING FOX Pteropus mariannus
ROSY PERIWINKLE Catharanthus roseus
BROWN TREE SNAKE Boiga irregularis

KUDZU Pueraria lobata

PACIFIC BLUEFIN TUNA Thunnus orientalis
GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKEN Tympanuchus cupido
GRIZZLY BEAR Ursus arctos horribilis
BENGAL FLORICAN Houbaropsis bengalensis
RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER Picoides borealis
PINE TREE Pinus contorta/banksiana
DOG Canis sp.
PIG Sus sp.
DEER Odocoileus sp.
COMMON DANDELION Taraxacum officinale
Daphnia pulex/magna - studied in meso/microcosms
Pakicetus has homologous structures with dog, pig, deer
Diacodexis early even-toed ungulate
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron causes blood falls
Sargassum in Sargasso sea
Shewanellea oneidensis can metabolize radioactive uranium ++
Varanus bitatawa bayawak sa sierra madre
Hydranea ateneo newly discovered beetle
Nerita inaral ni Geerat Vermeij
Charles Lyell - Principles of Geology
Charles Darwin The Origin of Species
Eugene P. Odum Fundamentals of Ecology
Aldo Leopold Game Management
Eric Schlosser Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All
American Meal
Mark Bittman Food Matters: A Guide to Conscious Eating
Michael Pollan In Defense of Food
Dan Koeppel Banana: The Fate of the Fruit That Changed the World
Mark Jaffe And No Birds Sing
Rachel Carson Silent Spring
Michael Cain Campbell Biology =))))
Jonathan Weiner The Beak of the Finch
James Watson ugh
Elizabeth Kolbert Field Notes from a Catastrophe
Elizabeth Kolbert The Sixth Extinction