GEOMETRY

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School Mathematics Study Group

Geometry

Unit 16

Geometry
Teacher's Commentary, Part I1

Prepared under the supervision of

the Panel on Sample Textbooks

of the School Mathematics Study Croup:

Frank B. Allen

Edwin C. Douglas
Donald E.Richmond
Charles E.Rickarr
Henry Swain
Robert J. Walker

Lyons Township Mgh School

Taft School
Williams College
Yale University

New Trier Townshp Rgh School

Cornell University

New Haven and London, Yale University Press

Copyright @ 1960, 1961 by Yale University.

Printed in the United States of Arner~ca.
All rights rcscrvcd. This bovk rnay not
bc rcproduccd. 111 whole o r 111 part. in
any form, without written pcrm~ssia~l
from
thc

publishers.

Financial support for t hc SchoijI Mar hcmntics

Study Group Ins bccn providcd bv t h e National
Science Foundation.

Below are listed t h e names of all those who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n any of the writing sessions
a t which the following SMSG t e x t s were prepared:

F i r s t Course i n Algebra, Geometry,

I n t e m e d i a t e Hathematics, Elementary F'unctlons, and I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Matrix Algebra.

H.W. Alexander, Earlham College

F.B. Allen, Lyons Tonnship High School, La
Grange, I l l i n o i a
Alexander Beck, Olney High School, Philadelphia, Pennaylvariia
E.F. Beckenbach, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
a t Loa Angelea
E.O. Begle, School Mathematlas Study Oroug,
Y a l e University
Paul Berg, Stanf'ord University
Bull Berger, Monroe High School, S t . Paul,
Minnesota
Arthur Bernhart, U n i v e r s i t y oi Oklahoma
R.H. Bing, U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin
A .L makers, U n i v e r s i t y of Weatem
Australia
A.A. Blank, New York U n i v e r s i t y
S h i r l e y b s e l l y , Franklin Ifi&- School,
seatile, ~aahington
K.E. Brown, Department of Health, Educat i o n , and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
J ,M. Calloway, Carlet on College
Hope Chipman, U n i v e r s i t y High Suhool, AM
Arbor, Mlchigan
R.R. C h r i s t i a n , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h
Columbia
R.J. Clark, St. Paul's School, Concord,
New Hampshire
F . H . Daus, Univeraity of C a l i r o r n i a a t Lo8
Angelea
R.B. Davis, Syracuse U n i v e r a i t y
Charles DePrima, Calif'ornia Institute of
Technology
Mary Dolcianl, Hunter College
Edwin C. Ilouglaa, The T a f t School, Watertown, Connecticut
Flogd Downs, Eaat High School, Denver,
Colorado
E.A. Dudley, North Haven High School, North
Haven, ~ o h e oicut
t
Lincoln -st,
Th& Rice I n a t i t u t e
Florence Elder, West Hempstead High School,
West Hempstead, New York
W .E. Ferguaon, Newton High School, Newtonvf l l e , Massachusetts
N.S. Fine, University of Pennsylvania
Joyae D. Fontaine, North Haven High School,
North Haven, Connecticut
F.L. Friedman, Maesachuaetts I n s t i t u t e of
Technologs
Eather G a s s e t t , Claremore High School,
Claremore, Oklahoma
R.K. Getoor, University o f Washington
V . H . Haag, Franklin and Marahall College
R .R Hartman, Edina-Moningrride Senior High
School, Edlna, Minnesota
M.H. Heins, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s
Edwin Hewitt, University o f Washington
Martha Hlldebrandt, Proviso Townahip High
Eehool, Haywood, I l l i n o i a

R.C. Jurgensen, Culver Military Academy,

Culver, Indiana
Joseph Lehner, Michigan S t a t e Univeraity
Marguerite Lehr, Bryn Mawr College
Kenneth LeiBenring, U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan
Howard Levi, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y
Eunice Lewla, Laboratory High School,
U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma
M.A. Linton, W i l l i a m Penn Charter School,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
A.E. Livingston, U n i v e ~ s i t yof Washington
L .H Loomis, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
R.V. Lynch, P h i l l i p s F a e t e r Academy,
Exeter, New Fimpah1l.e
W .K MaNabb Hockaday School, Dallas,
Texaa
K . B . Michaels, North Haven High School,
North Haven, Connecticut
E.E. Moise, University of Michigan
E .P Northrop, University of Chicago
O.J. Peterson, Kansas S t a t e Teachers
College, mporia, Kansaa
B . J . P e t t i s , Unfvereity o f North Carolina
R.S. Pieters, P h i l l i p s Academy, Andover,
Massachusetts
H.O. Pollak, E e l 1 Telephone L a b o r a t o r i e s
Walter Prenowitz, Brooklyn College
Q . B . P r i c e , U n i v e r s i t y oi Kansaa
A .L. Putnam, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago
Perais 0. Redgrave, Noxviich Free Academy,
Nomlch, Connecticut
Mina Rees, Hunter College
D .E. Richmond, Williams College
C .E. Rickart, Yale U n i v e r s i t y
Karrg Ruderman, Hunter College Kigh School,
New York C i t y
J . T . Schwartz, New York University
0 .E. S t a n a i t i s , St. Olaf College
Robert Starkey, Cubberley High Schools,
Palo Alto, C a l i f o r n i a
P h i l l i p Stucm, Roosevelt High School,
S e a t t l e , Washington
Henry Srrain, New T r i e r Township High
School, W i ~ e t k a ,I l l i n o i s
Henry Syer, Kent School, Kent, Connecticut
O.B. Thomaa, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of
Technology
A.M. Tucker, Princeton Univeraity
H.E. Vaughan, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s
John Wagner, U n i v e r s i t y of Texas
R.J. Walker, Cornell U n i v e r s i t y
A.D. Wallace, Wane University
E .L Waltera William Penn Senior High
School, York, Pennsylvania
Warren Whits, North High School, Sheboygan,
Wiaconain
D.V. Widder, Harvard Univeraity
W l l l l a m Wooton, Pierce Junior College,
Woodland H i l l s , Calit'ornia
J.H. Zant, Oklahoma S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

.
.

Contents
Page

255

Chapter 12

.........
OF POLYGONAL REQIONS . . . . . . .
SIMILARITY . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .

Chapter 13

CIRCLES AHD SPHERES

329

Chapter 14

CHARACTERIZATION OF SETS.

Chapter 15

AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS

Chapter 16

VOLUMESOFSOLIDS

Chapter 17

PLANE COORDINATE QEOMETRY

GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF PROBLEMS

Chapter 11

AREAS

..........
CONSTRUCTIONS

......
+

+ .

.......

TALKS TO TEACHRRS

.................
Congrmence. and Equivalence . . . . . . .

Facta and Theories

Equality.

.............
Introduction to Non-Euclidean Oeometrg . . . . . . .
The Concept of Congruence

................
......................

Miniature Oeometries

h a . *

ix

293
371
411

433
459

A GUIDE TO THE SELtECTION OF PROBLEMS

Following is a tabulation of the problems i n this text. It
w i l l be noted that the problems a r e arranged i n t o three s e t s , I,
11, and 111. A t f i r s t glance, one might t h i n k t h a t these w e in
order of difficulty.
THIS IS NOT THE MANNER IN WHICH THE PROBLEMS AHE GROUPED !!!!
Before explaining the grouping, it should be mentioned that
it is understood that a teacher will s e l e c t from a l l of the
problems those which he or she f e e l s are b e s t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
class. However, c a r e f u l attention should be given to the comments
on the problems i n ---A Word About t h e Problem S e t s .
Group I contains problem that r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to the
material presented In the t e x t ,
Group I1 containa two types of problems: (1) some that are
similar to those of Group I, and ( 2 ) some that are just a little
more d i f f i c u l t than those in Group I. A teacher may use t h i s
group f o r two purposes: (1) for additional d r i l l material, if
needed, and ( 2 ) for problems a bit more c h a l l e n g i n g than those i n
Gmup I, that could be used by a better class.
Group 111 contains problems t h a t develop an Idea, using the
information given in the t e x t as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . Many o f these
problems are easy, Interesting and challenging. The student may
f i n d them more stimulating than the problems in Groups I or 11.
However, if time is a f a c t o r , a student can very well not do any
of them and s t i l l completely understand the material in the t e x t .
These are enrichment problems.
It is aasuned t h a t a teacher will not f e e l t h a t he or she
must assign a l l of the problems in any s e t , or all parts of any
one problem. I t f a hoped that this listing will be helpful to
you in assigning problems f o r your students.

We have included in the problem sets results of theorems of

the t e x t which are important principles in t h e i r own rfght. In
t h i s respect we follow the precedent of most geometry t e x t s .
However, a l l essential and fundamental theorems are in the t e x t
proper. The fact that many important and delightful theorems are
to be found in the problem s e t s is very desirable as enrfchment.
While no theorem stated in a problem s e t is used to prove
any theorem in the t e x t proper, they are used in solving numerical
problems and other theorems in the problem sets. This seem to be
a perfectly normal procedure. The difficulty (or danger), as moat
teachera define it, is in allowing the result of an intuitive type
problem, or a problem whose hypothesis assumes t o o much, to be
used aa a convincing argument f o r a theorem. The eaaieat and
surest way to handle t h e situation is to make a blanket rule forbidding the use of any problem result to prove another. Such a
rule, however, tenda to overlook the economy of time and, often,
the chance t o foster the creative s p i r i t of the student. In t h i s
t e x t we have tried to establish a f l e x i b l e pattern which will
allow a teacher and clase to s e t t h e i r own policy.

Chapter 13
S e t 13-4a

Chapter 1 4

14-1

Chapter 15

15-1
15-2

15-3

15-4

15-5

Chapter 16
Set

16-1
16-2

16-3

16-4
16-5
Chapter 17

17-3

17-4
17- 5

17-6
17-7
17-8
17-9
17-10

17-12
17-13
17-14

C h a p t e r 11
AREAS

OF POLYGONAL REGIONS

T h i s Chapter t r e a t s the conventianal s u b j e c t matter o f

the areas or triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids and so on.

Although i t s viewpoint is essentially that of Euclid two

p o i n t s may seem n o v e l . F i r s t the introduction of the term
polygonal region and aecond t h e study of area by p o s t u l a t i n g
i t s properties rather than by deriving them from a d e f i n i t i o n
of area based on t h e measurement process. Actually both of
these ideas are Implicit in the conventional treatment - we
have only brought them to the surface and sharpened and
c l a r i f i e d them. Once the basis has been laid, our methods
of proof a r e simple and conventional, although the order of
the theorems may seem a b i t unusual.

317

Observe t h a t in t h i s Chapter we are n o t t r y i n g to

develop a very general theory of area applicable f o r example
to figures with curvilinear boundaries. Rather we r e s t r i c t
ourselves to the relatively simple ease of a region whose
boundary 1s rectilinear, that l a , i t s boundary is a union
of segments. However, it is n o t obvious how to deflne the
concept of region or of boundary. One suggestion is to
t u r n the problem around and merely consider the f i g u r e
composed of a polygon and its i n t e r i o r . However, although
t h e r e is no essential d i f f i c u l t y in defining polygon ( s e e
S e c t i o n 15-1 of text) it is quite difficult to write down
p r e c i s e l y a definition of the interior of a polygon, even
though we can eaaily t e s t In a d i a ~ r a mwhether or n o t a
p o i n t is in the i n t e r i o r of a polygon. Observe how simply
our definition of polygonal region avoids t h i s difficulty.
We merely take the s i m p l e s t and most basic type of r e g i o n ,
the triangular region, and use it as a s o r t of building
block to define the idea of polygonal region. The essential
polnt is, that, although it is difficult to define i n t e r i o r
f o r an arbitrary polygon, it l a very easy to do I t f o r a
t r i a n g l e - we a c t u a l l y did t h i s back in Chapter 4. Moreover

o u r basFc procedure in studying a r e a I s t o s p l i t a figure

i n t o triangular regions, and reason that i t s area is the
sum o f t h e areas of these triangular regions. Thus we
simply define polygonal reglons as figures t h a t can be
s u i t a b l y ''built up" from triangular regions, and we have a
good basis f o r our theory.
318
A f u r t h e r p o i n t . The d e f i n i t i o n r e q u i ~ sthat the
t r i a n g u l a r regiona must not "overlap", that is they must
not have a triangular r e g l o n in common ( s e e the discussion
in the t e x t followfng the definition o f polygonal r e g i o n ) ,
but may have o n l y a common p o i n t o r a common segment. If
we permit the regions t o "overlap" we can' t say t h a t t h e
area of the whole f i g u r e w i l l be the sum of the areas of
its component triangular regions (see discussion in the text
following Postulate 19). Thus f o r simplicity we Impose t h e
c o n d i t i o n that tne triangular regions shall n o t "overlap",
319
A final point, In your i n t u i t i v e picture of a polygonal region you probably have assumed that a polygonal
region is connected o r "appears i n one p i e c e " . Actually
o u r definition does n o t requfre t h i s . It permfts a p o l y gonal region to be the union of two triangular regions
which have no p o i n t (or one point o r a segment) in common,
a3 in these figures:

Thus our d e f i n i t i o n allows a polygonal region t o be a disconnected portion of the plane, and the boundary of a polygonal region need not be a single polygon. T h i s causes no
trouble - it j u s t means t h a t our theory has somewhat broader
coverage than our intuition suggests
In light of t h i s you w i l l note that t h e idea o f polygon
is n o t emphasized as s t r o n g l y in o u r t e x t as in the conventional treatment. When the l a t t e r refers t o "area of a polygon" it means the area of the polygonal region c o n s i s t i n g of
t h e polygon and i t s Interior - which is n o t explicitly s t a t e d
or clarified. We avoid the d i f f i c u l t y by defining polygonal
region independently of polygon.
Note that in t h e figures on page 256 it is intuitively
319
c l e a r t h a t t h e areas o f the regions can be found by d i v i d i n g
them up into smaller triangular r e g i o n s , and that the area
of' the t o t a l region is Independent of the manner in which
the triangular regions are formed.
Sometimes in a mathematical d i s c u s s i o n we give an
explicit d e f i n i t i o n of area f o r a c e r t a i n t y p e of f i g u r e .
For example, the area of a rectangle is the number of unit
squares i n t o which the corresponding rectangular region can
be separated. This Zs a difficult thing to do in general
terms f o r a wide v a r i e t y of figures. Thus the suggested
d e f i n i t i o n of area of a rectangle (rectangular region) is
applicable only if the rectangle has sides whose l e n g t h s
a r e i n t e g e r s . Literally how many unit squares are contained
In a rectangular reglon whose dimensions a r e 1
and
The answer is none! C l e a r l y the suggested definition must
be modified f o r a rectangle with r a t i o n a l dimensions. To
formulate a suitable definition when the dimensions a r e
irrational numbers, say f i and
is still more cornplic a t e d and involves the concept of l i m i t s .
Incidentally,
even when this is done, it would not be trivial t o p r o v e
t h a t t h e area o f such a rectangle is given by the f a m i l i a r
formula. (FOP example, s e e t h e Talk on A r e a . )
Furthermore,

;?

n,

it would s t i l l be necessary t o define the area concept f o r

t r i a n g l e s , quadrilaterals, c i r c l e s , and so on. The complete
study of area along these l i n e s involves i n t e g r a l calculus
and f i n d s i t s culmination in the branch of modern mathematics
called the Theory o f Measure. (See the Talk on A r e a f o r a
treatment of area i n the s p i r i t o f the theory of measure.)
Clearly t h i s is t o o heroic an approach for our purposes.
So we don't attempt t o g i v e an e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n of area
of a polygonal region by means of a measurement process
using u n i t squares, Rather we study area in terms o f i t s
b a s i c properties as s t a t e d i n Postulates 17, 18, 19 and 20.
On the basis of these postulates we prove t h e f a m i l i a r
formula f o r t h e area of a triangle (!Theorem 11-2), Consequently we g e t an e x p l i c i t procedure for obtaining areas
of triangles and s o of polygonal regions i n general.
Some remarks -on the postulates. Observe t h a t our t r e a t 319
merit of area i s similar t o t h a t for distance and measure of
angles. Instead of giving an e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n of area
( o r dfstance o r angle measure) by means of a measurement
process, w e p o s t u l a t e i t s b a s i c properties which are i n t u i tively familiar from study of t h e measurement process.
Thus Postulate 17 a s s e r t s t h a t t o every polygonal region
320
there is associated a unique "area numbertt and i s exactly
comparable t o t h e Distance Postulate o r t h e Angle Measurement
Postulate. The uniqueness of the area number is based on
the i n t u i t i v e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a fixed u n i t has been
chosen and t h a t we know how to measure area in terms of
t h i s unit.
320
Postulate 18 i s one of the simplest and m o s t n a t u r a l
properties of area. If two triangles are congruent then i n
effect t h e t r i a n g u l a r regions determined are "congruent",
one is an exact r e p l i c a of the other, and so they must have
t h e same measure.

P o s t u l a t e 19 is comparable to the Angle Addition

Postulate. It is a precise formulation, f o r the study of
area, of the vague statement fo he whole is the sum of its
parts". This statement is open to several o b j e c t i o n s . It
seems to mean that the measure of a figure is the sum of
the measures of its parts. Even in t h i s form it is n o t
acceptable, s i n c e the terms "figure" and "part" need to be
sharpened in t h i s context, and it permits the "parts" to
overlap. Postulate 19 makes clear that the "ffgures" are
to be polygonal regions, the "measures " are areas , and that
the "parts" are to be polygonal regions whose union is the
"whole" and which do not overlap.
Postulates 17, 18 and 19 seem to give the essential
p r o p e r t i e s of area, but they are n o t quite complete. We
pointed out above t h a t Postulate 17 presupposes that a unit
has been chosen, but we have no way of determining such a
u n i t , that is, a polygonal region whose area is unity. For
example, Postulates 17, 18 and 19 permit a rectangle of
dimensions 3 and 7 to have area unity.
322
Postulate 20 takes care of t h i s by guaranteeing that a
square whose edge has length 1 shall have area I. In
addition, P o s t u l a t e 20 gives us an important basis f o r
f u r t h e r reasoning by assuming the formula for area of a
rectangle.
An interesting p o i n t : We could have replaced Postulate
20 by the assumption of the familiar formula f o r the area
of a t r i a n g l e . T h i s is equivalent to Postulate 20,
The use of the term "at mostt' in Postulate 19 permits
R1 and R2 t o have no common p o i n t , aa in t h i s figure:
320

[pages 320-3221

Since we are introducing a block of postulates concerni n g area, t h i s may be a good time t o remind your atudents o f
the s i ~ i f i c a n c eand purpose of postulates. They are precise
formulations of the basic intuitive Judgments suggested by
experience, from which we derive more complex p r i n c i p l e s by
deductive reasoning.
To make P o s t u l a t e s 17, 18 and 19 s f g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e
students, discuss the measuring process f o r area concretely,
using sfmple figures lfke rectangles o r right t r i a n g l e s w i t h
integral o r rational dimensions. Have them subdivide regions
i n t o congruent unit squarea, so that the student gets the
idea that every "figure" has a uniquely determined area
number. Then present the postulates as simple properties
of the area number which are verifiable concretely i n
diagrams.

--

Problem Set 11-1

324 2.
3.

825square feet.
a.

The area is doubled.

b.

The area is four times as great.

4.

1800 tilea.

5.

792 square inches.

325 * 6 .

a.

False. A triangle is not a region at a l l , but is

a figure c o n s i s t i n g of segments.

b.

False. See Postulate 17.

c.

True.

By Postulate 17.

d.

True.

By

Postulate 18.

e.

False. If the regions overlap, their union is

less than t h e i r sum.
True.

Since a square is a rectangle.

g.

False. The region I s the union of a trapezoid

and its Interior.

h.

True.

A triangular region i s the union of one or

more triangular regions,

326

7.

a.

4.

Since f i and
are irrational, the
base and altitude in each case do not have a

e. and f.

common d i v i s o r , Hence the rectangular regions

cannot be divided exactly into squares.

c.

The computation always results in 2.

d.

The computation is not affected, since t h e additional f o u r edges, three faces, and one vertex results
In zero being added to the t o t a l .

328

No change.

Notice t h a t , a f t e r postulating the area of a rectangle,

we proceed to develop o u r formulas for areas in the following
manner: r i g h t triangles, which then permit us to work w i t h
any triangle, parallelograms, and trapezoids. Of courae our
postulate permits ua to find the area of a square, since it
l a merely an equilateral rectangle. A t this point we have
t h e machinery to f i n d t h e area of any polygonal region, by
Just chopping it up i n t o a number of triangular regiona, and

[pages 325-3281

findlng the sum of the areas o f these triangular regions.

Note t h a t in the discussion of the area of a t r i a n g l e ,
it does n o t matter which altltude and base we c o n s i d e r ,
juat so long as we work with a base and the correspond in^
altitude.
In t h e application of P o s t u l a t e 19 t o a s p e c i f i c case
we read from a f i g u r e that R is the union of the regions
R1 and R2; s e e For example t h e proofs o f Theorems 11-1
and 11-2. This is a kind of separation theorem whfch can
be j u s t i f i e d from our pos tulatea
Just as w i t h triangles,
we may work with either side and the corresponding altitude
of a parallelogram.
In Problem S e t 11-2, Problems 13-17 form a sequence
of problems involving an interesting consequence of the
theorems of the text.

Problem S e t 11-2
333

1.

a,

Area A A B C =

b.

84=$,-25h.

=84.

h = % . 18

2.

14.4

4,

Area A CQB = Area

and

P'.7-24

24.

A DQB,

s i n c e C Q = DQ and the triangles have the same altitude, the perpendicular segment
from B to CD. Area A AQC = Area A DQA, s i n c e
CQ = DQ and the triangles have the same a l t i t u d e , the
perpendicular aegnent from A to E. Adding, we have
Area

ABD.
Alternate Proof: Draw
ABC = Area

1kB

1 z.

and DF
Then A CEQ = A DFQ by A . A . S . , and CE = DF. S i n c e
A ABC and
ABD have 'the same base and t h e i r a1titudes
have equal lengths, the triangles have equal areas.

[pages 328-333

The area of the square is s 2

The area of each of t h e f o u r t r i a n g l e s is
Hence, the area of the star la s2 - 2 b s .

d.

1
9 s .

Since GB and AF are measures of the same

altitude, t h e r e Is n o t enough information given
to determine a unique answer.

Slnce a diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two

congruent triangles, Area A A F H is equal t o half t h e
area of t h e parallelogram. Area A AQH = A r e a A FQH
s i n c e the bases, 3 and &F, are congruent and the
triangles have the sarne a l t i t u d e , a perpendicular from
H to
Each la then one-fourth of t h e area of the
parallelogram. In the sarne way it can be shown t h a t
Area A ABQ = Area A FBQ.

z.

Area of triangle = $bh.

Area of parallelogram = bht

The altitude of the triangle is twlce t h e a l t i t u d e of

the parallelogram.

a.

ABCD is twice area

because the figures have the same base
equal altitudes, since
II E,
Area parallelogram

AE

[pages 334-3351

A BCE

(z) and

335

The two areas a r e e q u a l .

11. b.

336 1 2 .

(z

areas a r e e q u a l because the bases

and
a r e congruent and their a l t i t u d e s are congruent since
11 BC.

c.

The
FD)

1
1
p(area
A BCE) since FD = P
C and
the two triangles have equal altitudes. Therefore,
area parallelogram ABCD = 2(area A BCE)
= 4 (area A CFD) .
Area A CFD =

The area o f trapezoid DFEC = 34.

The area o f trapezoid AGFD = 165.
And so, area of AGECD
= 199.
Area

Area

A BCE

AGB = 30.
=

3%.1

Subtracting t h e sum of the areas of the two triangles

from t h e area of
the field 1s
13.

13%

Given:

Figure

Prove:

A r e a of

w e have

AGECD,

square rods

ABCD
ABCD

with
1
=

The area of

136;.

- AC

1 DB.

+CmDB.

Proof: A r e a of ABCD = A r e a A ACD + A r e a A ABC by

P o s t u l a t e 19.
1
1
B u t A r e a A ACD = ?ACmDP and Area A ABC = -$CbPS.
1
1
T h e r e f o r e , A r e a o f ABCD = 2AC.DP
+ TAC.PB

14.

The area of a rhombus equals one-half the product of the

l e n g t h s o f its diagonals.

15.

12.

16.

4 d 1 = 150 = bh = 12b;
2

area is

*17,

Yes,

150;

therefore

the l e n g t h o f a s i d e is

1
b = 12T.

The

l*

The proof would be the same as f o r Problem 1 3

w i t h each

replaced by

"-" .

[pages 335-3361

All t h r e e triangles have

the same altitude. Hence,
s i n c e BD = DC, the two
smaller t r i a n g l e s have
e q u a l a r e a , by Theorem 11-6,
and each I s one-half the

area of the b i g t r i a n g i e ,
by Theorem 11-5.

19.

a.

By the previous problem,

;1Z ( ~ r e A
a ABC) . S u b t r a c t from e a c h , leaves Area A AEG

Area A ABE = Area A

Area A ABG
Area A BDG.

ing
=

b.

BAD

Since the medians are concurrent, the t h i r d

median, w i t h the o t h e r two, d i v i d e s the t r i a n g l e
i n t o six t r i a n g l e s :
Area A AEG = Area A BDG,
Area A CGE = Area A BGF, and
A r e a A CGD = Area A AGF. But Area A BDG
= Area A CGD
by Theorem 11-6, and consequently
a l l the areas a r e equal. Therefcre,
1
A r e a A BDG = E ( ~ r e a A A B C )

20.

C,

is constant, t h e a l t l tude to AB must be

c o n s t a n t , by Theorem 11-6.
C,
Call the l e n g t h of t h e altitude, from P t o AB, h.
Then in plane E, P may be any p o i n t on either o f t h e
two llnes p a r a l l e l t o AB at a d i s t a n c e h from AB.
In s p a c e , P may be any p o i n t on a cylindrical s u r f a c e
e
having AB as its axla and h as its r a d i u s .
Since

A3

c.

With the dimensions given

ABN

and

AD6

would

not be s t r a i g h t segments, and s o the f i g u r e would

n o t be a t r i a n g l e .
[pages 337-3381

338 *22.

If the line i n t e r s e c t s adjacent s i d e s , the area of the

triangle formed will be less t h a n one-half the area of
the rectangle, s o t h e line must intersect o p p o s i t e
sides.
Area ARSD = +(a
1
Area CSRB = $(b

But

b = c

c)

d)

d,

.
so by s u b t r a c t i o n ,

be t h e p o l n t a t which
i n t e r s e c t s RS.
Then h ARM E h CSM by A . S . A . , so AM = CM. Therefore
M is the mid-point o f diagonal AC

Let

-.

339

We have here a very s i m p l e proof of the Pythagorean

Theorem. The p r o o f depends upon the p r o p e r t i e s o f the areas
o f triangles and squares. Notice how P o s t u l a t e 19 is used
In this proof.
Observe that the proof is p e r f e c t l y general, The
Pythagorean r e l a t i o n is proved f o r the sides of t h e c o n s t r u c t ed t r i a n g l e and s o h o l d s f o r the o r i g i n a l triangle.

Problem -S e t ll-3a

AC

Jm.

He is
miles from
h i s starting p o i n t .
( ~ e t w e e n 10.4 and
10.5 miles . )
[pages 3 38- 3 41 1

341

2.

The single r i g h t triangle

serves our p u r p o s e

AACB

here .
(A%)

AB

m.

4[(7+

2
( 6 ) = 157.

= (11)

He is approximately 1 2 . 5
m i l e s from h i s s t a r t i n g
point.
3.

(612

(6)'

x2 .

7 2 = x2 .

6 f i = X,
He is approximately 8.5
miles f r o m h i s s t a r t i n g
point.

4.

In r i g h t

nc

AD

342

6.

1_
X

/
'

+ (1212 = 16 + 144 = 160.

A ACD,
AD)^ = 160 + 9

( ~ 0= )( 4~) '
i . In r i g h t

ABC,

m =4 f

169.

AD = 13,
in A ARE,
Or,
AE = 5. I n A AED,
=

2 = ( 4 ) 2 -t- ( 3 )2 = 16 4- 9 = 25.
(AD)' = (512 + (1212 = 25 + 144 = 169.
(AE)

13.
2

2 2

a.

It is sufficient t o show t h a t ( m - n )
+ (2m)2 = (rn 2 +4n2 ) 2 . (m2 - n 2 ) 2 + (-l2
4
= m4 - 2 m2n 2 + n + 4 m2n 2 = m + 2m2n2 + n

b.

m = 2,
m = 3

n
n

=
=

m = 3, n =
rn = 4, n =

m
m

- 4,
n 4, n
=

I gives sides with lengths

1 g i v e s ( 6 , 8, l o ) .
2 gives
(5, 12, 13).
1 g i v e s (15, 8, 17).
2 gives (12, 16, 2 0 ) .
3 gives ( 7 , 24, 2 5 ) .

( 3 , 4,

5).

There are two other r i g h t triangles w i t h hypotenuse

less than o r equal

25),

25,

( 9 , 1 2 , 15)

and (15, 2 0 ,

b u t they can n o t be obtained by this method.

[pages 341-3421

b.

AC =

&.

Next segment has l e n g t h =

(AY)* = ( A C ) ~+ ( Y C ) ~ , from which

343 ~ 9 . a.

2
hc2 = 13

x2

also

1 5 ~- (14

hc2

AY

3.

169 - x2;

x12

= 225

196

28x - x 2 .

Eliminating hc 2.
169 - x 2 = 29 + 2 8 ~ x 2

- .

14.12 = 15ha
1
l l y = ha
@
meet AB at D.

*lo.

Let

C )

CD

hc 2 = 1 4 ~- x2 = 196
2
h c 2 = 18 - ( 6

also

Eliminating

196

=
=

x12

x2

BD

= x.

x2,
=

324 - 36

12x

hc 2.

x 2 = 288

Let

12x

2
7-3.

(approximately

[pages 342-3431

11.71.)

x2

343

11.

The shorter diagonal divides

the rhombus i n t o two e q u i l a t e r a l
t r i a n g l m . Hence i t a length is
8. Since the diagonals are
perpendicular b i s e c t o r s of
each o t h e r we can use the
Pythagorean Theorem t o get
the length of the longer
diagonal equal to 8JT.

pzJ
60
8

12. Since the s i d e s are all

D
congruent, and the area
of the rhombus I s the
product of the measurea
of any side and its
correapondfng altitude,
then all the altitudes
A
E
B
are congruent. Hence,
it is s u f f i c i e n t to f i n d
one altitude. The
diagonals bfsect each other at right anglea.
each aide has length 4 13. Then,
1
Area of A ABD = $ a 4 4 3 = 6 = +E Jl3,
and

13.

By the Pythagorean Theorem,

AB = 13.

1
The area of A ABC = $.13h = 2*5-12.
60
Hence 13h = 5.12 and
h =

m =4.

344

14.

By the Pythagorean Theorem,

AB = 17.

1
1
The area of A ABC = =-lh
= 2*15*8.
120 T17. 1
Hence l 7 h c 15.8 and
h = T =

Hence,

1
ph,

344 15- Area AABC =

and

A liBC'

h =
c =

and

A ABS

@PC

= Area

( ~ r e aA ABS

6n2

17. Since

4n2

&?*

4-

= 2n

ab

A AS&)

A
BAC =

2nfi

But L BAC I s
is complementary
ABC = 180, then

Area

plane BSA,
%. SB = SA

and % I
(they are corresponding
medians of congruent
equilateral
-

triangles)

SR is a median to the
base of i s o s c e l e s A SBA
and hence

im.

[pages 344-3451

A BED.

A BCD and therefore

SALE.
CD

rnL EBD.

1
.

1
pb,

A A3C

is a median of i s o s c e l e s
E. In the same

way,

2n &)

ABC E ABEI),

ABC

h =

complementary t o L ABC, so L EBD

to L ABC. S i n c e
EBD + L EBA + L
E B A = 90. Now,
Area of CAED = Area A ABC -k Area A AEB

345 *18. a.

n2 .

6n2 .

Area

Area

1
2
F(rn4m)
= m .

Area A ABC = $(3n

=

But

Therefore,

*16. Lengths are shown In

the f 1gure .
1
Area A AS& = H(n.2n)
Area

1.
2

3.
4.

5.
*19.

By Pythagorean Theorern,

AC =

Given.
Definition o f mid-point
Pythagorean Theorem.
Definition o f mid-point.
Pythagorean Theorem.

n, T h e r e f o r e

0 and BD = 1 -t n. Hence,
AD)^ = 1 + (i + f i 1 2 = 4 + 2 f i

CD =

Since
=

AD = J4

Then

CD,

AC =

45.

Then

JF.

m l ADC =

rnL

CAD.

2 ( 4 ADC) = 4 5 ,

But
and

~LADC
4- mL CAD
ADC

24.

mi DAB = 67T.

346

P r o o f s of Theorems 11-9 and 11-10

Theorem 11-9.
- he 30-60 T r i a n g l e Theorem.)
The hypotenuse o f a right t r i a n g l e is t w i c e as long as a leg
if and o n l y if t h e measures of t h e a c u t e angles are 30 and
0.
A

Restatement:

Given
AB = c

A ABC
and

with mL C = 9 0 ,
BC = a.
(1) If rnL A = 30 and
rnL 9 = 6 0 , t h e n
c = 2a.

then

rnL B

mi
=

A = 30

and

60.

[pages 345-346

Proof: We begin in t h e same way for both parts. On

+
the ray opposite t o CB t a k e 5' such that B 1C = BC = a .
A B C A % A B!CA by S . A . S . Then
(1) rnL B' = 60 and m L BAB1 = 60. Hence
BAB'
is
equilateral so t h a t BBt = c = 2a, which was t o
be proved.
( 2 ) AB' = AB = c .
By hypothesis, c = 2a. S i n c e
I331 = 2a,
then BBt = c, and A B A B ' is e q u i l a t e r a l . Therefore A BABt I s equiangular and
m L B = 60. S i n c e rnL BCA = 90, then m L BAC = 30,
which was to be proved.
N o t e that we can now conclude that

E,opposite

the

30 angle is t h e s h o r t e r l e g , s i n c e mL A < mL B. B u t
before we had proved this inequality t h e r e was s t i l l t h e
possibility that AC was t h e longer l e g .
Since we know t h a t AC > BC it seems n a t u r a l to derive
their exact r e l a t i o n s h i p . By t h e Pythagorean Theorem we have
2
2
2
(AC) = c - a ,
0

Theref o r e ,

AC

or

Using t h e above r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r a 30-60 triangle we

can always f i n d all sides if we know one of the sides.

3 46

Theorem 11-10.
he Isosceles R i g h t Triangle he or em. )
A r i g h t t r i a n g l e is isosceles if and only if the hypotenuse
is f i times as long as a l e g .
Restatement: Given A ABC
w i t h mL C = 90, AB = c and

BC

= a.

(1)
(2)

/;;;;;;;;

If c = a f i , then
A A3C is i s o s c e l e s .
t h e nA ABC
If
c = a I s ias o s c e l e s , A

(1) Using the Pythagorean Theorem,

2
2
(AC)*= e - a ,
(AC)~= ( a 2
a2,

Proof:

(AC ) = a

AC

2,

a,

whlch was to b e proved.

(2) Using the Pythagorean Theorem,

(AB)2= a2 + a2 = 2a 2,
= a n ,

AB

whlch was t o be proved,

These two theorems suggest many u s e f u l f a c t s In solving

numerical problems, For example, in an equilateral triangle
w i t h side

the a l t i t u d e I s

z2 f i

and its area is

F2 a .

Certain of t h e problems In Problem Set 11-3b develop such

ideas. Such key Problems are numbers 4, 7 , and 17.

--

Problem Set 11-3b

2.

Draw

CD

1 E.

Then AD = DB
AB = 6 6

= 3

347

3.

x = the length of the s h o r t e r l e g .

triangle is a 3
0' - 60 t r i a n g l e ,

Let

( 2 x 1 ~ x2 = 75.
3x2

-- 75.
=

5.

[pages 346-347 1

B
S i n c e the

The length of the hypotenuse i a

By Theorem 11-9, AC =

since

(AC)~

h2 = s 2
s2
h2 = s 2 - T
m

from which

Since
Then

B = 60,

3; 2;

a.A

Yea.

100f i square inches

200

$base = 10,

Area l a

9.

altitude = 1 0 6 .

100 6 square inches.

9 a s e = 12,

h - 12.

b.

91a s e = 12,

h = 4fi.

inches

= 10fi

square Inches

a.

c.

10 f i inches long.

$base = 10 fi, a l t i t u d e

Area is

c.

side is

6
3,

Area is

b.

and DF = 23 .

then r n L D = 60,

AF =

a = 10

7.

(BC)* = (AB)2,

($1 +

we have,

5.

Area is
Area is

144

square inches.

4 8 a square

9 a s e = 12,

inches.

h = 1 2 n . Area is 1 4 4 6 square

11.

FB=3; HF=3fij
AH=6fi;
AF=3&;
mL ABF = 90;
ABH = 90; rnL H F B = 9 0 ;
mL BHA = m L BAH = 45.

rnL

*12.

rnL HBF

= 60;

CD be the altitude to

Let

E.

L e t AD = x, CH = h ,
BC = a, DB = y. In 30' 60'
right A ACD,
h = ?1* 4 = 2, x = 2 0 .

Therefore

=D. In

y = 3

NO,

2 f i

D
\

A DBC,

right

( n 1 ~ = 7 .

fl.

since

(412

3 f i

a 2 = h 2 + y* = 4 +

fi12

+ (3nlP.

[pages 348-3491

*13.

CD

be the perpendicular
C to AB. L e t CD = h,
BD = r, BC = a.
I n 45' - 45' - go0 A ACD,
Let
from

h = AD

= I n - 1 0= 5 G ,

r = AD - 3 = 5 f i - 3.
In right A BDC,
2
as = r c h2 = ( 5 f i - 312

= 50
=

109

3 0 a + 9

45O
-L-1
3
0
0

+ (5fi)2.

50

3 0 n .

BC

is approximately

14. By Pythagorean Theorem, the altitude equals

The area is 240 square lnchea .

1.

Aright
DFB and CFA
triangles.

are

1.

Given.

8 -2.
24.

2.

FD = FC.
DB = CA.

2.

Given.

3.
4.
5.

ARDBZAFCA.

3.
4.

Bypotenwe-Leg Theorem.
Corresponding parts.
Definition of isosceles
triangle.

FB

= FA.

FA3

I s isosceles

1.
2.

AE=BF.

EF

3.

AF

FE.
BE.

4.

DF

CE.

5.

A A P D and A BEC
are right triangles.

6.

AAFDZABEC.

5.

1.
2

3.

Given.
Identity.
Addition of Steps 1
and 2.

4.
5.

Given.

6,
7.
8.

Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
Corresponding parts.
Theorem4-5.

Olven.

350

17. Area A ABC = +h.

But by t h e Pythagorean Theorem,

h =

A,

?2

Substituting,
351

18. a.

19.

Area B ABC =

JT.

c.

b,

16a.

Let

g(5~5)= &-.
$0.

be the length of a s i d e

4JT = 9 n *

20.

Let
2

be the length of a s i d e .

$-A=

21.

16z.

of the square is 9 , and so its perimeter is

36. Then a side of the equilateral t r i a n g l e is 12.
The area of t h e equilateral triangle equals 36 f i
A side

Therefore h PAC
Area

is equilateral and r n l FAG = 6 0 ,

FAC =

[pages 350-3511

351

23.

CE 11 K,

making
e q u i l a t e r a l A EBC wlth
s i d e of 8, The altitude
is 4
Since AB = 12,
AE-4
and D C = 4 .
Hence, area of trapezoid

Make

A.

ABCD = $ ( h a ) ( 1 6 ) =
24.

snn.

Draw a l t i t u d e s DE and
CF. Since C B = 4 , F B = 2
and CF = 2
then
45b/D
-/b
D E = 2&
and A E = 2 f i ,
2
5 E
s o AB = 7 + 2 6
Therefore, Area of AECD = $(26)(12
= 6 + 12JX

a,

352 "25.

1 plane

Since

4 CAG

45,

E,

CG = AG = 6 .

and

Also,

66
2

2 f i )

I&.

and CG
is an i s o s c e l e s right triangle,

then

s o ' A CAG

@X

AC =

6&.

In A ACD,

6&
DC = 4 f i

AD = 2&,
so by Pythagorean Theorem,
In A AGD, AG = 6 , AD = 2 6 , s o
1
DO = 2 n . Therefore DG = FC,
so mL DCG = 30,
and 4 CDG = 60. Hence, rnL F-AB-E = 60.
AC

+26. a.

In right P A D M ,

DM=%,

right A AMN,
Pythagoras ,

(NPl12 =
b.

AN

s.

so

A M = q e .

In

By the Theorem of

($a)*
- (Zl2.Hence,

NM = f i e.

by Hypotenuse-Leg, and t h e r e f o r e
HC = HD. Then H must l i e on t h e perpendicular
b i s e c t o r of
Since i n an equilateral triangle
AAHC EAAHD

z.

t h e perpendicular b i s e c t o r the median, and the

altitude to any s Fde are t h e same, H l i e s on
median
S i m i l a r l y , H must lie on the medians
from D and C.

z.

[pages 351-3521

BH = ,

Hence
so

BH

AH)^
353

27.

YA 1

Hence,

But BM

= AM =

fl
-5 e .

Finally, in

(m12-

( B H ) =~

fi
3
FA1

f9
i e.

A ABH,
2
e

=$e2.

AH =

and
because of the given square and
rectangle. By d e f i n i t i o n
YAD is the p l a n e angle of
X-AB-E
and'hence 4 YAD = 6 0 . By definition of
projection YD
E and hence 4 ADY = 90. Then
AYD = 30 and AD = $ 4 ~ . Therefore area ABCD

-I

12

ayes

mn

18.

+28. Find the p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of the diagonals

of each rectangle. A
line containing these
intemection p o i n t s separates
each rectangle i n t o two
t~apezoidalregions of equal
area ( o r in special cases
the line may contain a
diagonal and the regions
will be congruent t r i a n g l e s ) .
The proof that the trapezoids
are equal in area involves
showing the pairs of shaded
triangles congruent by A .S . A .

353

Here is a problem t h a t m i g h t be interesting to the class.

It has t o do w i t h c u t t i n g up a square i n t o a certain number
of smaller squares, not necessarily equal in area. We will
talk of an integer k, as being "acceptablet' if a square
can be subdivided i n t o k squares. For example, given any
square we can divide it i n t o 4 squares, b u t n o t i n t o 2,
3, or 5. T r y it. Below are some diagrams showing how a
square may be d i v i d e d i n t o 6 , 7 , and 8 smaller squares:

We may ask is there some pattern or some i n t e g e r k , above

which this will always be possible. Actually any k 2 6
will always be acceptable.
We now show that if a square can be d i v i d e d i n t o k
smaller squares, then I t can be d i v i d e d i n t o k + 3 smaller
squares: Imagine that we have already divided a square i n t o
k squares. Now, s p l i t one o f t h e squares i n t o 4 smaller
squares by bisecting t h e ~ i d e s . In t h i s process we have
lost one l a r g e r square and gained four smaller ones, thus
gaining three.
We i l l u s t r a t e using

k = 4:

smaller squares,
we take one of them, and divide it i n t o 4 squares. Instead
of having 4 squares f r o m the f i r s t d i v i s i o n we have only
t h r e e , and now have 4 add1 tional ones g i v i n g a total of 7 .
Since we know that k = 6 , k = 7, and k = 8 a r e a c e p t able, and t h a t we can g e t k + 3 squares from any d i v i s i o n ,
we can form the following sequences:
A f t e r d i v i d i n g the o r i g i n a l square i n t o

Hence a l l

2 6 are acceptable.
Review Problems

four.
12. This may be found by f i r s t showing that the area
of t h e triangle is 36.

10 miles.

L e t t h e length of t h e s i d e of the triangle be

Then

(2n)'

n2

+ 62

and

n = 2 6 ,

so

2n

2n.
=

4a.

The diagonals o f a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect

each o t h e r , forming f o u r congruent r i g h t t r i a n g l e s . By

t h e Pythagorean Theorem, h a l f the l e n g t h of t h e other
diagonal is 5. Each t r i a n g l e has an area of 30. The
area of the rhombus I s 120.

[pages 353-3541

10. Separate the figure i n t o

a rectangular and a
trf angular region. The
area of the rectangle
is a c . The area of the
I
2
triangle is g(b
a)
The t o t a l area is

b-a

355 11. The o u t e r triangle has an area of

m e lnner triangle has an area

1
T(b

;be.

3a)(c

'la).

The area o f the shaded portion i s found by aubtractlon

13.

Consider BX as a base for A BXC and BA as a base

1
f o r parallelogram ADCB. Then area A BXC
'ti'
area
parallelogram ADCB. By a similar argument,
areaAClD = 1 area parallelogram ADCB. S u b t r a c t i n g
the areas of these t w o triangles from that of the
1
parallelogram we find t h a t area AECX = area
parallelogram ABCD.

14.

L e t the length of the side of the isosceles right

t r i a n g l e be e
Then its hypotenuse has length e f l ,
and t h e area of a square on the hypotenuae is

( e r n 2 = 2e2.

w area

0,

the t ~ i m g l eis

which is one-fourth t h a t of t h e square.

e2,

Alternate solution:

The
five triangles in the
drawing are all congruent,
so by P o s t u l a t e 18 all
have t h e same area.
Therefore, by P o s t u l a t e 19,
area BCDE = 4 area A ABC

355 *15. L e t

ABC be t h e given
triangle and ABt C I t s

projection on the plane.

L e t X be the mid-point
of E , the side l y i n g
i n the plane.

1.

=I 1LB'C,
TA

1.

and

55
2.
3.
4.

1Em

AABtBEACBrB.

AB4 and
A AB1C is i s o s c e l e s .
BX is an altitude of

CB1

A ABC;
B t X is

2.
3,

Definition of proj e c t i o n . D e f i n i t i o n of
a line perpendicular to
a plane.
Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
Corresponding p a r t s and
Definition of I s o s c e l e s .

4.

The median to the base

of an i s o s c e l e s t r i angle is an altitude.

5.

Given, and Definition

of plane angle of a
dihedral angle.
Corollary 9-13-2.

7.

30-60 Triangle Theorem.

8.

Theorem 11-2.

an a l t i t u d e of

A AB'G.
5.

mLBXB1 = 6 0 ,

7.

B'X = $ 3 ~ .

8.

Area
=

bABtC
Area

A ABC.

356 *16. On E, t h e longer of t h e

two parallel sides, l o c a t e
a p o i n t X so that
1
AX = T(AB + CD) . Then
separates t h e trapezoid
into two regions of equal
area.
A

E
\
B
-

Proof: Area AADX = $(AX).

Area XBCD = ~ ( X +
B CD)
For these areas to be equal it is necessary that

+(AX)

= +(XB

AX= XB

Since XB
written
AX

AX

CD), which will be the case if

CD.

- AX, the previous equatlon can be

= AFI - AX + CD, from which
= $(AB + CD).
= AB

+17. By the Pythagorean Theorem

any Pace diagonal such as
has length
The
diagonal CB has length
J 3 6 + 7 2 = m or 6 6 .

m.

*18,

AC = m
AG =

0 = 10n.

15.

-.-

1 .
2.
3.
I

A.S.A.

Corresponding parts
Given area of the
square.

4.

Given and Statement 2.

5.

Pythagorean Theorem.

The area of RSPQ Ls

51 that of ABCD as can
be seen by rearranging
the triangular regions
as shown.

b.

d.

There are 45 amall squares and

so the area is 50 square units

small aquarea and

so t h e area is 49 square unfts

There are

42

10 half squares

14 half squares

The area of the first t r i a n g l e is

17
10*10= 50;

The area of the second triangle is

$-14-7 = 49.

A l e g of the f i r s t I s

10, and a leg of t h e second

is 7
o r approximately 9 ,go. One-tenth unit
i n length i s too small to n o t i c e when c u t t i n g one
triangle out and placing it on t h e o t h e r .

I l l u s t r a t i v e T e a t Item f o r Chapter 11
7

A.

Area Formulas ,
-

1.

The perimeter of a square is

2.

The area of a square is

n.

20.

Find I t s area.

Find I t s s i d e .

Find the area o f t h e figure

in terms of the lengths
indicated.

4.

The base of a rectangle is three times as long as the

altf tude. The area I s 147 square inches. Find the
base and the altitude.

5.

The area of a t r i a n g l e is 72. If one side is

what is the a l t i t u d e to that side?

6.

In t h e f i g u r e
and

WZ = X Z .

and YZ
area of

7.

= 12.

WY

WX =

XY
8

Find t h e

WZXY.

RSTV is a parallelogram.
Tf the small l e t t e r s in
the drawing represent
lengths, give the area of:

a.

Parallelogram

b.

ASTU.

RSTV.

Quadrilateral VRUT.

8.

Show how a formula for the

area of a trapezoid may be
obtalned from the formula
1
for t h e area of a
A = $h
triangle,

9.

In surveying field ABCD

shown h e r e a surveyor laid
off north and south line
C,
NS through 3 and then
located the east and w e s t
++
l i n e s CE, DF and W .
He found that CE = 5 rods,
AG = 10 rods, BG = 6 rods,
BF = 9 rods and FE = 4 rods
Find the area of the f i e l d .

c
R

c,

12,

r
U

B.

Comparison -of Areas.

1.

Given:

is a trapezoid.
AC and

ABCD

Diagonals
i n t e r s e c t at 0.
Prove: A r e a A AOD
2.

= Area

b BOC

In t h i s figure

PQRS is a
parallelogram with PT = TQ

and MS = SR. In a through

e below compare the areas
of the two figures listed.

a.

Parallelogram

SRQP

and

Parallelogram
A MTR.

A PNS and A MTR

A
e.

STR

A MTR

and

SPR.

and A RQT.

Pythagorean Theorem.

1.

How long must a tent r o p e be to reach from the top of a

12 foot pole to a p o i n t on the ground which is 16
feet from the f o o t of the pole?

2.

A boat travels south

and then north

starting polnt?
3.

24 milea, then east 6 miles,

16 miles. How far is it from i t s

Gfven the rectangular solid

a t the right with AB = 12,
BC = 16 and BH = 15.
Find AC and EC.

<-0

A
4.

For the flgure at the right,

find A 3 and CB.
20
15

/-

E.
.

n. Find

2,

The diagonal of a square is

its side.

3.

The l o n g e s t and shortest s i d e s of a r i g h t triangle a r e

10 and 20. What is the measure of the smallest
angle of the t r i a n g l e ?

4.

The measures of each of two angles of a triangle is 45,

What is the ratio of the longest s i d e to either o f t h e
other s i d e s ?

Miscellaneous Problems.

1.

is a t r a p e z o i d .
CD = 1 and AB = 5.
What I s the area of
the trapezoid?

ABCD

2.

What is the area of

ABCD?

3,

ABCD

is a rhombus wl th

AC = 24

and

AB = 20.

a.

Compute its a r e a .

b.

Compute t h e length
of the a l t i t u d e to
DC

/mc

4.

Find t h e area of a triangle whose sides are

and 15".

ABCD

is a pa~allelogram
with altitude E. Find
the area of the parallelogram if:

a.

AB=+

b.

A B = 10, A D = 4,
m L A = 30.

and D E = % .

g",

12",

r
L

and

Find the area of an iaosceles triangle which has

congruent sides of length 8 and base angles o f

30'.

Answers

3.

ab

4.

Let

a(c

a),

or

ac

a(b

- a),

or

ab

a be the length of the a l t i t u d e and

length of the base. Then

ac

3a

a2.

the

3a2 = 147
a2 = 49

a
The altitude is

6.

7.

7. The length of the base is 21.

Consider the figure to be the union of triangular

regions Wm and XYZ . It can be proved t h a t
is
the perpendicular bisector of E. Hence
and XP
are altitudes of triangle WYZ and XYZ respectively.
The area of each of these triangles is 2 4 . Hence the
area of WXY is 48.

WP

7.

8.

a.

ad.

c.

+(a+c).

mh

Separate the figure i n t o

triangular regions by
drawing a diagonal. The
areaa of the respective
1
triangles are $lh
and

tI

b,

The sum of these

1
1
two areas is $lh + $*h

9.

Area

ABCD = Area AGFD

Area

ABCD =

Area

ABCD = 13%.

165

+
+

1.

Area A kDC = Area A

same base

Area DFEC

The area of t h e field is

B.

1
$(bl

34

13% 1

b2).

Area AGB

30

- Area CEB.
-

square rods.

BCD because the triangles have the

and equal altitudes.

Area A DOC = Area A DOC.
Therefore, by subtracting, we have Area A AOD
= Area

2.

a.

DC

A BOC .

Area parallelogram SRW

= 2 Area

b.

A SW.

Area parallelogram SRW

= Area

A MTR.

Area

A PNS

d.

Area

A STR

= Area

e.

Area

A MTR

34.

Area A

MTR .

A SPR.

4 Area h RQT.

C.

1.

20 feet.

2.

10 miles.

(see ffgure at r l g h t )

AC

20.

EC = 25.

AB

a.

25 and

CB

7.

6 n .

b.

12.

1.

30.

43.

(AC =13.)

a.

384.

( s e e figure at right)

b.

19.2

(384 i 20.)

54.

($09 12. The triangle is a right t r i a n g l e . )

Chapter 12
SIMILARITY

In Chapter 5 we explored the concept of congruence,

which encompassed the idea of a one-to-one correspondence

between t h e vertices of two triangles such t h a t corresponding

sides and corresponding angles were congruent. In t h i s
chapter we talk of a correspondence between triangles euch
that corresponding angles are congruent and the ratios of
corresponding s i d e s are equal. This correspondence is
c a l l e d a similarity. After a discussion of proportions,
there appears a proof of t h e fundamental proportionalFty
theorem f o r triangles t h a t is different from the usual one
given. This proof I s not new; quite the c o n t r a r y . I t was
found in a text-book, published in 1855, written by
the nated French mathematician, A . M. Legendre. More will
be said about it later. For the most part, t h i s chapter
presents a conventional treatment of similar t r i a n g l e s .
36Q
The s t u d e n t i a expected to call upon h i s algebra in
working with proportionalities. We should need no statements
about t h e algebraic p r o p e r t i e s of proportions, The four
p r o p e r t i e s we do s t a t e , however, wfll provide a basts f o r
practice and review. The quantities used in proportions
are numbers, and the algebra of f r a c t i o n a l equations will
enable the student to do all that is required.
361
The geometric mean of two p o s i t i v e numbers, a and c,
is the positive number b, such t h a t
You may
recognize t h a t b l s what has been called, in some t e x t books, the mean proportional between a and c . We speak
of t h i s as the geometric rnean of a and c, and b = f i .
Then ''geometric mean' and "mean proportionalii are names f o r
the same t h i n g , and we prefer to use "geometric mean" in
t h i s text. In mathematics t h e r e are such things as harmonic
and arithmetic means that do n o t ariae f r o m proportions, and
we have used "geometric meantt because it arose historically
in a geometric construction.

5 =z.

--

Problem S e t 12-1

7a = 3b.

4x

b.

3.

6g=20.

c.

-32 -

C .

65 .
T

?*

dm

33
T
.

c.

a==.

d.

a
2 and T
a =T
x.
?;;='5

a
6

x
5

7 and b
9 and
5

7.

T.

6bc
22bd

a + b

+ 2

x + 3
=

1,

and

and

'5

7' 4 - /
3

7 4.
1, T
1,

and

c=4
b -+ a
a

and

7 4.
g?

a - b
-==.

21bd

12cd
=
~

2
x - 3

+y

= -*

a - c = -3
T*
b - a = -2
a
-5'
C

The t h r e e new sequences

are i d e n t i c a l , s o each p a i r
of the orlginal three
sequences are proportional.

[pages 361-363 3

363

7.

10.

36411.
12.

and

d.

and

i.

and

1.

and

f.

and

h.

and

h.

and

e,

and

g.

and

g.

and

p=18;

are correct.
q = 24;

t=70.

a.

G.M. = 6 ,

(6.000);

A.M.

b.

G.M.=6fi

(8.484);

A.M.

=9.0.

c.

Q.M. = 4 f i

(8.944);

A.M.

= 9.0.

d.

G.M.

(6.928);

A.M.

13.0.

e.

G.M.

(2.449);
=6,

A.M.

2.5,

4fi

6.5.

The d e f i n i t i o n of a similarity, l i k e the d e f i n i t i o n of

a congruence, requires two t h i n g s . For similar t r i a n g l e s we

could have based our definition on either one of the two

conditions, and proved the other. It seems b e a t , however,
to make a definition which may be generalized for o t h e r
polygonal figures

[pages 363-3641

365

Notice
v e r t i c e s is
triangles:
fL@;ure, the

that the i d e a of a correspondence which matches

employed f o r similar triangles as f o r congruent
the s i m i l a r i t y Indicates, without recourse t o a
corresponding s i d e s and angles,

--

Problem Set 12-2

366

367

1.

2.

3.

AC

.DE

a.

AB=r.

b.

AB EF
B C = r *

c.

AC=

a.

A B DE-BC
= r .

e.

BC=-. AC EF

f.

AC=-.

BC DF

EF'

a,

b;

3 = 48 = 6f ; 2 .
~

a,

d;

3 = r42 = ,6.
g

b,

d; =,

g6

DF .AB

12
m.

2
1.6
7.5 = T*

h =

mqA*

6.
The height of the o b j e c t i n the enlargement is

4.

6 inches.

If A ABC o A A'BI C t , the conditions necessary

for a similarity a r e met. That is,

Yes.

(1)

L A = L A ~ L, B E L B I , L c P I L C I

(2)

-,

A'B'

A'C*

-.BICt

[pages 365-367 1

and

367

5.

Given: A ABC; D, E, F
t h e mid-points of the sides
- AB, BC, C A respectively.
P r o v e : A EFD - A ABC.
Proof: By Theorem 9-22,
1

ED

FD

= $B,

FE
and

1
+,

ED I ( E ,

DBEF a r e
parallelograms. By Theorem 9-16, L FDE 3 BCA ,
L DEF ZL CAB, 1 EFD % L ABC; s i n c e we have also
proved above that ED = FE = m,
FD A EFD A ABC by
FDEC,

ADEF,

.
I

d e f i n i t i o n of similarity.

Conventional p r o o f s of t h e Basic Proport:onality

Theorem
contended w i t h (1) a r e l a t i v e l y unconvincing d i v i s i o n of the
sides of a t r i a n g l e by a s e r i e s of parallel lines, and ( 2 )
the problem of what t o do when the ratio of the length o f a
segment to t h e length of a s i d e containing t h a t segment is
n o t a rational number (the ir,comrnensurable c a s e ) , It has
often been the practice to g i v e a proof o f t h e theorem f o r
the cornmensuxlable case and mention the other possibility.
The proof in t h e t e x t avoids t h i s difficulty since L t is
based on the a r e a p o s t u l a t e s , which involve real numbers
In t h e proof o f Theorem 12-2 we tacitly assume t h a t E
369
is between A and C'. It 1s obvious from a figure t h a t
betweenness i s preserved under p a r a l l e l projectfon, but
we have not j u s t i f l e d it on the b a s i s of o u r p o s t u l a t e s .
It is e a s i l y p r o v e d as f o l l o w s :

368

Ipages

367-

369 1

 he Parallel P r o j e c t i o n Theorem. )
Given two transversals TI and T2 intersecting three
parallel lines LI, L2, L3 in p o i n t s A, B, and C
and A , B ' , and C 1 respectively. If B is between
A and C then B 1 is between A 1 and C

S i n c e Ll 1 I L2, then t h e segment A A ' cannot

i n t e r s e c t L2 and hence A and A' are on t h e same side
of La. Likewise, s i n c e L3 11 L2, then the segment C C T
cannot i n t e r s e c t L2 and C and C f are on the same s i d e
of L2. S u c e B is between A and C by hypothesis,
segment AC i n t e r s e c t s L2 a t B; hence, A and C are
on opposfte s i d e s o f L2, Since A t and A are in the
same half-plane determined by L2 and C' and C a r e in
the same half-plane and A and C a r e in o p p o s i t e h a l f planes then it follows that A ' and C' a r e in o p p o s i t e
half-planes determined by Lp. Hence A'Cf meets L2 In
a p o i n t which must be B 1 , s i n c e B1, is the Intersection
of A ' C 1 and L2. Therefore, B t is between A t and C q .
370 We have assumed t h a t A # A ' and C / Cl. The argument
above is e a s i l y modified to apply to t h e cases where A = A '
Proof:

Note t h a t t h e application o f this principle t o Theorem

12-2 i n v o l v e s t h e case A = A ' .

[pages 369-3701

Problem -Set 12-3a

5.

372 7.

No.

a.

g #%.
m.

By Theorem 12-1, CA = CB
Then
CA - l = CCBp - 1 .
m
or
CA - CD
CB - CF
C D =CF
The refore

[pages 370-3721

372

Taking the reciprocals of b o t h fractions of (a)

we get

b.

Then
'

or
CD+DA

DA

Theref ore,

CF-tFB
=r-

CA

CB

m = m*
c

By Theorem 12-1, CA

_- z
CB .

Clearing of fractions, C A h C F = CD*CB, and

d i v i d i n g by CFmCB we have

9.

m u s t be

8 or 11.
1.

Given.

2.

Theorem 12-1

3.

F r o m S t e p 2.

4.

Theorem 12-2.

No, the figure does not have to be planar.

373

1 . Proof: Draw transversal

H
DC i n t e r s e c t i n g BE in
G.
In b CAD we have by

Theorem 12-1,
from which

AC
CD
BC =

DG

AB
=

Similarly, in A DCF,

Hence,

z.
we

-7

UL
E
.

alternate method of
PI
proof might u s e an auxiliary
l i n e CW as shown at t h e
C*
@
right, or a line DR 11 AC
(An

-+--/-

\IF
\

as shown here .)

2 , b t I:
13.

Since

--

80 feet.

AB

Similarly,

1 1 ~
#

BC

Lot 11:
0 .A = OB
~ i5jl

160 f e e t .

h t 111: 120 f e e t .

m.

11

YZ

mplles

03
OC
rn
nz*
=

Hence,
by Theorem 12-2.

374 4 .

x will be the length of the folded c a r d ,

so

and x 2 = 1 8 .
The width of the card should be

3 fi inches.

z=3

a or

374-378

In the proofs of Theorems 12-3, 12-4, and 12-5 we have

drawn t h e figure w i t h AB > DE and used t h f a in each p r o o f ,
except that in Theorem 12-3 the case AB = DE was discussed.
( ~ o t i c ehere if AB = DE, A A E i F 1 and A ABC coincide,
t h a t is A AEtF' = A ABC.) In the case AB < DE a similar
4
proof would be g i v e n with El on DE and DEI = AB.
It m i g h t be advisable t o point o u t to the s t u d e n t s t h e
general plan of t h e proof of Theorem 12-5. F i r s t prove
AABC - A AEIF1 by the A.A. Corollary, then prove
A AEIFT A DEF by the S . S . S . Theorem, and finally prove
AABC
A DEF by the A.A. Corollary.

--

Problem S e t 12-3b

379 1.

a,

Similarities are indicated in

Notice that the wording
of { e ) permits

2.

The A . A . A .

c,

d.

and the A . A . Theorems.

No.

c.

No.

Yes.

d.

Yes.

The triangles are similar

. S .S .S .

Not similar.

The triangles are similar.

Similar.

A.A.A.

Similar.

S.S.S.

Similar.

A.A.

o r S.A.S.

[pages 374-3801

A.A.A.

or S . A . S .

380 5.

6.

8.

a.

LAXC

b.

LACX.

c.

AXC,

or

LBXC.

or

XG=T.

or

X C = F ,

CXB.

No.

c.

A ABC ia not - A XYZ.

d.

ABC * d T S R .

A ABC

A CDL s i n c e the v e r t i c a l angles

congruent as w e l l as the given angles

the given information
been proved similar

Since

382

9.

is between

BD = 3
BL

or

a.

b.

BD

DL
B

T. Since the triangles

4
=.

and

= 5BL.

r x = s , x = - s.
r
x = mp.

e.

Part

b.

f.

Part

a.

g.

No.

L are
and D. From

at

[pages 380-3823

Then

D,

have

-.

DL+BL = 4 + 1

t h i s can be written

382

10.

Of the five equal p a i r s of parts three mwt be angles,

f o r if three were sldea the t r i a n g l e s would be congruent.
Hence the triangles a r e similar. Neither of the two
pairs of equal s i d e s can be corresponding sides or the
The remaining
triangles would be congruent by A . S . A .
possibility can b e a t be shown by an example.

OB
OX
Theref ore O,B,
=

rm'

OD
Therefore O~

OX
m.

From Statements 2 and 3 ,

A B S C * A BTD,

OB

OD

O,B,=m-

ABC*ADRB,

ARSB-ADST.

383

e.

Construct perpendiculars 6 and 3 units long at

opposite ends (but on the same s i d e ) of any segment
BD. J o i n the ends of these perpendiculars to the
oppoaite ends of the segment, and where these l i n e s
intersect , draw a perpendicular to BD . Measure
this perpendicular. It should be 2 units long.
Therefore the task would require 2 hours.

1.

ABRQ

is a parallelo-

1.

Given.

qBHF.

2.
3

Vertical angles.
Definition of a
parallelogram.
Alternate i n t e r i o r
angles.

gram,
2.

L Q3.A

AQII5.

A.A.

Definition of simllar
triangles.
Clearing of fractions
14.

a . and b. L e t a, 2a, ha
stand f o r the lengths
aa shown in the figure.
Then it can e a s i l y be
shown f o r each pair of
triangles mentioned that
t h e S .A .S Similarity
Theorem applies.

38 3

. L ADQ

and L QAD are complementary angles.

LQADrL&DC, since they are corresponding
angles of slmilar triangle8 . Therefore L ADQ
and L QDC are complementary and 4 ADC = 90.
H

C,

15.

C,

be papallel to AD, meeting AC in E.

LABE= L DAB ( a l t . i n t . L a ) and A AEB n L CAD
(corr. L s)
Alao,
DAB fY L CAD (given). Therefore
AEB
L ABE. Therefore AE = AB. Since

BE

Let

CD

=,
CA

then CD

CA

by substitution.

38'1 *16. From the prevlous problem

CD =

similar proof you can ahow that

*17. a.

BY an exactly

CD'

CA
B.

Therefore

E be t h e p o i n t
on the ray opposite to
-3
AB such that AE = y.
Then A AEC ia equll a t e r a l , EC
y. In
the e lmilar triangles
ECB and Am,
EC - EB
Let

7m - BJ Or

x2 = = ,

f
Dividing by

y,

=l+S.

we get

1
-1Z = -Y1 + -,
X
b.

Yes, place the straight-edge against R1 on the

middle s c a l e and R2 on one of the o u t e r acales.
Then read o f f R on the o t h e r outer scale.

[pages 383-3841

Given.

2.

Given
and
are medians.

3.

S t e p s 1 and 2, and

6.

substitution.
S . S . S . Similarity.
Derinitlon of similar
triangles.
Step 1 and Theorem 12-4.

1.

RA 1 E ,

4.

5.

1.
2.

1y

is the complement of L x.
L y is the complement of
R.

2.

3.

and definition of complementary

.- -

angles
Given RH
AF, and
Corollary $-13-2.
Complements of the same
angle are congruent.

4.

LB=LRHA*

4.

R H L and
~ mlz.

5.

A HRA * A BAF.
-KR
= - HA
3A
BF'

5.

A.A.

6.

Definition of similar

6,

386 20.

L&

7.

HRoBF =BA*HA.

a.

No.

b.

B i s e c t XI,PB1,
mid-points

Corollary.

triangles
Clearing of fractions

an step 6,

etc.,

and connect the resulting

PA2

"'

m q = YPBp
B;

because both equal

common to triangles

AIPBl and

2.

L AIPBl

A2PB2.

is

These

triangles are therefore s imilar by the S A .S

Slmllarity Theorem; and as a result of t h e i r being

similar the sides A2B2 and AIBl have the same

r a t i o as the o t h e r corresponding s i d e s .
( pages 385-386 ]

386

Not only

d.

and

s i d e s of triangles

the r a t i o

A A2B?*
Theorem.

2: 1

AIBI,

but o t h e r corresponding

A2B2D2 and AIBIDl

are in

by a proof like that in part c

by the S .S .S

A AIBIDI-

. Similarity

Yes, the method could be used f o r any point P;

but in some instances the enlargement would inter-

e.

sect t h e given figure

387*21. LSRX E L &TX and 1 RSX = L TQX (alternate interior

)
so A SRX
A QTX by A . A . Therefore
SX
RX = TX Since A QXR A TXS (given),
RX

m,

m-

~FJ

RX

= QX
m e Therefore

SO

3~

.U

m,
TX
(a)'

(TX)*, and

since b o t h QX and TX a r e p o s i t i v e .
L XQR S i L XTS and L RXQ Cj: SXT ( d e f i n i t i o n of similar
t r i a n g l e s ) , so A Q X R = A TXS by A . S . A . Therefore
QR = TS.
QX =

TX,

Alternate proof: If TS > QR, then TX > QX and

XS > XR, from A QXR - A TXS, In A QXT,
rnL XQT > XTQ, by Theorem 7-4, and In A RXS,
m L SRX > m L RSX. But m L XTQ = mL SFN, by a l t e r n a t e
i n t e r i o r L s , and m L X&T = 4 RSX. Contradiction.
S i m i l a r l y if QR > TS.

mL

[pages 386- 3871

1.

AWL=.

II

is a square.

BFRQ
2.

LABQgLWELMFR.

3,

Let

mLA = a

rnL M

and

1.

Given.

2.

D e f i n i t i o n s of perpendicular and square.

Angle Measurement
Postulate

3.

4.

Thus, mL FRM = a
and mL AQB = m.

5.

Also,

4 WQR

= a

4.

Corollary 9-13-2.

5.

The sum of the measures

of the angles at Q is
180 and the sum of the
meaaures of t h e angles
at R is 180.

dWR&
m.
=

and

7.

A m p - A RFMcAQWR.16.
AB
AB
BQ
=
and =

8.

A B - W R = Q W * B Q and

6.

m.

A.A.A.

D e I i n l l i o n a f slmllar
triangles
Clearfng of fractions

A B d F M = RFmBQ.
23.

Since A ABF - A HRQ

AF = AB
TI$

AAW

BF
m.

we know

LF

Q and

m ;F'B
FW
AF
Then
= = m = Q H 0

A130

A HXQ

by S . A . S .

Slmllarity, and then

It is p o s s i b l e to contlnue in the same way f o r the o t h e r

medians.
24.

Sfnce A

ABF

.v

h XWR

then

Lx

XR = X
- W T ( * m ~ A H P = ~ X e and
R
m
nW- E
P
by A . A ,

so

and

XQR-AAHF

n.

Then RQ = XR

A similar proof

can be followed f o r each of the altitudes.

388

25.

As shown in the two figures the two t r i a n g l e s a r e

similar by A . A .

26.

Since the base angles a r e congruent, AE = BE and by

s u b t r a c t f o n EC = ED. Hence A CED
A AFB by the
S .A .S Similarity Theorem.
Therefore L ECD
EAB and % 11
by corresponding
angles.
.U

389

27.

L e t A ABIC

False.

A E

=1

L A,

and A AB2C

as i n the diagram, b u t the tri-

CB1 = CB2,

angles are not congruent.

The triangles

*28.

A7B'Cf

Construct

and

A AIBIC1

b ABIC.

s a t i s f y the statements

AB2C

of the hypothesis, but these triangles a r e n o t similar.

AC
BC
a.
1. A ABC
h ADE; AB =
,
=

2. A ABC

b.

False.

.,

and A ADF are n o t similar even though

i\B
m
= BCm

since

m~ B

+ m~

FDA.

The diagram shows a counter-example.

hypothesis is true if X is e i t h e r E
The conclusion is f a l s e I f X is F.

390 * 2 9 .

AC = AC,

be such that

In similar
ACG

and

ABC

AEF,

and

EDC,
a
- =+ b
a

X
3
= E.

F.

From the s irnilar

3'

Answer. The ball h i t s the ground a t least

the n e t ,

[pages 388-390 )

or

The

29'3"

from

390 *30,

A C E B - A AEF since A x YL y ( a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r
H
*
angle8 of parallel lines BC and AD) and
EF = FA
L PEA
BEC ( v e r t i c a l a n g l e s ) ; therefore EB BC
AE
=
A l s o , A CEG - A A E 9 s i n c e L ABE
L CGE

m.

(alternate i n t e r i o r angles) and

CEG 2

L AEB

(vertical

EB S i n c e in each case we
angles); we g e t BA = AE = E.
have AE as one of t h e f r a c t i o n s , we also have EF
EB
*31.

Since

C,

AX

A DAX

Similarly, s i n c e

But

4+

CZ

-A

and

DBY

C,

11 BY, A

CEZ

DA

'EB

AX
m.

E'

- -

-6 BEY and EC

CZ .
W

since opposite sidea of a parallelogram

are congruent, and so DA = EC
NOW 1 - DA = 1 EC
- EIET'
DB - DA = EB - EC and
BC
merefore
11
by
AX = C Z ,

*.

m * EB'

Theorem 12-2. And now

391 ' 3 2 .

a.

In rlght A A X E
FXC a
XAE

CXP,

AC

11

DE

%$

11 XZ.

and

L EXA,
L XCF (L a ) .

hence L
L a I s a complement of
L C . L b is a complement of L c . Hence

Hence

LaELbMLXAE.

A BFC
BP

Bier
b.

and

ADC

AD

E'

AB o c c u r s in each denomlnator,one only

needs to show that
Since

Since

BE

FE

BF

one only needs to show that

This is essentially what was shown in p a r t a .

of t h i s problem.
[pages 390-3911

I n Theorem 12-6 we have assumed the following theorem:

In any r i g h t triangle t h e altitude from the vertex of t h e
r i g h t angle intersects the hypotenuse in a point between
t h e end-points of t h e hypotenuse,
Proof: L e t D be the foot of the p e r p e n d i c u l a r from
u
C t o AB.
391
There a r e 5 p o s s i b l e cases:
(1) D = A .
(2) D = B.
( 3) A is between D and B.
( 4 ) B is between D and A.
(5) D is between A and B .
We would like to show that cases (I), ( 2 ) , (3), and (4)
are impossible which leaves case ( 5 ) as the required r e s u l t .
Case (I) is impossible because A BDC then would have
t w o right angles, one at C and one at D.
Case ( 2 ) Is impossible f o r a sfrnilar reason as in
391

Case (1).

Proof t h a t case ( 3 ) is irnposslble:

C

Suppose t h a t A is between D and B. Then L CDA I s a

right angle of A CDA. Moreover L CAB is an e x t e r i o r
angle of A CDA and so is obtuse. B u t t h i s is impossible,
since L CAB is an a c u t e angle o f
ABC.
A similar proof shows that Case ( 4 ) is impossible,
hence, Case ( 5 ) holds as was to be proved and the altitude
from C must intersect the hypotenuse at some point D,
such t h a t D is between A and B.

392

Once we have proved Theorem 12-6, it is now p o s s i b l e to

prove the Pythagorean Theorem using similar t r i a n g l e s . T h i s
has n o t been done in the text, however, since t h e theorem
has been proved once by areas. Tf time p e r m i t s , it might be
illuminating to the class to l e t t h e m see t h e follow!ng
proof, reminding them t h a t there is more than one way t o
a t t a c k a mathematical problem.
Theorem: Given a right triangle, with legs of length a and
2
2
2
b and hypotenuse of length c . Then a + b = c .

P r o o f : L e t CD be t h e altitude from C t o E, as in
Theorem 12-6. L e t x = AD and l e t y = DB, as in t h e
figure. The scheme o f t h e proof is s i m p l e . (1) First we
c a l c u l a t e x i n terms o f b and c , usFng similar triangles. ( 2 ) Then w e calculate y i n terns of a and c,
using similar triangles. ( 3 ) Then we add x and y, and
simplify the resulting equatl.on, using the fact that
c = x + y.
x
b
(1) S i n c e A ACD - A ABC, we have
= c'
b2
Therefore x = C
(2)

S i n c e b CBD

Therefore
(3)

Therefore

and

a2

A ABC,

we have

-2

5c '

y = 7 .
L;

Thus we have

Rut

y = a*

c = x + y .
2
c = a* + b
C

'

b 2,

b2 = c 2 , which was to be proved.

395

Note to the teacher: A t t h i s point in the t e x t you

may wish to proceed directly to Chapter 17, Plane Coordinate
Geometry, and l a t e r r e t u r n to the remaining chapters.

Let the segments of the

hypotenuae be x and 25

- x.

X
men
= 85-* by Theorem
12-6 and d e f i n i t i o n of similar
triangles.
144 = 2 3 - x 2 .

2%+144=0.
(x
9) (x - 16) = 0. The segments of the hypotenuse are
9 and 16. If a is the length of the s h o r t e r leg,
x

[pages 393-395

c.

Let

DB

x,

then x(x
x2

DB

d.

J18'0=66

CD

a=
4 f i

Let

10) = 144.

lox

144.

8.

CA=
=

+
+

AD=x,

then x ( x + 1 2 ) = 6 4 .

x2 + 1 & - 6 4 = O .
(x

4)(x

16)= 0.
x = 4.

Problem S e t $2-5

The base of the smaller is

7.

DE IIE,

Since
CA = 3

and

S = 10

11.

n-

so

AABC-A

DEC.

AreaA ABC

A rea

inches.

A E

g,

The sides will be

10

a.

IF the length of the wire is c a l l e d d, the side of the

square is $d and that of t h e triangles is
Then
-2
the area of the square is
and that of the triangle

+.

is

G C 0 .Then,

dZ

Area of t h e trianEle
Area o f the square

mn

4
F

=d2=

[pages 396-3971

397 12.

The area of

ABC = -0140-120 = 8400.

The area of the required l o t must t h e n be

Pythagorean Theorem, AD = 90, and area
1
AADC = -.g0.120
2

of

x = 3

The
~ required distance

79.4 f e e t .

is approximately

13.

By the

Then, by Theorem 12-7,

= 5400.

4200
and
(6l=2m,

4200.

Given: R i g h t A ABC,
C a right angle, and M the
mid-point of
Prove: MA = PIB = MC.
Proof: Let
be the perpendicular f r o m M to E,
meeting BC in K. Then
IIE, so CK = KB.
Therefore %? is the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of CB.
Hence MC = MB. Since MB = MA ( g i v e n ) , then
MA = MB = MC.

a.

398

14.

KC

4 KCB

60,

BC

15.

C
2,

By Problem 13,
=

4 KBC

= KI3 =

Therefore

60.

Therefore

ARs

L AHC U L CHB.

A C R .

Also

A 3 = c.

m L BKC

so

RC, 4 A = d
A l s o , since RC = RB,
m L B = mL BCR. L e t
mL A
rnL ACR = y and
mL B = rnL acR X .
Then in A ACB,
2x + 2y
Since

where

C
=

180,

and x

y = 90.

Hence A AHC - A CHB

by S . A . S .

S i m i l a r i t y Theorem. Therefore L HCB

L A . Since
L HCB and L B are complementary, then L A and L B
are complementary, and A ACB is a r i g h t tri~ngle. By
1
the preceding problem MC = AM, and MC = $AB
1
= ?(AH + HB). But HC < MC, except when M = H
(i.e., when AH = HB). Therefore, ~THB
= HC < $(AH + HE).
If AH = HB, the l a s t inequality

do2

becomes the equality

AH = AH.

Alternate solution.
u # v. Then
0

<-

and

-2pfl+

398 17. Outline o f proof.

Let

F1 ( + ~AH),~

A PXR
A PRS
AWT

.Y

be p o s i t i v e numbers,
v.

A PYA,

therefore

PR = PX
PA
PY'

PAB,

therefore

PR

ABC,

therefore

Area
RST =
Area A A
B
r

Rs 2 ,
(m)

From t h e above:
Area A

RST

= (PX12

Area A A X

399 *18. 1.

Area Addition Postulate ( p o s t u l a t e

2.

Division.

3.

Theorem 12-6.

4.

Theorem 12-7 and Step 2.

5.

MultiplScation.
. ~ * 1 9 .a 2 = h 2 + y2 = h 2 + ( c

In t h e similarity A ADC

x) 2

A WT,

x = bk.
Theref ore

I pages

t h a t 1s

398- 400I

19) .

RS

In t h e similarity

AM:

A R~T,

x = bk.

Therefore

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 +2bck.

( ~ h l sis the case in which L C is a c u t e . IC L C l a

obtuse or a r i g h t angle, the proof is similar. )
L e t A RST have L R Z L C, L S a right angle,
hypotenuae = 1, RS = k. By the result of Problem 19,
a p p l i e d to A ACT,

ma
(11

"'a

a 2
- 2b($)k,
+ (H)
2
2
b + $ - abk.

= b2

Applying t h e same reault t o

ACB,

Multiplying both a i d e s of Equation (2) by

and
subtracting from the corresponding sides of Equation (1):
2
1 2
b2
a2
ma - p = 2 - F ,

ma2 =

From p a r t ( a )

mb
='c

;b2+ p1 2 -

= 1F2 + 1p2

2 = ;a2 + ;b2

1 2
#3

1 2

-$,

+**

Adding and collecting like terms,

2

ma2 + m b 2 + r n c2 = $ a 2 + b

+ o

1.

Review Problems
FB = 22.

b.

n2 = m ' hence
FQ
g1 = r,
hence

C'

T =FQ
T , hence

I?&=%.

a*

'

d.

6
9

a.

Yes.

b.

G.M.

z,

= QB

hence

is

6,

6
FQ = 5.

QB = 8.

b.

AF

is

gfi.

A.M.

8.

Sketches m i g h t be of t w o rhombuses; a rhombus and a

square; two p a r a l l e l o g r a m ; a parallelogram and a
rectangle.
l2
FC hence
E
= 3'

FC=6.

-l5
-BC
3

BC

'

hence

- -

If DE ~ ( A B ,

x + 3

Ai7

V'

hence

= 3 G .
=

5
x + 5 '

and

x = 7.

AC =

402 7 ,

A ABE

.U

A CDE

(A .A. )

fore p r o p o r t i o n a l and
8.

Let e
angle.

be t h e length of the s i d e of the original triThen t h e length of t h e s i d e of the second tri-

and the r a t i o of the areas is 5 .

angle is

(i)

a2=16*+8*;

~f x = 1 6 :

~f

a2=4*+8';

x=4:

y=l6;

a=8&

b = 4 6

y = 2 0 - x = 4 ;

(ii)

Corresponding sides are thereDE = BE. Hence BD = 5BE.

a - 4 6 ;

b=8&

Hence there are t w o p o s s i b f l i t i e s :

a=8&,
b = 8
10.

b = 4 &

and

x = 4 ,

x = 16,

y=l6,

y = 4,

a = 4 6 ,

AABC-ADEF,

hence

AB
m
= AC
m =BCm .

SZnce, above, the last r a t i o s are the same,

and hence

11.

a.

AB = A C .

A A F Q - A W A X (A.A.).
therefore

b.

A AXW - A
hence

c.

Since

AB

AF-XW
FQA

Hence -AF
WA=

AQ
WX

and so

w &A
AX = -XW'

QFmXW = AX-QA.

A AXW - A

AW-FQ = FA-AX.

and

= AW-QA.

(A.A.)

FQA,

E = W , hence

AC

m=m

13.

3 = = ,9
g

9 &,
=

*14.

hence

y = 24.

hence
=

IIE, A

hence

XY
=

RYZ

-A

RBC,

RY = E
YZ. Hence
li$
YZ
Hence A XYZ

x.

A ABC

(S.A.S .)

We can be s u r e t h a t
L t is when the plane of
the triangle and the plane
of t h e film are parallel.

15. No.

Proof: Assuming t h a t t h e
planes of A ABC and
0
ADEF are parallel,

.'. A

A OAB,
A OEF * A OBC, A O F D * A OCA
EF = OE = ED = 5
DF
EF
BC
iOD
K
t h a t is, 875

ODE

Therefore

ru

A ABC

6@.

XY

YZ

18n.

m L XYR = m L ABR, m L RYZ = mL RBC

(corresponding angles.) By
aitditlon, mL XYZ = mL ABC.
since
1 1 E , A m A RAB,
XY = z.
RY
hence A
Since

hence

A DEF

by S . S . S .

ED = E.
DF
BA:

Similarity.

---

Illustrative Test Items f o r Chapter 12

A.

1.

In A A B C , if A D Z ~ ,
1
AB = 7 , AE = 72,

a.

EC = 3 , is
Explain.

3.

)I=?

In A ABC, if A D = 15,
AB = 25, AC = 3 3 , and
AE = 21, is DE IJBG?
Explain.

b.

2.

DE

a.

Given two slmilar t r i a n g l e s in which t h e r a t i o of

2
a pair of corresponding sides is 3,
what is t h e
ratio of the areas?

b.

If the r a t i o of the areas of two sirnllar triangles

1
is T , what is t h e ratio of a p a i r of correspondi n g altitudes?

If 2, 5 , 6 are the lengths of the s i d e s o f one tri1

angle and TT, 9 , 3 are the lengths of the sides o f
another triangle, a r e the triangles similar? If so,
w r i t e ratios t o show the correspondence of the sides.

4.

If ABCD is a trapezoid
with
(1 DC and lengths
of segnents as shown, give
numerical answers below:
AB
A
a.
I

m=?

b*
c

Area A AEB = ?
A r e a * CED
Area A ACD = ?
Area A BEC

5.

pvL
1 \

I n t h e fimre. ABCD is a
parallelogram with FG 11 DC.
DF = 4, DE = 6 , AB = 12,
KB = 2.m. Find AF, BC,
DH, KF and LF.
A

6.

In quadrilateral

in
the figure, segments have

KS

B.

1.

in t e r n of

KQRS

n.
K

Inthefigure, ABLE,
-

1z,

and the lengths

of the segments are as
shown. Find x, y, and

BH

3
X

and
CH
and with lengths
as indicated in the
figure, f i n d x, y, and

With
-

2.

D\*

3.

2.

In t h i s figure A ACB is
a right triangle
with
altitude
drawn t o the A
hypotenuse AB. Find
X, y,
and z.

AF

B&

are medians
of A ABH, as shown in
the figure. Prove
AABK .v A FQK. Write
three equal r i t i o a showi n g the proportionality
of t h e sides of these
t r i a n g l e s , and glve the
numerical value of the
ratios.

and

t h i s figure, BF = $KB
and BQ = $4B, Prove
the two t r i a n g l e s are
similar and wrlte three
equal r a t i o s showing

the proportionality of
t h e aides

E 11 AB

as shown in
the f i g u r e . Prove

AB*FQ = AQ-FH.

Answers
Yes,

Yes.

since

6
$ = 3 = 9.
73

B.

1.

x - 5'
2

3.

C.

1.

hence

2, hence

y = 3

hence

AK3

'L FKQ

Since

BF = 2
m

99

x = 2 6 .

hence

hence

z = 6.

5
=9,
Y

hence

y = 2 6 .

x = 5.

z = 3

y4 = qz ,

( v e r t l c a l angles)

and
(alternate i n t e r i o r a n g l e s ) ,
BQ.F E L QBA
FK = FQ = KQ = 7.
1
hence A AKB - A F'KQ ( A . A . )

1
2.

(s.A.s.)

3.

and

AABQ-AFHQ
AB-FQ = A&-EW.

and

L HBF ' L

I\BP, h HBF

n = BFm eHFm .
(A.A.)

and

m
AB = p
AQg ,

hence

ABQ

Answers t o Review Exercises

Chapters 7to- 12

Chapter 13
C I R C L E S AND SPHERES
T h i s chapter falls I n t o two parts: the first studies

common properties of c i r c l e s and spheres relative t o I n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h lines and planes, the second deals with degree
measure of c i r c u l a r arcs and related properties of angles
and a r c s , chords, secants and tangents. The first part is
unusual s l n c e it t r e a t s c i r c l e s and spheres by unlform
methods and s t a t e s and proves the fundamental theorems on
the i n t e r s e c t i o n of line and circle (and sphere and plane)
with great precision. You will note that following the
fundamental theorems on c i r c l e a , there Is a corresponding
section concerning spheres, and probably nowhere else is
the analogy between plane and space geometry s o s t r o n g as
it Is here. Essentially t h e same proofs work f o r the sphere
as the c l r c l e , as relates to tangent and s e c a n t lines and
planes.
The thecrems and methods of proof in the second
part are, in the main, conventional but the basic ideas of
types of c i r c u l a r arc, angles Inscribed in an a r c , and a r c
intercepted by an angle a r e defined with unusual c a r e .
The convention of letting c i r c l e P mean the c i r c l e
with center P is followed in many of the problems f o r
convenience, where no ambiguity r e s u l t s . The t e x t , however,
follows the more precise notation, where a separate l e t t e r
denotes the c i r c l e . We can then t a l k c o n c i s e l y about
concentric c i r c l e s C and C 1 or about l i n e L i n t e r secting c i r c l e C.
Use concrete situations to illustrate the idea of clrcle
and sphere. For example, ask students to describe t h e
f i g m e composed of a l l p o l n t s which are six inches from a
given p o i n t of t h e blackboard - but don' t say " p o i n t s of the
blackboardn. Use models, c u t a ball i n half t o indicate
its c e n t e r and radius, and so o n . Refer to the e a r t h and

the equator (or meridtans) as examples o f a sphere and a

great c i r c l e . Contrast "great c i r c l e " w i t h "small circle",
such as the equator with a parallel north of the equator.

--

Problem S e t 13-1

411 1.

412

3.

a.

False.

e.

False.

b.

True.

f.

True.

c.

False.

g.

True.

d.

False.

h.

True.

a.

False.

e.

False.

b.

True.

f.

Falee.

c.

True.

g.

True.

d.

False.

h.

Falae.

a.

A l l points lie on a c i r c l e with c e n t e r at the

given i n t e m e c t l o n , and radius 200 yards.

b.

There are eight such points: four o f them lie

at the v e r t i c e s of a aquare, and four at the midp o i n t s of the sides of t h i s square, as shown on
the diagram. (0 I s the given tntersectlon.)

4.

L e t c be the length of any chord not a diameter.

Draw r a d i l to i t s end-points. Then 2r > c, by
Theorem 7-7, The Triangle Inequality. But 2r is
the length of the d i a m e t e r . Hence t h e diameter I s
l a r g e r than any o t h e r chord.

We have not adopted the convention that t h e d i s t a n c e

from a p o i n t to itself shall be zero
that is, t h e d i s t a n c e

between p o i n t s is always a p o s i t i v e number. For this reasgn,

in defining the i n t e r i o r of a c i r c l e (or sphere), we must
include the center in addition to p o i n t s whose distance to
the c e n t e r is less than the radius.
41 4
Caaes (I) and (2) of Theorem 13-2 should be easy f o r
students t o grasp. In Case (2) , the answer to "Why?" is
Theorem 7-6 h he perpendicular segment is t h e shortest
distance from a p o i n t to a l i n e ) .
415
Case (31, (see below) is more difficult and may cause
trouble f o r some students
also they may think it halr
s p l l t t l n g to prove something so "obvious". If they learn
and unders t a d the theorem and omit the proof of Case ( 3 ) ,
they still may be better off than in a conventional course
in which the precise relation between lines and c i r c l e s
is not made explicit, l e t alone proved. Incidentally,
Theorem 13-5 is an exact analog of Theorem 13-2, but is
less familiar and less obvious. After worklng t h ~ o u g hthe
proof of Theorem 13-5 they may better appreciate the proof
of Theorem 13- 2.
Remark on Theorem 13-2, Case (3): Case ( 3 ) Is essential415
ly the same as an existence and uniqueness p r o o f . Since we
don' t h o w that L and C have point8 in common, we assume
they have a common p o i n t and try to find where it can
p o s s i b l y lie. P r e c i s e l y we t r y to l o c a t e it r e l a t i v e to F
which is a fixed point on L.

[pages 412-4153

Thus i n t h e f i r s t part of the proof we show:

If a point is common to L and C its distance from

F Is.
Since r
1s a definite positive
number, we see that there are only two possible p o s i t i o n s
on L f o r a pofnt common to L and C, namely the two

&.-

points on L whose distance to R is

In the second part we show a converse:
415

If a p o i n t is

on L and i t s distance from F

then it 1s
common to L and C. To show t h i s we merely ahow t h a t

Thm the t w o p o i n t s described above are common to L and

C and constitute t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n .
If y o u r studenta prefer to derive some of these
415
corollaries by using congruent triangles and other earlier
principles r a t h e r than Theorem 13-2, by all means permit
them to do ao. The fact that Theorem 13-2 I s a powerful
theorem may be seen better in retrospect by many students.
In applying Theorem 13-2 (and Theorem 13-5) we generally
how t h a t since two of the cases do not hold in a particular
situation the o t h e r one m u s t hold.

Proofs of the C o r o l l a r i e s
Corollary 13-2-1. Any line tangent to C is p e r pendicular to t h e radius drawn to t h e p o i n t of contact.

L e t L be a tangent to C
at point S
Draw the radius
PS. Let Q be the foot of the
perpendicular from P to L.
If Q # S, then L intersects
C l m exactly 2 points and
t h f s c o n t r a d i c t s t h e hypothesis
that L is tangent t o C a t
S . Therefore the p o i n t Q must
be the point S, hence the
tangent L is perpendicular to
the radius drawn to the point
of c o n t a c t .

416

Corollary 13-2-2. Any line in E perpendicular t o a

radius at its outer end, is tangent to the c i r c l e .

a l i n e i n E, pert o a radius a t its

which is a point on
This point is Q,
the foot of the perpendicular
from center P to L. Then,
by Theorem 13-2, the line
intersects the c i r c l e In Q
alone and is therefore tangent
to the circle.

Given
pendicular
outer end,
c l r c l e C.

[page 4161

of

Corollary 13-2-3, Any perpendicular f r o m the c e n t e r

C to a chord b i s e c t s t h e chord.

Consider a chord
of c i r c l e C -and the l i n e
containing
intersects

AB.

The 1Fne

C in t w o p o i n t s
Let Q be the

and B.
foot of the perpendicular from
P t o L, The intersection
cannot be Q alone. Hence,
by Theorem 13-2, A and B
A

are equidistant from Q.

Therefore the perpendicular
from P t o the chord biaects
the chord.

Corollary 13-2-4. The segment joining t h e center cf

a c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.

416

Given chord
of c i r c l e
C and segment PS where P
is the center of c l r c l e C and
S is the mid-point of' chord
AB. ~ e t
B w i t h foot
Q. By C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3, Q is
the mid-point of AB. Since
the mid-point of
is unique
(Q = S) , PS is perpendicular
to the chord

ZJ
1

z.

A l t e r n a t e Proof:

L e t F be the mid-point of AB.

Then P and F are e q u i d i s t a n t f r o m A and 3 in plane
w
E and PF is the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of AB in plane
E by Theorem 6-2.
T h i s a l s o can be done independently of Theorem 13-2 by

us fng congruent t r i a n g l e s

[page 4161

C o r o l l a r y 13-2-5. In the plane of a c i r c l e , the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of a chord passes through the c e n t e r of

the c i r c l e .

By Corollary 13-2-4 the segment joining the center of a

c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord, hence the line containing the c e n t e r of a c i r c l e and
the mid-point of the chord i s a perpendicular biaector of
the chord. Since there l a only one perpendicular to the
chord at i t s mid-polnt, the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of a
chord must pass through t h e center of the c i r c l e .

416

Alternate Proof: The perpendicular b i s e c t o r of the

chord in the plane of the c i r c l e contains a l l p o i n t s of this
plane which are equidistant from the end-points of the chord
h he or em 6-2) Therefore the perpendicular b i s e c t o r contain8
the c e n t e r .

Corollary 13-2-6. If a line in the plane of a circle

intersects the Interior of the c i r c l e , then it intersects
the c i r c l e In exactly two p o i n t s .
Consider line L in the
plane E of c i r c l e C which
containa a p o i n t S i n s i d e
C.
L e t F be the foot of
the perpendicular from P to
L. By Theorem 7-6, PF < PS.
Slnce S is in the i n t e r i o r
of C, PS < r. Hence,
PF < r, and so F is in
the I n t e r i o r of C and
Condition (3) h o l d s .

Note on Corollary 13-2-6. This corollary d i f f e r s from

Case (3) of Theorem 13-2 in t h a t the point In the i n t e r i o r
of C does n o t have to be F, the foot of the perpendicular
to the line. Probably most students will consider this
difference quite unimportant, and a proof of an obvious fact
as very superfluous. While you may not care to b r i n g it up,
a significance of this corollary is that it indicates the
p r e c l a i o n of o u r treatment of c i r c l e s using Theorem 13-2
which allows us to glve a formal proof of such an I n t u i t i v e l y

417

417

obvioua r e s u l t .
The idea of congruent c i r c l e s gives you an excellent
opportunity to discuas the general Idea of congruence.
Point out that to say two figures are congruent means that
they can be made to "fit" or that one is an exact copy of
the o t h e r . B u t It is very d i f f i c u l t to give the student a
precise mathematical definition of the Idea until he knows
a f a i r amount of geometry ( s e e Appendix on Rigid ~otion).
Therefore we d e f i n e congruence piecemeal f o r segments,
angles, t r i a n g l e s , c i r c l e s , arca of c i r c l e s and so on. B u t
in each c a s e we frame the d e f i n i t i o n to ensure that the
figures are congruent, that i s , "can be made to fit". So
in the present case, we define c i r c l e s to be congruent if
they have congruent radii n o t because we consider t h i s
condition to be the basic idea, but because we are
intuitively c e r t a i n that I t guarantees that the circle can
be made to fit.
It might be well to remind the studenta o f what is
involved i n the concept of the distance between a point and
a line, including the case where the distance is z e r o ,
Note that In t h e proof of Theorem 1 3 - 3 we have assumed
t h a t t h e distance from each chord to the center I s n o t zero.
If it is z e r o , each chord is a diameter and the theorem
still holds.

Proofs of Thearema 13-3 and 13-4

Theorem 13-3. In the same c i r c l e or congruent c i r c l e s ,
chords e q u i d i s t a n t from the center are congruent.

AB

Given: Chords
equidistant from

and

m,

P.

- -

To prove : AB
Let

CD .

1 AB

and
as in the figure.
PF
Draw r a d i i PE and PD.
Then in r i g h t triangles
PEB and PFD we have:

PE

(3)
(4)

h PEB = A PFD.
EB = FD.

(1) Given.
(2) Radii of same or congruent
c i r c l e s are congruent.
( 3 ) Hypotenuse and Leg Theorem.
( 4 ) Corresponding p a r t s .

(5)

EB

( 5 ) Corollary 13-2-3.

(1) PE = PF.
(2)
PD.

PB =

(6)
(7)

= $4~.

,
=+$D.
=

&D.

AB = CD

or

AB
CD.

(6)

Subs t i t u t l o n .

(7)

Algebra.

Note that t h i s proof s t i l l holds if

as shown below:

AB

intersects

CD

Proof of Theorem 13-4: In the same c i r c l e or congruent

c l r c l e a , any two congruent chords are equidistant from the
center.

Given: Chords
E.
P is t h e c e n t e r of the
circle.

where
as

PB

and

To prove: PE = PF
PE % and
i n the figure.

Draw radii

( I ) Radii o f same or congruent

c i r c l e s are congruent.
(2) Given.

( 2 AB = CD.
(3)

+AB =

( 5 ) EB
(6)

;CD.

417

(3) Multiplication, Step 2.

m.

A PEB % A PFD.
( 7 ) PE PF or PE

(4)

Corollary 13-2-3.

(5)

S t e p s 3 and 4.
Hypotenuse -Leg Theorem.
Corresponding p a r t s .

(6)
=

PF

(7)

treatment we have implicitly

assumed that the d i s t a n c e s of the chords f r o m center P a r e
not zero. If both distances are zero, t h e chords are
diameters and the theorem 1s c o r r e c t . Could one dfstance
be zero and t h e o t h e r not? The answer of course is no, and
is j u s t i f i e d by the following minor theorem: A diameter is
the longest chord of a c i r c l e . (See Problem S e t 13-1,
Problem 4 .)
In this chapter there are very many interesting results
of t h e theorems in the t e x t proper. Many of these i n t e r e s t i n g facts are to be found in the problem s e t s , accompanied
As in the conventional

by problems providing numerical application of the fact.

In asalgning problems, teachers should be careful to watch
f o r such sequences and select accordingly.

--

Problem Set 13-2

a.

Corollary 13-2-4.

e.

Corollary 13-2-2.

c.

C o r o l l a r y 13-2-6.

g.

C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.

d.

Corollary 13-2-5.

h.

Theorem 13-4.

2.

(See

Teacher's Commentary f o r proof of Corollary 13-2-3.)

3.

(See Teacherfs Commentary f o r proof o f C o r o l l a r y 13-2-5.)

4.

By Corollary 13-2-5, the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of a

chord passes through the center of the c i r c l e . Hence,
to find the center draw any two chords in the c i r c l e
and the perpendicular bisector of each. The i n t e r section of these bisectora will be t h e center of the

418 1.

Theorem 13-3.

Corollary 13-2-1.

circle.

419 5.

Draw aperpendicular from C to MN, formlnga

right triangle. Then the distance from C to

16.
6.

As in the figure,

CB = 15 and DC = 12.
Then DB = 9 , and
the chord is 18
Inches long.

[pages 418-419 1

3-4-5
is

e.

420

8.

C.

j.

D.

PT

Let
intemect
a t F. Then FB = 6.
A BFP is a 30 60
right triangle. Hence

PB = 4
420

9.

fi.

S l n c e a tangent t o a c i r c l e is perpendicular to the

radius drawn to the p o i n t of c o n t a c t , the two tangents

will be perpendicular t o the same line and are, therefore, parallel.
"10.

CD is tangent

3.

OC=OA=OB.

4.
5.

L A fuL ACO.
LACOGLCOD.
L COD E L B O D .

6.

7.
8.

OD=OD.
b OCD~AOBD.

12.

OBD = 90.
is tangent
at

Corresponding angles of
parallels.
Definition of c i r c l e .
Theorem 5-2.
Alternate i n t e r i o r angles.
Steps 2, 4, and 5 .
Identity.
S . A . S . and Steps 3 , 6, and
7
Definition of congruent
triangles.
Corollary 13-2-1.
Steps 9 and 10.
Corollary 13-2-2.

B.
[pages 419-420 1

11.

Draw

OR. %LAB,

by Corollary 13-2-1. AR = BR,

by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.

421 12. Here are three arrangements.

*13.

L be the common tangent.

Then in both cases,

PT l and
L by Corollary 13-2-1. But there
exists only one perpendicular to a line at a p o i n t on
the line. Hence
and &T are collinear. T h i s
means t h a t P, &, and T are collinear.

Let
-

[pages 420-4211

422 "15.

16.

( S e e TeacherTs Commentary

AEP

Glven:

f o r proof of Theorem 13-3 .)

L DEP .

AB h! CD.

Prove:

Draw
- -

1CD.

and

Then A PGE
and A PKE: are right
triangles with

PK

GEP = rnL HEP, and

EP = EP. Hence,
A PGE A PHE, making
PC = PH. By Theorem
13-3, AB S Z .

rnL

17.

Since

RD = RE,

DA

1B and
F

DA

EC.

AB = BC

EC = 91 C

by Theorem 13-3.

But

by Corollary 13-2-3. Hence,

18. By Corollary 13-2-4 t h e sewent joining a mid-point o f

a chord to the c e n t e r is perpendicular to the chord.
By Theorem 13-3 these segments a l l have equal lengths.
By t h e definition of a circle, all points equidistant
from a p o i n t lie on the circle having the p o i n t as
center and f t a radius equal to the distance. By
Corollary 13-2-2 the chords are all tangent to the
inner c i r c l e .

w1m

AC

1 CD,
-

Definition of a circle.
*

BDLCD.

w llW*
- 11
CT Q TD.
mL CTO = mL DTO
= 90.
OT
OT.
A CTO
CO a DO.

DTO.

Corollary 13-2-1.
Given.
Theorem 9-2.
Theorem 9-26.
Perpendicular lines form
right angles.
Identl ty

S .A.S.

Corresponding parts

423

Notice how c l o s e l y the basic theorem on secant and

tangent planes, Theorem 13-5, follows the pattern of Theorem
13-2, the basic theorem on s e c a n t and tangent l i n e s of a
c i r c l e . As in the case of ~hgorern13-2, the point Q plays
a major r o l e in Theorem 13-5 and Its c o r o l l a r i e s .
Note that to prove (3) we show that two aets are
425
identical; that is, the inters,ection of E and S is the
same s e t as the c i r c l e w i t h center P and radius

Jn.
Q ia
the

T h i s 18 why there a r e two parts to prove:

(1)
in
intersection then Q is in the c i r c l e ;

If

and conversely, ( 2 ) if Q is In the c i r c l e then Q is In

the i n t e r s e c t i o n . (Compare the discussfon of the alleged
identity of t h e Yale Mathematics Department and the Olympic
Hockey Team of the Commentary, Chapter 10.)
Observe that we establlah (1) and ( 2 ) by showing:
( I + ) If a p o i n t is common to E and S its distance

fmm P

is

(2')

Jn.

If a p o i n t is in E

and its distance f r o m

la
then it La common to E and
Compare w i t h Case ( 3 ) of Theorem 13-2.

S.

Proofs of the Corollaries

426

Corollary 13-5-1. Everg plane tangent t o S i a perpendicular to the radLus drawn to the p o i n t of contact.
Given: Plane E tangent
t o S at p o i n t R.
To prove: Plane E perpendicular
to the radius drawn to the point
of contact.

[pages 423-1261

We will use the same method as in C o r o l l a r y 13-2-1.

L e t F be the foot of the perpendicular from P to E.
Slnce E is tangent to S and meets it in only one point,
Cases (1) and (3) of Theorem 13-5 do n o t apply. Therefore
(2) a p p l i e s so t h a t F 1s on S and E is tangent to S
at F. Therefore PF is the radius drawn to the p o i n t of
contact and E 1 PF.
426

C o r o l l a r y 13-5-2. Any plane perpendicular t o a radius

at its o u t e r end is tangent to S.

Given:

Plane E is
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to radius
PR a t X.

To prove: Plane E is
tangent t o S
Then R

is the f o o t of the perpendicular to plane E

f r o m P. By Theorem 13-5,
plane E intersects S
only at R, hence, E
is tangent to S .

C o r o l l a r i e s 13-5-3 and 13-54 are a c t u a l l y n o t

corollaries t o Theorem 13-5 s h c e t h e i r proofs do n o t require
the theorem. They are easily proved and are placed here
simply f o r convenience.
of

Corollary 13-5-3. A p e r p e n d i c u l a r from

S,
b i s e c t s the chord.

t o a chord

AB

By Theorem 13-1, the plane determined by F and

i n t e r s e c t s S in a g r e a t circle. Then a p p l y i n g Corollary
13-2-3 we g e t A& = BQ.
A proof using congruent triangles is also p o s s i b l e .

C o r o l l a r y 13-5-4. The segment joining the center to

the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

Given: Sphere S with

the mid-point of chord E.
is the center of S .

TO

prove:

PD 1AB.

in Corollary 13-5-3,
the plane PAB intersects
S in a great c i r c l e . Then
by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-4.
PD
As

Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .

--

Problem S e t 13-3

2.

By C o r o l l a r y 13-5-3, the perpendicular b i s e c t s t h e

chord. By Pythagorean Theorem, one-half the chord
I s 8, so the l e n g t h of the chord is 16.

3.

By the Pythagorean Theorem,

QX = 4 inches.

4.

OQ and % are perpendicular

to the planes
- of the c i r c l e s
Theref ore OQ 1
and
OP
%. OA = OB, by the
d e f i n i t i o n of sphere, and
0Q = OP , by hypothesis.
Then, by the Pythagorean
Theorem, QA = PB. Hence
c i r c l e Q S c i r c l e P,.
by definition.

[pages 426-4271

427 ' 5 .

s i n c e they a r e ' r a d i i o f the c i r c l e of inter- s e c t i o n , and OF = AF by hypothesis. A l s o ,

OF
AF,
OF LG, and
Hence, A A F B Z A AFO E A BFO,
and A AOB I s e q u i l a t e r a l . Therefore A 0 = 5 ,
mL A O B = 60, and OG, t h e altitude of' A AOB,
AF = B F

I=.

equals

*6.

428 *7.

JT.

Call the t h r e e p o i n t s A , B, C. To f i n d t h e center o f

t h e c i r c l e , in the plane ABC c o n s t r u c t t h e perpendicu- l a r b i s e c t o r s o f any two of t h e t h r e e segments AB, BC,
AC, The b i s e c t o r s i n t e r s e c t a t t h e c e n t e r , Q, o f t h e
- c i r c l e . QA, QJ3, o r QC is a radius o f the c i r c l e .
Construct t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to plane ABC at Q. T h i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r meets the sphere in two p o i n t s , X and
Y. Determine t h e mid-point, P, of XY. P is t h e
- center of the sphere. PA, PB, or PC is a r a d i u s
o f the s p h e r e .
By Theorem 13-5 we know t h a t plane F i n t e r s e c t s S in
a c i r c l e . By P o s t u l a t e 8, the two planes i n t e r s e c t i n a
l i n e . S i n c e both i n t e r s e c t i o n s contain T, t h e c i r c l e
and l i n e i n t e r s e c t at T. If they are n o t tangent a t
T , t h e n they would i n t e r s e c t in some o t h e r p o i n t , R ,
a l s o . Point R would then lie in p l a n e E and in
sphere S
B u t t h i s i s i m p o s s i b l e , since E and S
are t a n g e n t a t T. Hence, t h e c i r c l e and the line a r e
t a n g e n t , by definition,

8.

By d e f i n i t i o n , a g r e a t c i r c l e lies i n a plane through

t h e c e n t e r o f t h e sphere. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e two
p l a n e s must contain t h e c e n t e r of t h e sphere, s o that
t h e segment of the i n t e r s e c t i o n which is a chord of the
sphere is a diameter o f t h e sphere, and a l s o o f each
circle.

C pages

427- 428 3

428

*9.

The plane of the perpendicular great c i r c l e Is the

plane perpendicular t o the l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e planes of the given two, at t h e center of the
sphere. There is only one such plane, by Theorem 8-9.
Any two meridians have the equator as their comon

perpendicular.
*10. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the spheres is a circle. This can
be shorn as follows : Let M and M'
be any p o i n t s of
the intersection. Then A AMB Si A AM'B by S . S . S .
If
MO and M t O '
are altitudes from M and MI,
AAMO 9 A AM'Ot
by A . A . S . ,
so that A 0 = AOi and
0 = 0'. Hence all points M l i e on a plane perpendicu@
l a r to AB a t 0 and on a c i r c l e with center 0 and
radius OM. S i n c e A and B are each eouidis t a n t
from M and N, then a l l points on AB are equiC,
d i s t a n t from M and N, by Theorem 8-1, and AB is
perpendicular to the plane of the i n t e r s e c t i o n , by the
argwnent above. By Theorem 11-10, we have M O = 5 in
A MOB. In A MOA, by Pythagorean Theorem, we get
A 0 = 12. But OB = 5 . Hence A 3 = 17.

Caution the students that they will be finding t h e

degree measure of arcs and not the length of arcs.
432
If
is a minor a r c then t h e theorem f o l l o w from
The Angle AdditLon Postulate. (postulate 13)
432
It may be noted t h a t if ' 2 is a semi-circle, the
theorem follows Fmmedlatelg from The Supplement Postulate
(postulate 14)
The proof of the general c a s e , though more
troublesome, is made to depend upon these two c a s e s . F o r a
complete proof of Theorem 13-6 see Chapter 8 of Studies 11.

430

[pages 420-4321

432

--

In the definition of an angle inscribed in an -'

a r c it is
important to g e t across to t h e student that we are talking
about angles Inscribed in -arcs of circles. Two p o i n t s
separate the c i r c l e into two arcs. The student should see
that if an angle 1s inscribed in one of the arcs, the vertex
is on that arc and the angle Intercepts the o t h e r a r c . In
many geometry t e x t s t h i s is abbreviated to "an angle inscribed
in a circle", but t h i s can only mean "inscribed in an arc of
a circle", since t h l s is the way it has been defined in the
text.

Condition (2) f o r an intercepted a r c says, "each a i d e

of the angle contains an end-point of the arc". Notice that
in the 4th example, in the preceding figurea if one s i d e is
tangent t o the c i r c l e , the o t h e r s i d e or the angle contains
both end-points of the intercepted arc and the tangent
contains one end-point. For a discussion of Theorem 13-7
see S t u d i e s 11.
435
The "Why?" in the first case is t h e Angle Addition
P o s t u l a t e ; in t h e second case I t Is Theorem 13-6.
In Problem S e t 13-4a, Problem 1 and 6 define two terms
437-440
which you may want students to be f a m i l i a r w i t h . A l s o ,
Problems 5 , 6, 10, 11 and 12 point up interesting facts.
433

--

Problem Set 13-4a

437

1.

The center is the intersection of the perpendicular

bisectors of t w o or more chords of the a r c . ( s e e
Problem 4 of Problem Set 13-2.)

2.

Since an inscribed angle is measured by half the arc L t

intercepts, ii$ m u s t contain 90'.
Since the measure
of a central angle is the measure of i t s intercepted
a r c , 4 P = 90 and
E.

437

3.

mLA =
rnL AHK

d B by Corollary 13-7-2.
= mL BHP since the i n t e r c e p t e d a r c ? have
equal measure. Therefore A AHK w h BHF by t h e
A .A. Cbrollary

a.

ABFK,

b.

L HBF
438

4.

aince mLBFA = p1n-A B =1p-B = q B H F ,

la common to the triangles.

and

E.

Draw
We know that
is a diameter of t h e smaller
c i r c l e and therefore that 4 ARO = 90, by Corollary
13-7-1. men
I s b l s e c t e d by the smaller c i r c l e
at p o i n t R, by Corollary 13-2-3.

and BC and
draw the perpendicular
b i s e c t o r of each segment.
Sfnce the segments AB
and BC are not parallel
or collinear, the perpendicular bisectors are
A
not parallel and therefore
I
I n t e r s e c t in a p o i n t P.
This can be seen by using Theorem 9-12, Theorem 9 - 2 ,
and the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e , in t h a t order. AP = BP,
and BP = CP by Theorem 6-2. Hence AP = BP = CP.
By definition of c i r c l e , A,B,C
must lie on a c i r c l e
with c e n t e r P.

Draw

Since t h e sum of these two arcs is the e n t i r e c i r c l e ,

m L c + 4 A = 180. S h i l a r l y , mL B + mL D = 180.

~s^T=
k?=

80,

150,
= 95,
= 60,

~LT
4s

= 120.

[pages 437- 438 1

439

8.

By Problem 6 ,

and L B X Y are supplementary and

L D and L AXY are supplementary. But L AXY and
L BXY are supplementary. Therefore L D and L C
are supplementary and so AD I I BC
L C

9.

E.

Draw radii
and
Since
AM = BM by
C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.
APM 3 A BPM by S . S . S . (or S . A . S .
o r ~gpotenuse-Leg), s o that mL APC = rnL BPC. Also,
rnL APD = m L B P D by supplements of congruent angles.
Therefore r
d
? = &?and
= &, by the definition
c
of measure of an arc. Hence CD blsects ACB and

10.

11.

Since
By Theorem 13-7,
A = pBD
mBDC = 180, and
is a semi-circle.
n
d e f i n i t i o n , BAC is a semi-circle.

440*12.

is a r i g h t triangle with rlght angle at C, by

Corollarg 13-7-1. CD is the geometric mean of AD
and BD, by Corollary 12-6-1.
ACB

4A

= 90,

then

Hence, by

By Problem 5 we know there is a c i r c l e through A ,B,C

C*
Let CD Intersect t h i s c l r c l e In Dl. Then ABCD' is
BAD1 is
inscribed in the c i r c l e , and, by Problem 6 ,
supplementary to L C . But L BAD is supplementary to
L C by hypothesis. Therefore, L BAD'S L BAD, s i n c e
supplements of the same angle are congruent. Hence,
and D = D t .

%?=st
*13.

Since AC and
a r e tangent at the end-points of a
diameter, then AC 11 E. A l s o , AC and
are
segments of chords In the larger c i r c l e which a r e
congruent by Theorem 13-3. By Corollary 13-2-3, the
radii
bisect these chords, so that
- and
AC CS BD. Therefore quadrilateral ADBG I s a parallelogram, by Theorem 9-20. But the diagonals of a parallelogram b i s e c t each other, so t h a t
and 5 bisect
each o t h e r at some p o i n t , P. Now 0 I s the mid-point
of E, so P = 0, and C , 0, D are collinear,
making CD a diameter.

[pages 439- 4401

Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .

441

Theorem 13-9. In the aame c i r c l e or in congruent

c l r c l e s , If two arcs are congruent, then so also are t h e
corresponding chords.
Using the figure In the text f o r Theorem 13-8 we see
that :
Given: 3 E
To prove: AB = A I B ' .

mt.

Since
= AlBl,
L P Pi L Pl, and by S.A.S. Postulate we
have d APE P: A A t B f PI
Therefore AB = A t B 1 , by corren
sponding parts. If
and A t B t are major arcs the same
concluslon holds. If t h e arcs are semi-circles then the
chorcds are diameters and are congruent.

442

1 SQR

Theorem 13-10 is m e d i a t e if

is a right angle,
since then the Intercepted a r c is a semi-circle.

Here is a proof f o r Theorem 13-10 in t h e case in which

L SQR l a obtuse.
Given: L SW is obtuse.
To prove:

4 SQR

= pQXR.

be the ray opposite

to QS. Let x and y be
the measures of L SQR and
L T W , as in the figure.
Let

3.

QT

--+

180

1
- TQYR.

I1
1

Theorem 13-10, Case in

1.

text.

2.

Supplement Postulate.

3.

Steps l a n d * .

5.

D e f i n i t i o n of measure of a
major a r c .

[pages 441-4421

443

In Problem S e t 13-4b, Problems 8, 9, 10, 14 and 16 are

i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in t h e i r own r i g h t and are applicable
to many numerical probleme. They a r e e a s i l y grasped and
proved. However, they am n o t essential to l a t e r deductive
proof in the t e x t .
In the theorems on these pages we w i l l be e s t a b l i s h i n g
relationships about the products of the l e n g t h s o f segments
by f i r s t establishing a p r o p o r t i o n Involving t h e s e segments
using s irnllar triangles

Problem -S e t 13-4b

443

1.

(See Teacherls Commentary f o r proof of Theorem 13-9.)

2.

a.

S i n c e chords

b.

a
ia=m.
From a a

and
off congruent minor arcs
Theorem 13-6,
+ n@
n
=

mL

A =

AF

we g e t

are congruent, they c u t

n
HAB and F'BA, By
n

s, and

so

by Theorem 13-9.
BFA by Corollary
by A . S . A .

HA = FB

and rnL AHB = rnL

Then A AMH a ABMF

= n@

4B

13-7-2.
3.

AB

is a s q u a r e , DA
a E , and therefore,
S
Z
by Theorem 13-8. Then 4 DEA =
AEB
= mL BEG s i n c e they are Inscribed angles which i n t e r cept congruent arcs in the same c i r c l e .

Since

ABCD

rnL

4.

a.

L BAC.

f,

LADC.

b.

LCAF.

g.

L DCA, L DBA.

h.

DAF.

d.

L ADB, L BAF.
L DAF.

1.

LEAL

e.

LDCB.

$.

L DBC.

c,

444

5.

Since

PQ

mFB = 120, mL BPC = 60

1E ,

rnL BPQ

so t h a t

right triangle.

by Theorem 13-10.

= 30. A APQ
AP = 4 n .

Hence,

1s a

30

60

"6.

Draw the common tangent at H. Then the angle formed

by the tangent at H and l i n e u is measured by the
same arc as the angles formed by the line u and the
tangents at M and N. Then t h e tangents at M and
N are p a r a l l e l by corresponding angles in one case
and by alternate i n t e r i o r angles in the o t h e r case.

*7.

Draw

E.

1-

By Theorem 13-7, mL BPR = p B R .

By Theorem

13-10,
BPT =
But mk~= KB, so rnL BPE
= r n l 5PT.
i&mind
BE
by d r f i n l t i u n of
d i s t a n c e from a p o i n t t o a l i n e . PB = PB, so
d PBE S h PBF by A . A . S Theref o r e , BE = BF, which
was to be proved.

445

8.

Draw

E,

forming A BCE.

9.

Draw

E,

forming

10.

BCE.

Then,

Then, m L E

mL C +

m L ABC

mi B

- mi C

The proof is the same as f o r Problem 9 , except that

Theorem 13-10 is used to g e t the measure of one angle

in each case.
11.

mL DEB

&=30.
n
mCD = 30.
=

rn&

25.

= 30.

mLBAD=30.
mL AGE = 70.
mL DGE = 110.
rnL ADK = 140.

[pages 444-4451

446

12.

~DT
= 88 and I&? = 122.
mL EDC = m L DBC = 31.
4 CMD = mL AMB = 4 ABC = 75.
= 105.

m L FDB

= 88.

4 ACB
mLCAB
~ D C
DEC
mL DFA
4 CAP

4 CDF
4 ACE
13.

4 CM3
= 4 DCB

mLDMA =

rnL ACD = 4 DBA =

= 4 CDB = 61.

=
E~ B D =
E 92.
=

57.

48.

= 119.

149.
136.

a.

By Corollary 13-7-2,
ADP = 4 BCP and
m i DAP =
cBP. Hence A APD - A BPC by A . A .

b.

Since similar triangles have corresponding sides

proportional,

have
4 .

44.

a.

AP

PC = PB

PD Clearing
F.

PD.

h?,

4 DAC =
and
= $&?. Therefore 4 DAC

By Theorem 13-10,

13-7,

4B
LD

of f r a c t i o n s we

by Theorem
=

4 B.

Since
is common to the triangles,
A A B D - A C A D byA.A.
b.

Since similar triangles have corresponding sides

BD
AD
proportional,
=
Clearing of fractlona we
2
have BD CD = AD

m.

m@
=
&+&=&+m@.

Now

4 PRQ

Therefore

+16.

Case I:

Case

mG$

+ a.Similarly,

i(m$

1
,{muc

L PRQ

working with

+ 116
=9
+(m@
) + m@ +
+ &) + ;(mG +

L b,
m?~)

a)

Is a right angle, by deffnition.

Draw t h e diameter from P. Since the diameter

is perpendicular to the tangent it is perpendicular t o AB, By Theorem 9 - 1 2 . Theren
fore,
= mBP.

TI: Draw the diameter perpendicular t o the secants.

fi
By Case I, n@ =
and m@ = mDP. By
subtraction, m ~ =3

a.

Case 111: The diameter from

P will have Q as i t s
o t h e r end-point, by Theorem 9-12 and Theorem
13-2. Then the two arcs are semi-circles
having equal measures, by d e f i n i t i o n .

Alternate proofs involve drawing radii to form congruent

t r i a n g l e s , or drawing chords which am transversals and
using alternate interior angles.

Theorem 13-13 i s sometimes stated, " ~ l v e na tangent and

a secant t o a circle from an external point, t h e l e n g t h of
the tangent 1s the geometric mean o f the l e n g t h of the secant
and the length of i t s external sement " The reasons in the
proof are as follows:
(1) Theorem 13-7; ( 2 ) Theorem 13-10;
( 3 ) Substitution; ( 4 ) C o r o l l a r y 12-3-1 (L Q = L Q, ~dentity);
(5) Corresponding s i d e s of similar triangles are proportional ;
( 6 ) Multiply both s i d e s by QR QT.
451
Theorem 13-14 stated in words is, "1f two chords i n t e r s e c t w i t h i n a c i r c l e , the product of the lengths of the
segments of one equals the product of the lengths of the

450

segments of the other. "

If the labeling of the figures f o r Theorems 13-12, 13-13,
and 13-14 is kept consistent as illustrated below
A SQU A TQR in each case,

SQU

A TQR

Theorem 13-12
W - Q S= QU0QT

SQU *

A TW

Notice that we used U as

t h e name of the p o i n t of
C,
contact of the tangent QT
in A SQU and used T as
the name in A TQR. Theorem

but since T = U
Q R q Q S = Q U 2 = W2 .

{pages 450-451j

SQU A T&R
Theorem 13-14

Q R m W= QUO QT

&R-QS = QU-QT

Since
we g e t

T U
QR QR = QT W
= S

and

m 2 = &2T .
Since &R and QT are
p o s i t i v e numbers we have
Theorem 13-11, &R = m.

QU- QT.
S i n c e Q = R = U then
QR = 0 and QU = 0 , hence
QR

o*&T
o = o

0-Q3 =

and t h i s is a t r i v i a l
result, but the pattern
W ' Q S = Q U * W still
holds.

--

Problem S e t 13-5
452

1.
t
,

I.

EH
are tangents at
3, D, and F
AC,

CE

and

1.

Given.

Theorem 13-11.

3.

Addition.

respectively.
2.

3.

CB
EF

CD.
ED.

CB+EF=GD+DE
=

2.

CE.

By Theorem 13-12,

x(x

x2

453

+ 13) = 4
+ 13x = 48.

3.

Let

4.

By Theorem 13-14, we have

BK

= a.

12.

Then by Theorem 13-13,

t
,

1.

AB and BC are
tangent a t A and

1 1.

Given.

C,

2.

respectively.
AAOB and h COB

2.

Corollary 13-2-1.

are right triangles

3.

4 ABO

4.

= 60.
1
AB=$IB;

5
6.

rnL CBO

3 .

mL

ABC = 120,

and

Theorem 13-11.

CB

1
+B.

A3

CE = OB.

4.

Theorem 11-9.

5.

Addition.

Since tangents to a circle f r o m an external p o i n t a r e

congruent ,

SN = SP,
NR = RM,
CL = CP,
DL DM.

Adding and grouping,

(sn + m) +
SR

7.

(CL + DL)
CD = SC + RD.

= (SP

e CP) + (m + DM)# or

Let r b e the radius.

Then, by Theorem 13-14,
(r + 8)(r - 8) = 6 . 6 ,
2

454 9.

- 64 = 36,

r = 10.

L e t the radius of the c i r c l e be

r.

Then by Theorem

454

10. Since a l l angles of the triangle have a measure of 60

the minor arc has a measure of 120. This leaves 240
for the measure of the maJor a r c .

11.

If m is t h e length of the shortest of t h e f o u r segnents,

t h e rest of i t s chord would have to be the longest of the
segments. Otherwise t h e product of the segments of t h i s
chord would certainly be less than the product of the
segments of the other. Hence, if it were p o s s i b l e to
have consecutive integers for the lengths they would be
labeled a s shown. But in t h i s case, by Theorem 13-14,
it would be necessary that:
m[m + 3)
(m + l)(m + 2 )

m2+3m=m2 +3m+2
0 = 2.
Since t h l s is impossible, the lengths of the segments
cannot be consecutive integers.

or
or

'12.

Applying Theorem 13-13, we have

MB* = MR -MS. Hence,
Similarly CN = ND.

455

13.

internal,

a.

Four;

b.

One I n t e r n a l ,

c.

Two external only.

d.

One external only.

e.

None.

two

AM^

= MB2

AM^

= MR

and

AM = MB.

two external.

t w o external.

and

455 *14.

and &8. L e t AB interaect 5 at P

B = 90, and rnL APR = rnL BPQ by v e r t i c a l
Therefore A APR .v A BPQ by A . A .
This g i v e s

Draw r a d i i

rnL A

angles.

RP

RR

suppose

NOW

QB*

meets

DC

.
RP' _ RA
v - a.

at p o i n t

Then, by a similar argument, we a r r i v e at

RP'
RP
&P1=
P
' and

Hence

"15.

Q. Therefore

and

Pl

PI

are bothbetween

PI

P.

R&

Problem 14 assures us t h a t
and CD meet
the same point P. Therefore, by Theorem 13-11,
PA = PC and PB = PD. Addlng, we have

PA
456

and

PB

PC

PD,

or AB

at

CD.

4 *

5 1z.

In A PW, RQ =
PQ) - (PR)2 Hence
RQ = 48. But AB = RQ, sfnce RQBA is a rectangle.
Therefore, AB = 48.

16. Draw

17

As In the previaus problem, draw a perpendicular from

the center of the smaller c i r c l e t o a radius of the
larger c i r c l e . By the Pythagorean Theorem, t h e
distance between t h e centers is 39 Inches.

18. Draw &E

then QE
*lg.

Let

iv.Since
= 12 =

and

PQ = 20

@
I
(-)

16,

is very small compared to

5280,

is exceedingly small, and is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .

Hence,

By Theorem 13-13

d2

ap>roximately,

AI~.

be t h e required distance.

Now since

PE

d =

is roughly

2 A.

[pages 455-4563

= 1.23 f i .

[=I h
So

Review Problems
minor a r c .

a,

chord.

b.

diameter.

C.

secant.

g.

major arc.

d.

radius.

h.

inscribed angle.

e.

tangent.

i.

c e n t r a l angle.

f.
( a l s o chord.)

55 and 70.
mL AXB

= 90,

because it is inscribed in a semi-circle.

n

4 AXY

= 45. mAY = 90 s I n c e L AXY I s inscribed.

Hence the measure of central angle ACY is 90 making

1 E.

a.

True.

f.

True.

b.

True.

g.

False.

c.

False.

h.

True.

d.

True.

i.

True.

e.

False.

j.

True.

Let
= r. Then
PCH = 90 - r,
NHC = 180 - (90 - r) or 90 -t- r. Then
N)IR =
NHC
90 = ( 9 0 + r)
90 = r.
Hence, I& = 4 NHR.

The f i g u r e shows a crosss e c t i o n with x the

depth to be found.
2
2
25 = 20 + (25 - x12

225 = (25
X)
15 = 25 x
10 = x
The depth is

10

inches

459 8.

By the Pythagorean Theorem,

AQ = 9 . If r is the
radlus, then OD = r - 9
and OC = r . Hence, in

A DOC,
r2 = ( r - 9 ) 2 + 1 22,
r2 = r2 - 18r
1 8=
~ 225,
r = 12.5.

81 + 144,

The diameter of t-he wheel is

25

inches

long.

9.

*lo.

Consider the distance

BX to any other point
X on the c i r c l e , and
the radius CX.
BC + AB = AC = CX. By
Theorem 7-7,
BC + BX > CX. Hence,
BC -t. BX > BC + AB and
BX > BA.
Alao BX < BC + CX,
or
Ex ( B C + ca = BD.

(4000)~
=
(4000

4000

(loo)*+

X
C"

(4000-x)~

x12 = 15,990,000.

= 1.25,

3,998-75.

approx.

The shaft will be about

1 miles deep.
lT

460 11.

4000

and AX = AP, because tangent s e p e n t s to a

c i r c l e from an external point are congruent. Therefore,

AY = AP

AY = AX.

l(8 + I) = 9 , by Theorem 13-13.

PX = XY = 3 , 8 0 QX = 2 and XZ
= 2. 6, by Theorem 13-14.

AP =
~p =

*12.

AX
AX = 4.

The angle measwes can

be determined as shown.
Hence, A PAR and
A QCR are equilateral
triangles and PRQB is
a parallelogram.
PC = PR + RC = AR + RQ.
But AR = AP and
RQ = PB. Hence,

PC

= AP

+ PB.

6.

Illustrative Test
Items for Chapter 13
--A.

Indicate whether each of the following s t a t e m e n t s Is true o r

false.
1.

a c i r c l e b i s e c t s a chord of t h a t circle
which is n o t a d i a m e t e r , then the diameter is perpendicul a r to the chord.

2.

If a line b i s e c t s both the major and minor arcs of a

given chord, then It alao b i s e c t s that chord.

3.

If two chords of a c i r c l e are not congruent, t h e n t h e

shorter chord I s nearer the center of the circle.

4.

If the measure of an angle inscribed in a c i r c l e 1s 90,

If

a diameter of

then t h e measure of i t s i n t e r c e p t e d arc is

5.

Any two angles which

45.

intercept the same arc of the same

c i r c l e a r e congruent.
6.

Two concentric circles have at least one point in comon.

7.

A n angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.

8.

If the i n t e r i o r s of two spheres each contain the same

given p o i n t , t h e n the spheres i n t e r s e c t in a c i r c l e .

9.

If two c i r c l e s are tangent internally, then t h e segment

j o i n i n g their centers is s h o r t e r than the radlus of
either circle.

10.

If t w o arcs, each of a different c i r c l e , have the same

measure, then their chords are congruent.
Given: AB I( C
D as
ahown, with mR = 100
A
and mCD = 40.
Find: a.
B.
b.
c

mLC.

m L DAB.

In the f i g u r e , XY is
tangent to c i r c l e 0
at B. Find

C.

1.

The mid-point of a chord

Two parallel chords of a c i r c l e each have length 16.

The distance between them is 12. Flnd the radius of
the c i r c l e .

3.

Two concentric c i r c l e s have radii of 6 and 2

r e s p e c t i v e l y . Find the length of a chord of the l a r g e r
c i r c l e which is tangent to the smaller c i r c l e .

4.

The distance from the mid-point of a chord 12 inches

long to t h e mid-point of its minor a r c is 4 i n c h e s .
Find the radius of the c i r c l e .

5.

In a c i r c l e , chords AB and CD intersect a t

AE = 18, EB = 8 and CE = 4 . Find ED.

Given:
bisects
t
,
H. DE
FH = 3 ,

inches in length I s 12
Inches from the center of a cfrcle. Find the length of
the diameter.

Find:

Chord BP
chord
at
is a tangent.
BH = 12 and

AC

AC

and

DE.

10

E.

4-+

1.

Given: CA is tangent
to c i r c l e 0 at A .
Prove:
BAC =
0.

&

2.

3.

Given:
Prove:

AB

=a.
11 CD.

Prove t h a t a parallelogram inscribed in a c i r c l e is a

rectangle.

4.

Given: C i r c l e P with
w
C-,
AB, ,
and DE
tangent to t h e circle
as shown.
Prove: AB + ED = BD.

Given: Two c i r c l e s are tangent at A and t h e smaller

c i r c l e , P, passes through 0, the center of the
larger c i r c l e . The l i n e of centers c o n t a i n s A .
Prove: The s m a l l e r c i r c l e b i s e c t s any chord of the
l a r g e r circle that has A as an end-point.

NO

is a radius of
sphere 0. A t 0,

plane F NO. A t
P between N and 0 ,
plane-E Z.PY
and OX a r e coplanar
r a d i i of the c i r c l e s
in which E and F
i n t e r s e c t sphere 0.
If
=
explain why PY = $ OX.

----

+a,

6.

False.

True.

7.

True.

False.

8.

False.

False.

9.

False.

False.

10.

False.

True

a.

26

60.

b,

100

inches.

10.

8 f l

(from

2 a ) .

20.

(use auxiliary

segment

or

RS

OB. )

4.

Let r be the radius.

36 = 4(2r - 4 ) .
52 = 8r.
6.5 = r. The radius
is 6.5 inches long,

4 BAC =
4 0 = mA3.
h

Hence

mL

BAC =

+l 0.

AD.

Draw
Then rnL BAD = mL CDA since they i n t e r c e p t
congruent a r c s . AB )I
because of the congruent
a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles formed,

m,

Given: ABCD is a
parallelogram i n s c r i b e d
in c i r c l e 0 .
Prove: ABCD is a
rectangle.

3.
n n
ADC Z ABC,

@
LD
ABCD

and
I s a semi-circle.
is a right angle.

is a rectangle.

2.
3.

Opposite angles o f a

parallelogram are congruent.

A r c s intercepted by congruent inscribed angles.
An angle i n s c r i b e d i n a
semi-circle is a right

angle.
D e f i n i t i o n of rectangle
and Theorem 9-23.

4.

Since tangents to a c i r c l e from an external p o i n t are

congruent, we have AB = BC and DE = DC, By addition,
AB + DE = BD.

5.

Let

AX

b e a chordof
c i r c l e 0 which i n t e r sects c i r c l e P at Y.
Prove: AY = XY.

z.

Consider
L AYO
18 a right angle, because
it is inscribed in a semiA
c i r c l e . AY = XY because a line perpendicular t o a
chord and containing the center of the c i r c l e b i s e c t s
the chord. (Since OA and PA are perpendicular to a
common tangent at A , P must lie on

x.)

6.

since N b l ~at
-

NO

1F,and

P,

OPY

l a a right triangle.

Since
F at
NOX = 90, and

0,

rnL

F r o m properties of a
30 - 60 r i g h t triangle
PY = 1
But OY = OX.

p.

merefore,

PY = +OX.

Chapter 14
CHAWCTEBIZATION OF SETS.

CONSTRUCTIONS.

This chapter could be entitled Loci and Constructions.

It deals w i t h the traditional material of loci and ruler

and compass c o n s t r u c t i o n s , and t h e treatment is mostly conventional. The only r e a l innovation is t h e use o f the term
tt
characterization of a set" rather than "locus" as explained
below,
The teacher may notice w i t h r e l i e f o r chagrin t h a t the

word locus does not occur in t h i s c h a p t e r of the t e x t . I t s

omission is deliberate. Conventional texts generally
c o n t a i n the phrase "locus of points" or " l o c u s of a p o i n t " .
The phrase arose historically t o mean (1) a description of
t h e "location' of a l l p o l n t s which s a t i s f y a glven condition
o r ( 2 ) the path of a p o i n t which "moves" so as to s a t i s f y
t h e condition. In each case the l o c u s i s a f l g u r e , that i s ,
a s e t of p o i n t s . Since we a r e already farnillar w i t h the
term s e t , i t seems u n d e s i r a b l e t o Introduce a superfluous
term which students o f t e n f i n d conflrsing.
A more s l p i f i c a n t advantage, however, is that it allows
us to concentrate on and develop the essential issue: t o
d e f i n e each s e t by a common, o r characteristic, p r o p e r t y of
its elements. We are concerned w i t h defining, or characteri z i n g , a s e t of p o i n t s by means o f a property which each
p o i n t of the s e t must satisfy. Note that this poLnt a r i s e s
i n o t h e r branches of mathematics. F o r example, in algebra
we define the s e t of even integers by speclf'ying a characteristic property (namely, d i v i s i b f l i t y by 2) s a t i s f i e d by every
even i n t e g e r and by no o t h e r i n t e g e r ,

462

To summarize: We characterize a s e t by specifying a

condition which is satisfied by all elements of the set,
but no other elements; we call the condition a
characterization of t h e set. To show t h a t a c e r t a i n set i s
characterized by a given condition, we muat show (I) t h a t
each p o i n t of t h e s e t s a t i s f i e s the given c o n d i t i o n ; and
(2) each point satisfying the condition is a point of the
set. Thus, we muat prove (1) a theorem and (2) I t s converse.
Sometimes it is convenient to prove (2) by the indirect
method
We mentioned above that i n o r d e r t o characterize a
figure, we must prove a theorem and i t s converse. Conslder

I d e n t i f y the set of points equid i s t a n t from two intersecting lines. Having drawn two
i n t e r s e c t i n g lines L1 and L2 as below, a student might
proceed to use t h e property t h a t each p o i n t of the bisector
of an angle is equidistant Prom the sldes of the angle and
conclude , t h a t L3 is the required set of points.
t h e following example';

His solution, however, is not correct, s h c e he has found

only a part of the required s e t . If he said t h a t every
point In this s e t was equidistant from the two intersectlng
lines, he would be coprect, but if he were to try to
establish that every p o i n t t h a t satisfied the given condition
was In this s e t , he would readily see his error, For there
is a p o i n t Q, as in the figure below, t h a t is equidistant
from L1 and L2, but whfch does n o t l i e i n Lg. In f a c t
there are many points which have this property, and we see
that the set defined is not just one l i n e , b u t two l i n e s
determined by t h e bisectors of the a n g l e s .
[page 4621

In Problem S e t 14-1, the term cylindrical surface is

used. The meaning should be Intuitively clear to students
and may be used accordingly.

--

Problem S e t 14-1

463 1.

The s e t of p o i n t s is a sphere with c e n t e r

and radFus

inches.

2.

The set of p o i n t s is a c i r c l e in
and radius 3 inches.

3.

The s e t of points is the line In the plane E which I s

parallel to each of the given lines and equidistant
from them.
Given Line

with center

Solution Set

Given L i n e

4.

>
P

0 be t h e point of E which is the foot of the

perpendicular from C to E (1.e. OC l a 3 Inches
Let

long)

a.

The s e t of points is a circle with center

radius 4 inches.

b.

The s e t consists of the single p o l n t

0 and

443

c.

There a r e n o p o i n t of E 2 inches from

the required s e t is the empty s e t ,

a.

There are four such points.

C.

Hence,

L; CD 11 L; AD ( 1 M; BC 1 1 M. The
required s e t consists of the p o l n t s of the
parallelogram A3CD together with all i n t e r i o r
points.

11

a.

The s e t c o n s i s t s of t w o p o i n t s , the t h i r d v e r t i c e s
of the two equilateral triangles which have AB
a s one sfde.

b.

The solution s e t is the intersection of the t w o

c i r c u l a r regions with centers A and B respect i v e l y and radii 4 feet.

463

7.

c.

The mid-point of

d.

The empty s e t .

is the only point of t h e s e t .

The s e t is the union of a p a i r of line segments p a r a l l e l

to and having the same length as AB and two semic i r c l e s with radius 1 inch and centers A and B
respectively, as shown.

--

Problem Set 14-2a

464

1.

a.

The sphere whose center is the given p o l n t and

whose radius is the given distance.

b.

The cylindrical surface with t h e given l l n e as

axis and the given distance as radius.

c.

The two planes parallel to the given plane and at

the glven distance from it.

d.

The four lines which are the Intemections of the

following s e t s of planes: t w o at the given dlstance from one of the given planes, t w o at the
given distance from the o t h e r given plane.

[pages 463- 4 4 4 )

e.

The intersection of the two spheres having the

given p o i n t s as centers and the given distances as

radii. T h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n may be a c i r c l e , one

p o i n t , o r the empty s e t .
f.

A cylindrical s u r f a c e ( s e e

two hemispheres
2.

k55

3.

above) capped by

a.

The l i n e which is the perpendicular bisector of' the

segment jolning the two given p o i n t s .

b.

The I l n e p a r a l l e l t o the given l i n e s and midway

between them.

c.

The two lines which bisect t h e angles made by the

given l i n e s .

d.

One p o i n t - the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e perpendicular

b i s e c t o r s of t w o of the s i d e s of the triangle
determined by the given p o i n t s .

a.

The perpendicular b i s e c t i n g plane of t h e segment

joining the given p o i n t s .

b.

The perpendicular b i s e c t f n g plane of a segment

which i s perpendicular a t i t s end-points t o the

given lines.
c.

The plane which is p a r a l l e l t o the given planes

and midway between them.

d.

Two planes which b i s e c t the dihedral angles made

by the given planes.

e.

A c o n i c a l surface composed of l i n e s through t h e

foot of the perpendicular and making

with the given l l n e .

4.

5.

a.

1.

true.

2.

false.

b.

1.

true.

2.

false.

45'

angles

The pole should be placed at t h e point where the perpendicular bisectors of two sides of t h e t r i a n g l e

intersect

[ pages 46 4- 465 1

46

6.

The perpendicular bisecting plane of

mid-point of AB.

466

7.

The p o i n t is t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of the perpendicular

b i s e c t o r s of t w o of the segments joining the pairs of
p o i n t s . If the points are collinear the two perp e n d l c u l a r bisectors will, of course, be parallel.

8.

P o i n t s e q u i d i s t a n t from t w o given p o i n t s l i e in a plane

P o i n t s equidistant from two g i v e n parallel planes
rl,
a l s o lie In a plane r2. In general, t h e intersection
of two planes I s a line, but if the two planes should
be parallel, the i n t e r s e c t i o n is the empty s e t or if
the two planes should be equal the requlred s e t is a
plane. In summary the s e t may be a l i n e , a plane, or
the empty s e t ,

"9.

The unlon of the i n t e r i o r s

of two c i r c l e s with 4 cm.
radii and centers at the
given p o l n t s

[pages 465- 4661

minus the

\
,
,
,
,
c,

1
I

*12.

Two pins are put I n a

drawing board, at F
and G , and a loop of
s t r i n g of length 9
is placed around them
and pulled taut by a
pencPl at P. As the
p e n c i l moves, always
keeping the string
taut, it describes a
figure c a l l e d an
"ellipse"

'-

,
,
,
,
4

d= l

(Center of
square is part of
the se t 1

467

To Justify Statement 1 we are assuming f r o m the diagram

t h a t since D is in the i n t e r i o r of L BAC so is P.
+
(D is in the i n t e r i o r of L BAC since AD is the b i s e c t o r
of L BAC.) This can be proved formally by using Theorem
6-5 and t h e definition of the i n t e r i o r of an a n g l e .
In o r d e r to i l l u s t r a t e the p r e c i s i o n with whlch we must
define a set of p o i n t s , t h e following problem m i g h t be
presented to the class:

Given two p o i n t s A and B, what is t h e s e t of

p o i n t s C such t h a t A ABC i s a r i g h t triangle?
A t f i r s t thought, one might c o n s i d e r that the angle

i n s c r l b e d in a semi-circle is a r i g h t angle and give t h e

f o l l o w i n g as a p l c t u r e of the set:
C

N o t e that p o i n t s A
and B a r e n o t i n the
set.

However, the problem d i d not say, "What is the s e t of p o i n t s

C such that A ABC is a right triangle w i t h right -angle a t
-C." The r i g h t angle might equally well be a t A o r at 3,
and we have t o draw the s e t like t h i s :

Note again that p o i n t s

A and B a r e not in
the s e t .

The set c o n s i s t s of a l l p o i n t s on a c i r c l e with diameter

and also a11 points on the l i n e s perpendicular t o t h i s
diameter at A and B excluding t h e p o i n t s A and B .

AB

469

In Theorem 14-2 we are referring, of course, to the

perpendicular bisectom of the sides in the plane o f the
triangle.
Theorem 14-2 wlll be used later to circumscribe a c i r c l e
about a triangle. The construction is a d i r e c t consequence
of the theorem. Since the p o i n t of concurrency is the center
of the circumscribed circle, it is called the clrcumcenter
o f the triangle.
In the proof of Theorem 14-2 we can answer the questfon
" ~ h y ? " , as f o l l o w s .
Suppose L~ 1 1 L*. we h o w
L~
M

and AC
L2. Hence
are perpendicular t o

C+

AB
L2,

1 Lp.

Thus the t w o lines

and m u s t be parallel.

v, %?

Proofs of the Corollaries

470

Corollary 14-2-1. There is one and only one c i r c l e

through three non-collinear p o i n t s .

Since the existence and uniqueness of a point equidistant

from the three vertices of a t r i a n g l e 1s proved in Theorem
14-2, the center and radius of a c i r c l e containing m y three
non-collinear p o i n t s are uniquely detepmined.

C o r o l l a r y 14-2-1. Two d i s t i n c t c i r c l e s can intersect in

at most two p o i n t s .

Theorem 13-2 rules out the possibility of more than t w o

c o l l l n e a r p o i n t s and Corollary 14-2-1 rules out the possibility
of three, or more, non-colllnear points.

470 w In the proof *

of Theorem 14-3, L1 is
DE because L1 1 BC and BC 11 DE.

perpendicular t o

The point of concurrency of the altitudes of a triangle

i s called the orthocenter. We have shown in Theorem 9-27 that the medians of a
triangle are concurrent a t a p o i n t , c a l l e d the centrold of
the triangle.
I

It is interesting to note that in a given t r i a n g l e , the

orthocenter, circwncenter and t h e centroid are collinear.
This leads t o an interesting problem. If we draw the segment
between t h e orthocenter and the circwncenter and find i t s
mid-point, then using t h i s point as center and the d i s t a n c e
from t h i s p o i n t to the mid-points of the sides of the tri-

471

angle as a radius and draw the c i r c l e defined by these

conditions, we g e t what is called the Nine-poht C i r c l e .
This c i r c l e has the following properties: It passes through
the mid-points of the s i d e s , it passes through the feet of
t h e t h r e e altitudes of the triangle, and I t passes through
the mid-points of the segments j o i n i n g the orthocenter (point
of Intersection of the altitudes) to the vertices.
For complete rfgor in the proof of Theorem 14-4, one
+
-a
should f i r s t prove that AD and BE really do i n t e r s e c t .
The proof is as follows : S h c e 4 A 4- 4 B + mL C = 180,
and rnL ABE < 4 B, and 4 BAD < L A , then we have
m L ABE + rnL BAD < 180.
M
M
Now BE and AD are n o t . p a m l l e 1 , since otherwise we would
have rnL ABE + 4 BAD = 180. (we are using the fact that E
and D are on t h e same s i d e of
to ensure that L ABE
and / BAD are a air of i n t e r i o r a n-~ l e son the same s l d e
t
,
@
of the transversal
Thus BE and AD Intersect.
*
L e t BE1 and
be the rays
+
+
E'
opposite to BE and AD. Then
-2one of the f o u r cases must hold:

s.)

(1)
i n t e r s e c t s A D This
is impossible s i n c e if their
p o i n t of Intersection were T,
the t r i a n g l e TAB would have
two angles the sum of whose
measures was more than 180.
b' "
+
( 2 ) BE' I n t e r s e c t s AD.
This is impossible, s i n c e the rays
l i e onopposite s i d e s of AB.
( 3 ) BE i n t e r s e c t s
This l a impossible for the same
reason as ( 2)

[page a 470-471 1

--*

-+

BE i n t e r s e c t s AD. Being the only possibility left,

t h i s must be true.
Notice that we have used no special property of b i s e c t o r s ,
4
+
merely the fact that BE and AD (excluding B and A )
are in the i n t e r i o r s of
B and L A .
Theorem 14-4 will be used to inscribe a c i r c l e in a
t r i a n g l e . We can see that the p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t f o n is
equidistant from the sides of the t r i a n g l e , and a c i r c l e
with t h i s p o i n t as center and the distance from t h i s p o i n t
to a s i d e as radiua, will have the sides of the triangle as
tangents. T h i s p o i n t of concurrency is called the i n c e n t e r
of the t r i a n g l e .
(4)

Problem -Set 14-2b

472

1.

The p o i n t is the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f
of L B .

2.

The fountain should be placed a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the

bisector of

LB

PQ and the b i s e c t o r

and the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of

The proof is almost

i d e n t i c a l with t h a t of
Theorem 14-4: If t h e
b i s e c t o r s of L BAC
and L DBC meet at P,
P is equidistant from
C,
AB and A C , and a l s o
frorn%8and%?
A
But ==%?,
hence,
P is equidistant from
C
e
CE and BC and lies
on the b i s e c t o r of L BCE

DC.

472

4.

This follows by applying Theorem 14-4 and Problem 3 to

the bisectors of the i n t e r i o r and exterior angles of
the triangle as shown.
p4

Let rn be the radius of any c i r c l e w i t h center M and

n be the radius of any circle with center N. Then
the situations are:

6.

The angle b i s e c t o r s are not necessarily concurrent.

They are concurrent f o r a square or a rhombus. In
general, they are concurpent if and only if there exists
a c i r c l e tangent to each of the aldes of the quadrilateral.

7.

Each of the s l x segments is a chord of the c i r c l e .

Hence, each perpendicular b i s e c t o r passea through the
center of the c i r c l e .

[pages 472-4731

473

8.

The required s e t is the c i r c l e w i t h the segment as

dlameler, but with the end-points of the segment omitted.
If P is in t h i s s e t , then
APB is a right
triangle by Corollary 13-7-1.
If L APB is a right
angle, l e t 3 i n t e r s e c t
t h e c i r c l e in Q. Then
L A Q B is a r i g h t angle by
Corollary 13-7-1, and hence,
Q = P by Theorem 6-3,
Therefore P lies on the
A
c i r c l e , but P # A and

P #B.

--

Problem S e t 14-3

474

1.

There will be two p o i n t s P, the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the

c i r c l e with center A and radius 4 , and the c i r c l e
w i t h center 3 and radius 5 .

2.

The two p o i n t s P, PI
are the intersections
of t h e perpendicular
b i s e c t o r of
and

4~
Y

AB

the c i r c l e whose center

[pages 473- 4741

'3.

1,

?
n are the
bisectors of E, E,
and BC respectively.
Each passes through the
n
center 0 of the c i r c l e .
Thus the p o i n t s i n t e r i o r
to the c i r c l e and to the
Y
left of 1 (shaded
horizontally) are nearer
to A than t o B.
S i m i l a r l y the points ins l d e the semi-circular
region shaded vertically are nearer to A than to C.
The required s e t is the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the i n t e r i o r s
of these two seml-circular regions (the interior of the
sector ODAE)
m,

475

4,

a.

Twopoints,the
intersections of
the c i r c l e w i t h
c e n t e r B and
radius 4, and
the c l r c le with
center C and
radius 3 .

Two p o i n t s , t h e
intersec t l o n s of
circles with
c e n t e r s B and
C and radius 10.

47 5

c.

Two p o i n t s , t h e
intersections of
t h e circle with
c e n t e r R and
radius 10, and
the perpendicular
b i s e c t o r of G.

d.

One p o i n t , the

intersection
-

of
BC and the c i r c l e
with center B and
radius 2, and t h e
circle with c e n t e r
C and radius 4.

475

The inclusion o r some compass and straight-edge con-

structions in the text is a luxury, a concession to the

i n t e r e s t t h l s t r a d i t i o n a l t o p i c has always generated in
geometry classes. Under ruler and p r o t r a c t o r postulates the
r e s t r i c t i o n Go compass and unmarked s t r a i g h t -edge is quite
a r t i f i c i a l . FOP example, to d i v i d e a aegrnent i n t o seven
congruent segnents w e need only t o d i v i d e i t s length by seven
and plot the a p p r o p r i a t e points on the segment. A n angle can
be divided up by a s i m i l a ~process uslng a protractor.
C e r t a i n l y one of t h e quickest ways to construct a perpendicul a r t o a line is t o u s e a p r o t r a c t o r t o c o n s t r u c t an angle
of go0
The main reason f o r t h i s bow to tradition, t h e n , i s t o
attempt t o capture the interest which arises from the challenge
t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n s provide. Historically, compass and straightedge constructions have been tremendously important in stimulating simlffcant advances in mathematics, as in the theory
of higher degree equations or in provlng t h a t r is a t r a n s [page 4751

47 6

477

479

cendental number. We hope that your students will likewise

enjoy and benefit from the many challenges found in the
theorems and problems of these sections.
The absence of Theorem 14-5 in Euclid's Elements is one
of the reasons why present-day geometers state t h a t t h e
p o s t u l a t e system of Euclld Is incomplete. For a more complete
discussion of the need f o r t h i s theorem see S t u d l e s 11.
Notice that for every construction, the t e x t gLves a
proof. When the students do some of the constructions f o r
themselves, some of these should be aceompanled by a proof
that the c o n s t r u c t i o n is c o r r e c t . A c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s of a
c o n s t r u c t i o n problem w i l l y i e l d a proof w i t h just a l i t t l e
more work than doing the construction.
Notice how the Two-Circle-Theorem is used to e s t a b l i s h
t h a t the two c i r c l e s in t h i s construction theorem do a c t u a l l y

intersect.

P~oblem-Set 14-5a
460

1.

Part

4.

a.

is n o t possible.

If the length of the given segment

AB

I s c,
draw the c i r c l e s w i t h center A and radius c,
c e n t e r B and radlus c . Since c + c
c,
these
c f r c l e s intersect a t C and C 1 , say, and A ABC
and A ABCt are e q u i l a t e r a l .

>

b.

If c Is t h e length of the given base 5 and r

is the l e n g t h o f the s i d e , then t h e two c i r c l e s
wlth c e n t e r s A and B and r a d i u s r will I n t e r sect a t C, C 1 , say, if and only if, r >
and A ABC and A ABCf will be i s o s c e l e s w i t h
base E.

%,

48 1

482

In Construction 14-8, the condition that r should

s a t i s f y to insure the intersection of t h e c i r c u l a r arcs in
1
two p o i n t s , is that r must be greater than
the l e n g t h
of t h e given segment. In t h i s particular problem, r > $B.
A value of r that is sure to work is r equal to the
length of t h e given segment; in t h i s problem r = AB will
always work.
Notfce that Construction 14-9 works just as w e l l if
I s on L.

--

Problem Set 14-5b

483

C*

1.

Construct B C L A C .
Make % B: E.
A ABC is t h e requf red
triangle,
I
N
J

Construct t h e perpendicular blsector

of
\
meeting AC in M. Mark
o f f MB, MD on 1 ,
each congruent to AM.
ABCD is the required

z,

[pages 480-4831

483

3.

Make F H S A B . Construct
the perpendicular bisect d
of E. w e Z SEE.
Bisect
Make
1
XR=XW=PQ.
FWHR is
the required rhombus

~ *

E&.

4.

On
QW

AF as a "working line", make XW = d and XQ = e .

is the base of our triangle. C o n s t r u c t +
XR w
AF
and on it make XP = h.

PQ=AB, QR=CD.
M is the mid-point
+
of E.
QT L
I PR.
---+
QT meets semi-circle
at S. QS is the
geometric mean of
AB and CD.
y-

/
1

d Q

I,
R

48 4

48 5

Other ways to construct a line parallel to a given line

through an external p o i n t are (1) c o n s t r u c t corresponding
angles congruent and (2) construct a line perpendicular to
a line through the given p o i n t perpendicular to the given
line.
On the basis of a c o n a t m c t i o n very aimilar to 14-11 it
is possible to divide the length of a given segment in a
given ratfo. Given a sement AB, we want to divide AB
i n t o two segments such that the lengths of these segments
will be in some given ratio, say
The construction is
as
-- follow:
S t a r t i n g at A drew any rag
and a ray
not
+
+
----*
collinear with ray AD. On AD mark off AB and on AC
mark off? AE = a and EF = b. Draw BF, and through E
+
construct a l i n e L parallel to BF intersecting AD at

3,
-

Then

t*

Proof: Since we have in A ABF, EG parallel t o BF and

Intersecting AF and E, then I t follows from Theorem 12-1
AG
AE
that; i?;~
=
hence, AG = a

m,

Probley Set

as center and the

length FX as radius,
s t r i k e an arc and with
K aa center and length

as radius, strike
another a r c i n t e r s e c t ing the first a t X
E
on the opposlte aide
4+
of KE f r o m D. D E E is t h e required parallelogram.
(1f both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
congruent, it is a parallelogram.)
7

486

2.

as radius and 0 as center, construct an

arc as shown. Count the number of small arcs ( 9 in
this example) and draw a radius from 0 to the fntersection of t h e a r c and the (n + 11th line (10th in
t h i s c a s e ) . The radius OB congruent to the original
segment, will be divided by the lines o f t h e paper i n t o
congruent segments, which may be marked off on OA. We
assume that the lines of the paper are parallel and
that they intercept congruent se-ents on one transversal (the margin of the sheet of paper). See
Theorem 9-26.

UsIng

OA

CI

[pages 485-4861

486

3.

Corresponding segments on
e qua 1 length.

-BD,

AC

are parallel and of

- QM,
RL, SA

Hence, the sefgnents PN,

487 4.

Hence,

BX

XY

= ZA.

YZ

BP = 1 and BX

= XY.

are p a r a l l e l .

Similarly,

Divide
i n t o three congruent segments. Construct an
e q u i l a t e r a l triangle with one of theae segnents as s i d e .

5.

Divide AB i n t o five congruent segments.

them as the base.

6.

In effect we have here, " ~ the

f
diagonals of a quadril a t e r a l b i s e c t each other, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram", and we know that the opposite a i d e s of
a parallelogram are parallel.
Alternate proof:
angles.

7.

Uae S . A .S

Use one of

. and alternate i n t e r i o r

On an arbitrary ray
through A lay-off
segments AC and

x,

with C between A
and D, of lengths a
and b.- Through C
draw CX [I
A ACX
A
and A ADB are similar
AX
a
( A . A . ) and have ~8 = 6.

E.

[page 486-4871

487.8.

Construct a triangle
AR = 2m.

ARC

with

AC = b,

C R = c,

AR

Bisect
at T. On %? take B so t h a t CT = TB.
Then A ABC is the required t r i a n g l e for A ABT S A RCT
by S . A . S . , so AB = CR = c . C l e a r l y , AT is the median
and AT = m by construction,

488 +g

Construct

and divide it i n t o three congruent

E (one of the t r i s e c t i o n p o i n t s )
AB, Make EX = AE, CE = BE. A DBC

AB = x

segments.

A t
M

construct CE
is the required t r i a n g l e .
To prove that BA and CX
are medians, draw AX.
NDW,
EAX and ECB
are isosceles triangles
with congruent vertex
angles and so angles s
are all congruent.
Then
I [ CB and
A EAX A EBC w i t h
0

AX

E -- 2'

and DA

Also
=

1
7,

DAX

so

A DCB

is

C,

the mid-point.
If CA and BX were p a r a l l e l , AX
would have t o equal CB. T h i s we have shown is not
C--*
true, so 3 and BX must i n t e r s e c t .

488 *lo, Analysis of problem: The common tangent LN meets m

at L, and LK = LN = Dl, so L is the mid-point of
KM. PN
and PM
m. Now proceed as follows:
Bisect
let L be the mid-point. With center L
and radius LK construct an arc i n t e r s e c t i n g c i r c l e C
u
at N. Construct
and f j f f l L N ,
intersecting
in P. Then PM = PN and the required c i r c l e has
center P and radius PM.

m;

%?lm

The problem will be s o l v e d if we c a n f i n d Q, the

intersection of t h e cormnon external tangent and the
l i n e determined by the centers. In the figure,
QDB and QCA are similar, being right triangles
with a cormnon acute angle.
Theref ore.

We can find Q by drawing a ray A F maklng a con+

4
venient angle with AB, then drawing the ray BG
+
p a r a l l e l to 3 and on the same side of AB. Q is
+
determined as the intersection o f FG and
slince
triangles AFQ and BGQ are sfmilar, and
A&
AF
,r as desired.

x,

m=m=

Let c
be an a r c of 120'.
Then 4 AQC = 120 f o r
n
any p o s i t i o n o f Q on the a r c . S i m i l a r l y , l e t BRC
be an arc of 120'.
Hence, if P is t h e p o i n t of
i n t e r s e c t i o n (other than C) of the two a r c s , we have
APB = 120.
mL APC =
BFC = 120. It follows t h a t
( A complete analysis of t h i s problem, including the case
in which one angle has measure > 120, is v e r y
complicated. )

mL

rnL

*13.

By A . A . ,

Hence,

By A . A . ,

A DPN and A MPC - A NPA

MB - MP and MC = 5.
MP
ND-m

A BPM

A Q3M

NA

and h QCM - A QDN

MQ
and MC

h QAN

Fiq

so t h a t

so t h a t

m=m.

Hence,
Thus the ratios

"

MC and

Theref o r e

and

MC

= MB.

a r e each equal to

ND
m.

499

500 3 .

d.

g o 0 + 45',

or

180'-

45'.

e.

60'

60,

or

180'

- 60.

f.

30+450,

or

90'-

g.

60+450,

or

90*+15O.

h.

2%'

is half of

45',

1
5
'
.

and

6 7 * 0 = 4 5 0 + 2 % lo
.

In t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s , each figure is merely a

sketch o f the completed f i g u r e .

a.

Construct L B
congruent t o the
glven angle. Make
BC = a. Find t h e
mid-point D of
BC. U s e D as
center and m a as
r a d i u s to i n t e r +
s e c t BA at A .
There are cases in which the c o n s t r u c t i o n is
impossible and cases in which t h e r e are two
solutions,

b.

Construct

LACRZLX.

Then
ACB is t h e
third a n g l e of the
t r i a n g l e . Make
C A = b and CB B=+ aA. ,

' B/

---- R

500

c.

segment
RB perpendicular to
a "working l i n e " ,
XW, at any convenlent p o i n t and

Construct
-

make

Using

RB =

%.

as c e n t e r

X A

and a as radius,
c o n s t r u c t an arc
H
i n t e r s e c t i n g XW a t

Using C as center and

u
b as radlus construct an arc intersecting at
A.
(Two solutions in general, depending upon where
+
A is taken, on the ray CR o r on the opposite
d.

C.

Construct LWAB
congruent to L A .
Construct i t s bis e c t o r , AX. F ~ k e
AB = c . Connect
B w i t h X. The
w
goint at which BX
w
meets AW is C.

solution, in c a s e
BX I I
)

e.

E.

Since we are given

L 3 and s i n c e
m L A X B = 90, we
can construct
XAB. Then cons t r u c t A ABX by

constructing

AX

I=,

(of length ha)

and L XAB. Using
A as center and ma
as radius, f i n d M, then make
[ page 500

MC

= MB.

500

S t a r t by
-

constructing
(of length ha)
perpendicular to a
"working line", BC
S i n c e we are given
B and since
4 BXA = go,
m L B A X can be
B
eas ily cons t r u e t e d
AX

Similarly

L CAX

can be constructed.
Construct these two
angles at A .

Construct CX (of
length hc) perpendicular t o
U s e C as center
and t, AS
radius

=.

the b i s e c t o r of
L C, c o n s t r u c t
on each s i d e of
CY and angle
whose measure is

idc.
C o n s t r u c t an angle
congruent to L A
and make AC = b.
Using C as center
and tC as r a d i u s ,
c
find X. We now
have A XCA of measure 1

L XCB

L XCA.

4 C.

construct

500 4.

A BPM - A DPA,

and so

by A . A . A . ,

BP

Hence,

1 BD.
3

W =I 1 DB, so that P
are t h e trisection p o i n t s of BD.
In the right t r i a n g l e ABM, the r a t l o
2.
A similar argument shows

and

If

rnL BAM

hence,

= 30,

BAM

t h i s r a t i o would have to be

and

*go0.

Hence the t r l s e c t l o n of the segment BD would not lead

t r i s e c t i n g L BAD.
Definltlon of isosceles
triangle.

D and E

will be
inslde the c i r c l e ,
because AD and
AE are each less
than the radius.
A
This can be shown
by considering a
segment joining A to t h e mid-point M of BC-,
AM
and D and E a r e nearer M than B
and C a r e .
If RE is drawn, area A BRD = area b EDR, hence,
area DRSE > area A BRD, and, by a d d i t i o n ,
area A ARS > area A ARB. But if L BAC were
trisected, we would have area A ARS = area A A R B .

L E

6.

BA

at 0 , anddrop A H I Q P . Then
A Q?IA 2 A QGA A QGB,
+
from which the d e s i r e d r e s u l t follows. Notice t h a t &A
+
and QG are t r i s e c t o r s of (L PQR.

Let

QD meet

Review Problems

2.

Divide

into 4 congruent segments. B i s e c t a 90'

Construct the rhombus us i n g a 45'
angle and

AB

angle.
1 AB f o r each s i d e of the rhombus,

3.

a.

Construct the c i r c l e on
c i r c l e minus A and B

b.

See the solution of Problem

as diameter. The
is the set of points P.

8 of Problem Set 14-2b.

4.

The s e t is t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of two parallel lines (each

at diatance d from L) and a c i r c l e (with radius r
and center P). T h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n may be the empty set
or 1, 2, 3 or 4 p o i n t s .

5.

Examples of such quadrilaterals are rectangles and

isosceles trapezoids. More generally, if a quadrilateral
has t h i s property, then the point of concurrency is
equidistant from each vertex, hence, the c i r c l e with the
point of concurrency as center and t h e distance to each
vertex as radius passes through each vertex. Conversely ,
any quadrilateral whose v e r t i c e s l i e on some c i r c l e has
the property that t h e perpendicular bisectors of the
a i d e s are concurrent, so that a quadrilateral has t h i s
property if and only if, there is a c i r c l e on which a11
four v e r t i c e s lie.

6.

The perpendfcular b i s e c t o r s of any two chords of the a r c

will intersect at the center of the c i r c l e .

Let

be the length of the given segment.

Using any
square f i n d d r , t h e difference between the diagonal
and s i d e . In the p r o p o r t i o n d = ''
s will be the
s '
length of t h e side of the required square.
d

504 8.
9.

No, n o t If

A3

or

>

AB.

Consider a c i r c l e with center P and radius PA. A ,

B,
C and D will lie on this circle. Since parallel
lines Intercept congruent a r c s ,
= m a and
n
n
= m ~ i . Hence, m?~ +
= mCD + mAD. Hence, AC
is a semi-circle and mL B = 90 so the parallelogram
is a rectangle.

a
10.

>

Consider a c i r c l e ' w l t h center P and radius PA. The

parallel chords
and CD I n t e r c e p t congruent arcs
3 and
These arcs have congruent chords so that
the trapezoid is i s o s c e l e s . Conversely, only one such
p o i n t P exists f o r a given isosceles trapezoid.

e.

504 11.

L e t fl, m, be the given

parallel lines, and n
the t r a n s v e r s a l . Any
p o i n t equidistant from
n
m and n must lie on
one of the b i s e c t o r s
p , q, of the angles
determined by m, n.
S i m i l a r l y , any pofnt
equidistant from 1
and n must lie on
one of the bisectors
r, s of t h e angles
determined by
n.
Thus, any p o i n t equidistant from 1 , rn,
n, must l i e on the
intersection of the s e t A , consisting of l i n e s p
and q, and s e t B, consisting of lines r and s .
Since these lines are parallel in pairs (easily proved)
the intersection of s e t a A and B consists of two
points only. In the diagram these are the points X
and Y where q i n t e r s e c t s s and r i n t e r s e c t s p.

1,

for Chapter
Illustrative Test Items Given
and p o l n t s
K and Q in vlane E.
Tell how t o locate a
p o i n t on W fiifh~ihis
equidistant from K
and Q.

A <

*B

'0

Consider all c i r c l e s in one plane tangent to AB at

Describe the s e t of p o i n t s which are centers of the
circles.

A.

Describe the s e t of centers of c i r c l e s Fn one plane

w
w i t h radius 3 which are tangent to AB

Describe the set of points I n the plane which are equidistant from the sides of
ABC and at distance x
from B.

If t w o parallel planes are d units apart, what will be

the length of the radii of spheres t a n g e n t to both
planes? Describe the a e t of centers of spheres tangent
to both planes.
Describe the s e t of points which are at distance
from A and at distance 6 from B.

Given r i g h t A ABC with

as hypotenuse. Describe
the s e t of polnts C in the plane of the t r i a n g l e ; in
apace.
Describe the s e t oP mid-points of parallel chords in a
circle.

Under what conditlona will the centers of c i r c l e a

inscribed in and circumscribed about a triangle be the
same point?
Describe the s e t of centers of c i r c l e s tangent to the
s i d e s of an angle.

11.

Under what conditions will one vertex of a triangle be

the i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t of t h e altitudes of the t r i a n g l e ?

12.

Under what conditions will the p o i n t s of concurrency of

altitudes, medians and angle b i s e c t o r s of a t r i a n g l e be
t h e same p o i n t ?

Construct an isosceles triangle in which t h e base is

half the length of one of t h e congruent s i d e s and f o r
which AB Is t h e length o f the perimeter.

Construct a rhombus in which the l e n g t h s of the diagonals

are a and b.
3.

C.

Construct an i s o s c e l e s
triangle with base A 3
and base angles each
measuring 7 5 .

If problems are chosen from t h i s s e c t i o n , we s u g g e s t g i v i n g

each s t u d e n t a mimeographed sheet on which the problems are
arranged an8 on which t h e s t u d e n t does t h e constructions.
T h i s will make the papers easier to check.
1.

By c o n s t r u c t i o n locale
points a t distance d
from
and a t
d i s t a n c e h from Q.
I

3 y construction locate
points which are squi4
distant from AB and
4
BC and equidistant
from X and K, as
shown.

3.

%3 and W

intersect

at some inaccessible
point C *
By con~trmctLondetermine
the bisector of & ACF ,
F

4.

Given line / and

c f r c l e C, as shown.
C o n s t r u c t a c i r c l e of

radius x tangent to
-%'and C.

Answers
w

The i n t e r s e c t i o n of AS and t h e perpendicular b l s e c t o r

w
of KQ is the p o i n t in question. If K&
AB t h e r e
w i l l e i t h e r be no such or an infinite number.

The line perpendicular to

Two l i n e s parallel

AB

*
AB

at

except p o l n t

and at the d i s t a n c e

A.

from

The intersection of the b i s e c t o r of L ABC, and the

c i r c l e w i t h center 3 and radius x . There is one

point.
1 d . The plane p a r a l l e l to b o t h given planes and midway
between them.
The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the sphere w i t h c e n t e r

radius
6. If

and

5,

and t h e sphere w i t h center B and radius

AB < 11, t h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n will be a c i r c l e .
If AB = 11, the intersection will be one p o i n t . If
AB > 11 there will be no i n t e r s e c t i o n .

The c i r c l e whose diameter is AB minus

The sphere whose diameter is AB minus

A
A

and
and

B.
B.

The diameter perpendicular to one of the chords, minus

the end-points of the diameter.

If and only if t h e t r i a n g l e is e q u i l a t e r a l .
The b i s e c t o r of t h e angle minus the v e r t e x of the angle.

If and only if the triangle is a r:ght

triangle.

If and only if the t r l a n g l e is equilateral.

B.

1.

Divide
i n t o 5 congruent s e p e n t s h he or em 14-11)
1
Use
AB as base and then using F AB as radius and
A and B as centers construct i n t e r s e c t i n g a r c s t o
l o c a t e a third vertex of t h e triangle.

2.

L e t B = a . L e t M bethemid-point
of AB. O n t h e
1
perpendicular b i s e c t o r of AB make QM = XM =
b.
Then AXBQ is the required rhombus.

Cons t m c t an angle whose measure is 60. By b i s e c t i n g

get angles with measures 30 and 15, hence
75 = 60 -t 15. At A and B c o n s t m c t angles w i t h
measure 75.
w

Construct l i n e s parallel t o AB at distance d .

Construct the c i r c l e Q with r a d i u s h. The points
required are the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the p a r a l l e l s and
the circle.

1 ABC

2.

One p o i n t , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of the b i s e c t o r o f
and the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of XK

3.

C o n s t m c t llnes
and /
parallel to AB and F'H
e
at the same distance from
and FH. If / and
i n t e r s e c t at Q, the bisector of L Q w i l l be
the required b l s e c t o r slnce each of its p o i n t s is
equidistant f r o m
and

f,

4.

4+a

C*

&

s.

construct parallels to / a t distance x f r o m I t .

With G as center construct the c i r c l e whoae radiua
is r + x . The intersections of t h i s c i r c l e and
either parallel will be centers of c i r c l e s of radius
x tangent to
and C .

Chapter 15

AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS

In this c h a p t e r we study the length and area of a c i r c l e ,
t h e length of a c i r c u l a r a r c and the area of a c i r c u l a r
s e c t o r , deriving t h e famllfar formulas. The necessary treatment of l i m i t s i s lest a t an i n t u i t i v e level. We study t h e
measurement of a c i r c l e in the familiar way by means of
inscribed regular polygons and so the chapter begins by
d i s c u s s i n g the idea o f polygon. T h i s has not been needed
e a r l i e r s i n c e the idea of polygonal region (chapter 11) was
s u f f i c i e n t f o r our purposes.
We want a polygon to be a simple "path" that doesnlt
506
croas itself. Property (1) takes care of t h i s , s i n c e , it
prevents two segments from crossing
Property ( 2 ) is
included for simplicfty of treatment. For example, suppose
p2,
Pg, P4 were permitted t o be collinear. Then, in the
face of Property (I), P2P3 and P3Pq would be c o l l i n e a r
sements having only P3 in common so t h a t t h e union of
P2P3 and P3P4 would sLmply be the segment P2P4 and there
would be no need to introduce P3 in t h e definition a t a l l .
As we indicated i n Chapter 11, there i s a c l o s e
connection between the Ideas of polygon and polygonal region:
The union of any polygon and i t s i n t e r l o r is a polygonal
region. Although th%a seems quite obvious i n t u i t f v e l y , it
is very d i f f i c u l t to prove since there is no simple way to
507 define i n t e r i o r of a polygon. However, for a convex polygon
it is relatively easy to define i n t e r i o r and t o see what is
involved i n a proof of the p r i n c i p l e s t a t e d above. (see
508 Problem 3 of Problem Set 15-1.)

--

Problem Set 15-1

508 1.
509

2.

It has

sides, but o n l y

5 vertices.

Yes. 1 2 2
All sides have the same length.
angles are r i g h t angles

All

"3.

a.

By d e f i n i t i o n of a convex polygon, given any s i d e

of the polygon, t h e entire polygon, except f o r that
one side, lies entirely in one of the half-planes
determined by that s i d e . The Intersection of a l l
such half-planes is the i n t e r i o r of t h e polygon.

Alternatively:
The 3 m t e r ~ e c t i o nof the interiors of a l l the angles
of the polygon is the i n t e r i o r of the polygon.
b.

i n d i c a t e ways In which any convex polygon and i t s

i n t e r i o r can be c u t i n t o triangular regions.

4.

a.

0, 2, 5, 9 , 5150,

w.

(*diagonal of an
n-gon can be drawn from each vertex t o all but
three o t h e r vertices. In doing t h i s , each diagonal
is counted twice.)

509 5.

6.

510

Since the polygon is convex i t s diagonals l i e in the

i n t e r i o r of each angle, so that the Angle Addition
Postulate can be applfed to show the sum of the angles of
the polygon equals the sum of t h e angles of the triangles.

Consider the point from which the diagonals are drawn,

the vertex of each triangle and t h e opposite s i d e the
base. A n n-gon then has n-2 such bases, and therefore
there are n-2 trlanglea. S l n c e the sum of the a ~ g l e s
of each is 180, the sum of the angles of the polygon
i a (n - 2) . 180.
The number of triangles formed with v e r t e x Q is the
same as t h e number of sides of the n-gon, so that
the sum of the angles of the triangle is 1 8 0 ~ The
sum of the angles at Q I s 360. Hence, the sum of
the angles of t h e polygon I s 18m - 360 = 180(n - 2).

We indicate how a c i r c l e can be divided i n t o n congruent

arc8 end to end. L e t Q be the center of the c i r c l e and
QP1 a given radius. Let H1 be a half-plane lying in the
H
plane of the c i r c l e with edge &PI. By the Angle Construction Postulate there is a point X in H1 such that
360

4 PleX

n '

By the P o i n t P l o t t l n g Theorem,
there is a p o i n t P2 on QX
such that &P2 = &PI. Then
n
the minor a r c P1P2 has measure
360
Now repeat the proceas
n
replacing F1 by P2 and halfplane HI by Hz, the halfplane opposite to P,I , w i t h
s
edge QP
This yields a minor
f
4
arc P2P3 of measure 7
360 which i n t e r s e c t s P ~ P * only in
P2. Continuing in t h i s way we g e t a sequence of p o i n t s
..., pn
such that successive minor
P1*
P%P3have measure 360 and
arcs PIP2,
P2P3,
' n - l nP

...,

[pages 509-5101

n
have in common only an end-point. Then the maJor arc
PIP,
n
1
has measure T4360
and t h e measure of the minor a r c
1
PIP, must be ,4360.
Thus the p o i n t s P1, PZ,
,

. ..

n' - 1,Pn
to end.
511

divide the c i r c l e i n t o

congruent a r c s , end

a r e congruent and whose

angles a r e congruent can be proved to be convex, and s o is
regular in accordance w i t h our d e f i n i t i o n . We do not prove
this because we do not need it for our application of regular
An inscribed polygon whose s i d e s

polygons to c i r c l e s .

512

We speak of the regular n-gon inscribed in a given

circle. Obviously there are many such regular n-gons f o r
a g i v e n n, but they a l l are congruent and have congruent
sides, congruent angles, and equal apothems, perimeters and
areas.
The apothem of a regular polygon can a l s o be described
as the distance from the center to a s i d e , or the radius of
the inscribed c i r c l e of t h e polygon.
We write "A s u b s c r i p t n" here to emphasize that the
area of the r e g u l a r n-gon depends on the value assigned t o
n and t o distinguish I t from the area of the c i r c l e
( c i r c u l a r region) whlch is denoted by A (see S e c t i o n 15-4).
Of course a , t h e apothem o f the regular n-gon, and p ,
i t s p e r i m e t e r , also depend on n and could be written an
and Pn*

[pages 510-5123

Problem S e t 15-2

b.

Draw a c i r c l e and construct eight 45'

central
angles. Join i n order the p o i n t s where t h e s i d e s
of the angles i n t e r s e c t the circle.

c.

D r a w a c i r c l e and construct two perpendicular

diameters. B i s e c t the four r i g h t angles formed.
J o i n in order the points where the a i d e s of the
r e s u l t i n g angles intersect t h e c i r c l e .

3.

Draw a c i r c l e and c o n s t r u c t f i v e 72'

central angles.
J o i n in order the p o i n t s where the sides of the angles
i n t e r s e c t the c i r c l e .

5.

No.

It is a 12-sided polygon a l l of whose s i d e s are

congruent and all of whose angles are congruent, b u t
it I s not convex.

8.

b.

Regular hexagonal regions.

c.

Two pentagons and a decagon.

Two 12-gons and an equilateral triangle.
Two oc tagons and a s quare.

d.

Three polygons with dlfferent numbers of s i d e s may

be used: 4, 6, 12; 4, 5, 20; 3, 7, 42; 3, 8, 24;
3 , 9, 27; 3 , 10, 15.

3.

The meaaure of each exterior angle is

180 less the

measure of an i n t e r i o r angle.
Adding n of these we get
n 180 sum of the measures of t h e i n t e r i o r angles,

515

11.

The angle sum l a increased by

sides I s increased by one.

180 while the number of

12. The radlus is a l s o 2. The apothem is the altltude of

an e q u i l a t e r a l triangle w i t h side 2, or
0

"13.

n.

In the ffgure, s i d e
of a regular inscribed
octagon is 1 unit long.
Since A ADO is a right
isosceles triangle,
RD=DO=

B D = r -

5
r

A' In right

2
2
triangle AHD,
AD + BD = m2 oor
2
r 2
( L) + ( r - -)
= I, from which r

fi

J2c

or approximately

1.3,

Beginning in S e c t i o n 15-3 the text introduces t h e notion

of a limit. It is n o t intended t h a t the students be given a
formal treatment of limits, but rather t h a t they develop an
F n t u i t i v e idea o f what a limit is. A discussion like the
following may be helpful.
When we write p + C, we have in mind that C is a
fixed number, t h e length (or circumference) of the c i r c l e ,
but that there a r e many successive values fop p , depending
on which inscribed regular n-gon we are considering. So it
l a desirable to write p,
instead of p for t h e perimeter
of the inscribed regular n-gon. Then we say p,+C,
meaning t h a t the successive numbers pn approach C as a
limit. O b ~ e r v et h a t we have an i n f i n i t e sequence or
proaresalon of numbers which are the perimeters of regular
inscribed polygons for successive values of n; we begin
with n = 3 , giving us an inscribed e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e ,

then n = 4 yfelds an inscribed square and so on. We represent t h e I n f i n f t e sequence p, as pg, p4,
P,
and we t h i n k of these numbers as being approximations
to C which g e t better and b e t t e r as we run down the
sequence. As a simple analog consider the I n f i n i t e sequence
. 3 , .33, .333, .3333, ,33333,
which arises when we divide 1 by 3 and take the successive
decimal q u o t i e n t s . These numbers are approximations t o
which get better and better as we t r a v e l down t h e sequence
1
and we may say that t h i s sequence approaches f as a l i m i t .
Other examples are the two sequences
1 1
1
1, 2, q?
,-

...,

...

...

--.

an'

..

which have limits 0 and 2. The essential p o i n t In a l l

f o u r c a s e s 1 s that each sequence has a uniquely determined
"boundary" or "limit number" and that we can reason about the
l h i t of a sequence if we know the sequence, that is, if i t s
successive numbers a r e determined. However, we can not assume
that every sequence has a limit. For example, the following
sequence has no l i m i t :
I , -2, 4, -8, 16,
.
We need t h r e e basic properties of sequences:
(I) If a sequence h a s a limit it has a unique limit.
(11) If sequence a,-a,
then sequence Ka,-Ka
for
any fixed number K.
(111) If sequence a,+a
and sequence b,-b
then

...

sequence anb,-abo
Property (I) says in e f f e c t that if t h e terms of a
sequence are g e t t i n g closer and c l o s e r t o a number a, they
can't, at the same time, be getting c l o s e r and c l o s e r to
another number b. As an llluatration of (IT) observe that
. 3 ? .33, , 3 3 3 ,
3
and that the sequence of "doubles" haa double the llmit:
2
.6, .66, .666,
+3'
To illustrate ( 111) consider

...

. ..

6 , 5.1,

5.01, 5.001,

...4

5 ,

You will easily convince yourself t h a t t h e sequence of

products of corresponding t e r n approaches 15 = 5 . 3 .
Notice t h a t in the d i a c u s s i o n s concerning limits, no
mention of "infinity" is made.
The concept of a limit does not involve any n o t i o n o f
i n f i n i t y , While the word and the symbol )
for it are
convenient in c e r t a i n branches of hfgher mathematics, they
should be avoided in introductory discussions where they a r e
neither u s e f u l n o r enlightening.
517
The p r o p e r t i e s of limits used here are easily clarhfied.
Let us write p, for p and pnl f o r p T t o emphasize
t h a t we have t w o sequences of perimeters, one f o r each c i r c l e ,
Further, we have p n d C and pn I d C t , and

NOWwe apply Property

and g e t

P"

+r'

(TI) above to p-,C

Similarly,

pnl-C1

taking

yields

pn '
--T.
r

-1
P

C'
r

To summarize, we have sequences

whose corresponding terms are t h e same numbers. That is,

the sequences are the same. Thus, by Property (I) they must
have the same l i m i t . Therefore
C
C'

'F

518

7.

For a treatment of irrational numbers, see the f o r t h c a d n g book, Irrational Numbers, by Ivan Niven to be published by Random House and the Wesleyan University Press.

Problem S e t 15-3

a.

The r a d i u z of t h e c i r c l e

d.

T h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e .
C = 2m,

628 = 6.281.,
100 = r.
The radFus of t h e pond is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
22
7

100

yards.

is the c l o s e r approxlrnation.

C = 2 ~ =
r

480,000~. The circumference i s approximately

l,5OG,OQO

miles.

The formula g i v e s 2m = 6.28 X 93 10b = 58ll

584 million miles, approximately.
Our speed is a b o u t 67,000 miles p e r h o u r .

. 10'

or

The r a d i u s of t h e i n s c r i b e d c i r c l e is 6 s o t h a t i t s
circumference is 2
The radius o f t h e circumscribed
c i r c l e is 6 f i so t h a t i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e Ls 1 2 ~ 6 ,
The p e r i m e t e r o f

P&RS

is greater than t h e circumference

o f the c i r c l e .

AD

and

XW

&?. Hence

PS

T h e perimeter of t h e s q u a r e is

2{2

The circumference of t h e c i r c l e is

The i n c r e a s e in circumference is

$(2

+ &).

+ f i ).
2 ~ .But

27r

+ fi >

in each c a s e .

-rr

520

Justification of limit properties used in Theorem 1 5 - 2 :

W ? h a v e , w r i t I n g an for a and pn f o r p , a,-+r
and

By P r o p e r t y 111 ( s e e above)

p,-+C.

1
7
anpn + T

P r o p e r t y 11,

rC.

Since

anpndrC,
1
An =
a,p,,

and by
by

substitution we g e t

A n d F

rc.

S i n c e by P r o p e r t y I sequence
1
can have only one limit, A =
rC.

But we have

A, -A.

An

F r o b l e m S e t 15-4

3.

a.

b.

4.

4a - B = 3 ~ .The area would be approximately

square cm.

9.4

No.

The a r e a of the f i r s t is

times the area o f the

second.

A r e a of c i r c l e

ioo
Tr

= 32 approx.

= 4s = 20

s =

5.

Area of square = 25.

The area of the c i r c l e is greater by about

lr,ches ,

square

52)

6.

~ ( 5 ~ 2 ) ~ - ~ ( 5 ) ~ = 2 5 7 ~ ,
The area is 2 5 ~square i n c h e s .

Radius = 4 f i inches.
Circumference = 8 fir

inches
Area

8.

487~square inches.

It is only necessary to find the square of the radius of

the circle. If a radius is drawn t o a vertex of the
c r o s s it I s seen to be the hypotenuse of a right triangle
of s i d e s 2 and 6
The square of the radius is there2
2
f o r e 2 + 6 = 40. The area of the c i r c l e is therefore
40r, 125.6 approximately. The required area is therefore 125.6
80 = 40.6.

9.

D r a w PB and PC. The area of t h e annulus is

T(PC)* - ~ ( P B2,) the difference af the areas of the
two c i r c l e s . Thls can a l s o be written T ( P C ~- P B ~ )
By Pythagorean Theorem, PC'
- PB* = BC*. Therefore
t h e area of the annulus is TBC 2

10.

The section nearer the center of the s p h e r e will be the

Therefore,
'3

rl

>

r.

524 +13.

a.

Note that

rl=OA=OR=BP

and

r2=OS = C P .

By successive use of the Pythagorean Theorem we

g e t rl = r f i ,
r , = r n , r3 = r f i .
b.

Now, using the area formula f o r a c i r c l e , we have

a = m2 ;
b = T(rfi12
a = m 2.,
c = ,(Ffil2
- ( a + b) = 3 m 2 - 2m2 = m2;
d = a(2r12 (a + b + o ) = 4m2 - 3 m .2 = a2

14.

From the second figure,

( 4 ) * - (212 = 12, and
so the altltude of' the
trapezoid is 2 6 .
In the f i r s t f i g u r e ,
since the bases are
parallel and tangent
to the c f r c l e we see
that
(altitude
of the trapezoid) must
be a diameter, and so
the radius is &.
A r e a of the c i r c l e is,
then, 3 0 . Area of
t h e trapezoid is 8&
The area outside the
c i r c l e is ( 8 f i - 37~)
square lnchea
This
is approximately 4
square inches.

6
A

I H I

y
2

525

Notice t h e common procedure In treating length of c i r c l e

In each case we "approximate" by means
of chords of t h e same length,
The agreement to consider a circle as an "arc", enables
us to include in Theorem 15-3 the case of the whole c i r c l e
as an a r c o f measure 360.
To illustrate t h e application of Theorem 15-3 and 15-4
assign Problems 1, 3, 6 and 7 ,

and length of a r c .

526

527

One concrete i l l u s t r a t i o n of a sector of a c i r c l e is a

lady's fan, with t h e ribs of the fan standing f o r the
segments QP. The a r c AB, of course, need n o t be a minor
a r c . Observe t h a t the definition can a l s o be phrased: If
is an a r c o f a c i r c l e with center Q then the s e t of
a l l p o i n t s X each of which lies in a segment j o h i n g Q
n
to a p o i n t of AB is a s e c t o r .
h

Problem -Set 15-5

528

3m

-7F

4,

The measure of the arc is

5.

a.

in each c a s e .

Area of s e c t o r

90.

The length of the arc

1.
-6

012 = 2 4 ~ .

Area of t r i a n g l e =
Area of segment

b.

= 3 6 6

= 248

3 6 f i or

= 3 T 6=!

Area

of sector

Area

of triangle = 1
L

Area of s e p e n t

6&

l27r

13.04.

12~.

3 = 9 n .

9 f i

or

22.11.

c.

a.

Area of

sector

1
8

Area of t r i a n g l e =

Area of segment

87r

28.

*8*

8a.

16 f i .

16&

b.

or

2.51.

T.

Draw
I F . Then GC = 6 , AG = 24. In t h e r i g h t
triangle A AGB, the length of t h e hypotenuse is twice
the length of one leg, so 4 ABG = 30:
BAG = 60,
and C E = GB = 2 4 n . The major a r c CD has the length
2
5(2r
30) = 4Olr and t h e minor a r c
has the length
$12 7 ~ . 6) = 4rr. Thus, the total length of t h e belt is
A

2(24a)

40a

4a

48A

-t

44~.

The belt is approximately 221 inches long.

To f i n d one small shaded

area s u b t r a c t the area of
a 90'
s e c t o r whose radius
is 2
trom the area of
a square whose s i d e is 2 5 .

The area o f the shaded area is 4

approximately 6,87 square inches

Review Problems
Thk f i r s t and t h i r d are polygons.
The t h i r d is a convex polygon.
a.

Yes.

b,

Yes.

108,

12.

120, 135,

c.

144.

No.

2).

This is

530 5.

a.

The regular octagon In each case.

b.

The apothems are equal.

The aquare has t h e greater

perimeter.

From the formula

polygon

and

Hence,
15.

1
A = 7 ap

for t h e area of a regular

2.

A =

n ( 9 )*+2,

inches, a dlstance equal to

4s and

$ r.

There are several methods

of showing that the four
small triangles are congruent to each other.
For example, each of the
angles marked w i t h an a r c
will have a measure of 60.
In t h i s case the congruence
3.8 by A . S . A .
Hence, each
of the four small triangles
has the same area, and then
the circumscribed triangle
has an area four times that
of the inscribed triangle.

g3 of i t s circumference. i

The woodchuckis burrow will be in the region bounded

n
by XOY and XPY.
The area of each of the
e a u i l a t e r a l trian~les
2
1s 6 .
The area of
each segment IS
2

im2-$n.

Then

t h e area in which t h e
woodchuck can s e t t l e is

any woodchuck b o w s .

18. Let

a and p be the apathem and perimeter of the

smaller polygon and a' and p 1 be the apothem and
perimeter of the larger polygon. The ratio of the areas
is

is

Hence,

4.
P

s,

But

SO t h a t ,

the r a t l o of the areas

=a=q=
.:

The s l d e s also

2
have t h e ratio 3.

I l l u s t r a t i v e Test Items f o r Chapter 15

A.

Indicate whether each of the following is true o r f a l s e .

1.

The r a t i o of circumference t o radius is the same nwnber

f o r a11 c i r c l e s .

2.

If the nwnber of sides of a regular polygon inscribed in

a given c i r c l e is increased indefinitely, its apothem
approaches t h e radius of the c i r c l e as a limit.

3.

Any polygon inscribed in a c i r c l e is a regular polygon.

4.

A polygon

is a polygonal region.

If the radiw of one c i r c l e I s three times that of a

second, then the circumference of the f i r s t is three
t l m e s that of the second.
The area of a square inscribed in a given c i r c l e is half
the area of one circumscribed about the c i r c l e .

In the same c i r c l e , the areas of t w o s e c t o r s a r e prop o r t i o n a l t o the aquares of the measures of t h e i r arcs.
The r a t i o of the area of a c i r c l e to the square of i t s
radius is w.
The length of an arc of a c i r c l e can be obtained by
d i v i d l n g its angle measure by a.
Doubling the radius of a c i r c l e doubles its area.

Find the measure of an angle of a regular nine-sided

polygon.

I n t o how many triangular regiom would a-convex polygonal region with 100 s i d e s be separated by drawing a l l
p o s s i b l e diagonals from a single vertex?

If the circumference of a c i r c l e is a number between

16 and 24 and the radius is an i n t e g e r , find the
radius.
If the number of aides of a regular polygon inscribed
in a c i r c l e is increased without llmlt, what l a the
limit of the length of one side? of i t s perimeter?
Write a formula for the area of a c i r c l e in terms of
i t s circumference.

If the area of a c i r c l e is

find its radius.

The area o f one c i r c l e l a 100 times the area of a

second. What I s the r a t i o of the diameter of the first
t o that of the second?

8.

The angle of one s e c t o r of a c i r c l e is

9.

A c i r c u l a r lake is 2 miles in d2arneter. If you walk

at 3 mlles per hour, about how many hours wlll it take
t o walk around it? ( ~ i v ethe answer t o the nearest

50'

The angle
of a second s e c t o r of the same c i r c l e i s 100~. Find
t h e ratio of the l e n g t h of the a r c of the Simt s e c t o r
to t h a t of t h e second, and the ratio of t h e area of the
first a e c t o r to t h a t of the second.

whole number. )

10.

C.

1.

An angle i a Inscribed in a semi-clrcle of radius 6 .

What is t h e least p o s s i b l e value of the sum of t h e areas
of the two c i r c u l a r segments t h a t are formed?
I n c i r c l e 0, chord
I s the perpendicular bls e c t o r of radius OA
OA = 6 .
n the length
Find mXAY,
of Y
the area of
s e c t o r XOY, and the
area of the region
bounded by
and

A
A

m.

is a regular hexagon
circumscribed about c i r c l e
0. If its perimeter l a 12,
find the circumference and
the area of the c i r c l e .
ABCDEF

On an a e r i a l photograph t h e surface of a reservoir is a

c i r c l e with diameter 7 Inch. If the s c a l e of the photograph is 2 miles to 1 inch, find the area of t h e
22 for r . Give t h e
surface of t h e reservoir. (use 7
result t o the nearest one-half square mile,).

True.

6.

True.

True.

7.

False.

False.

8.

True.

False.

9.

False.

True.

10.

False.

0.

The circumference of the circle.

Since

since

A =

1 to 2

= 2m,

rr2 ,

r =

s.
C;

A = (

in each case.

The sum of the areas of

t h e segments will be
least when t h e area of
A ABC is greatest. In
t h i s case the altitude
t o A C is the radius of
the c i r c l e . The sum of
t h e areas of the segments
is found by subtracting
the area of t h e t r i a n g l e
from t h a t of the semic l r C l e . The r e s u l t is
1 8 -~ 36.

c2

C.

1.

mXAY = 120, The length of

= 4s.
Area sector XOY = 1 2 ~ . Area s e g e n t XAY = 127r

9 n .

2.

The radiua of the c i r c l e is the altitude of equilateral

triangle A OAB, a o that, r
A. Hence C =
and A = 3a.

3.

The diameter of the reservoir

in miles is
"
so that i t s radius is
The area is

A.

.
square miles

2 = T,

The area of the reservoir is about

Chapter 16
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

In t h i s chapter we study mensuration propertfes of

familiar s o l i d s : prism, pyramids, cylinders, cones and the
sphere. Our proofs are conventional in spirit, although
o u r d e r i v a t i o n of the formula f o r surface area of a sphere,
based on an assumed approximation t o the volume o f a
spherical s h e l 1 , I s quite unusual In an elementary t e x t . W
e
assume Cavalierits Principle (postulate 22) in order to
avoid coming to grips with fundamental d i f f i c u l t i e s of a
type occurring In Integral Calculus. We emphasize strongly
analogies between prisms and cylinders, between pyramids
and cones. In fact OUP definitions of prism and pyramid
are formulated so as to be applicable to cylinder and cone.
These figures are d e f i n e d , quite precisely, a s a o l i d s
( s p a t l a l regions) rather than surfaces, since our basic
concern is f o r volumes of solida rather than f o r areas of
surfacea .
Notice that we deflne a prism d i r e c t l y as a s o l i d
534
(region o f space) rather than as a surface (prismatic
surface). This I s quite natural since o u r main o b j e c t of
study in t h i s chapter is volumes of regions, rather than
areas of surfaces. This is analogous t o our e a r l i e r
emphasis on polygonal regions rather than polygons. Note
how simply our d e f i n i t i o n generatea the whole solid from
the base polygonal region K, and how e a s i l y it enables
ua to pick out the "bounding surface", (see the def l n i t l o n s
of lateral surface and total surface in the t e x t ) , If we
used the alternative approach and defined a prism as a
surface we still would have the problem of defining the
i n t e r i o r of t h i s surface in order t o get the corresponding
s o l i d . S i m i l a r observations hold f o r our treatment of
pyramids, cyllnders and cones.

535

535

536

537

Note that in our use of the word "cross-section", t h e

interaectlng plane must be p a r a l l e l to t h e base. It 1s
p o s s i b l e to have sections formed by a plane whlch is not
parallel t o the base, but such sections would not possess
all the properties of a cross-section. Note that slnce a
prism in our treatment l a a solid, i t s cross-section is a
polygonal region, n o t a polygon.
In Theorem 16-1, t h e t e x t s t a t e s that the cross-sections
of a triangular prism are congruent to the base. Up to t h i s
point no mention has been made of congruence of trianwlar
regions, but only of congruence of triangles. It is
intuitively apparent that if two triangles are congruent,
then their associated triangular regions alsa are congruent.
This can be proved formally wing the ideas of Appendix
VfII. We will n o t speak of the congruence of polygonal
regions o t h e r than triangular regions, since any polygonal
region can always be divided i n t o triangular regions.
Corollarg 16-1-1 I s a direct consequence of Theorem 16-1,
s i n c e the upper base I s a cross-section of the prism. A
similar obsemration applies to Corollary 16-2-1.
A "parallelogram region" is defined formally as the
union of a parallelogram and its interior. The interior
of parallelogram ABCD consists of a l l point8 X whlch
H
are on the aame side of
as C and D, on the same
w
side of BC as D and A , on the aame side of CD as
w
A and B and on t h e same a i d e of DA as B and C. A n
alternative definition whfch is suggested by the t e x t
d e f i n i t i o n of prism I s the following: L e t ABCD be a
parallelogram.-Then the union of
a l l aegrnenta PPf where P is
in E, PI is in CD and
PP' 1 1 AD or PP' 1 1 BC is a
parallelogram region.

I'

537

Theorem 16-3 is easy to grasp intuitively, but tedious

to prove formally. Here is an outline of a proof.
L e t El and E2 be the
planea of the bases, L
be the transversal and
a s i d e of the base.
We want to show t h a t the

~f
I

l a t e r a l face F which
1s the union of all s e p e n t s
PPt , where P is in 3,
is a parallelogram region.
Remember that by definition
of a prism, PP1 ) ( L and
Consider
P 7 I s in 2.
E
AA'
and BB7 where
A A I 11 L, BBt 1 1 L and
At,
B1 are in E2. Then A3B1A1 is a parallelogram
and the l a t e r a l face F is the corresponding parallelogram
region. To prove t h i s , f i r a t show that every
p
PI is
- oint
on A ' B t , and in fact that A t B t is the s et of all such
points P i . men show that every p o l n t of PP' is on '
ABBrAf or is in its i n t e r i o r . Finally show that every
po-lnt on ABBIAt o r I n its i n t e r l o r lies in some segment
PPt
Thus, the segments PPf constitute the parallelogrm
region composed of ABBtA1 and its i n t e r i o r .

Problem -S e t 16-1

1.

.
.

538

FW 11
( D e f i n i t i o n of prism)
Hence, FK and 5
By d e f i n i t i o n the
determine a plane h he or em 9-11
upper and lower bases of a prism are parallel, hence,
FB )I HA h he or em 10-1) Hence, A3FH is a
parallelogram.

539

40

20 = 210.

2.

30

3.

3 ~ 8 ~ 1 0 + 8 ~ 4 f i = 2 4 0 + 3 2 6
The total surface area is 240 + 3 2 f i square inchea

4.

50

70

Since each l a t e r a l face is a rectangle, its area is the

product of base and a l t i t u d e . If e is the length of
a lateral edge and S1, S 2 , S3,
are lengths of

. ..

t h e sides of the prism base, then

... .

A3 = S3e,

area,

But
base.

A =

S1

Sle

S2

Sle, A 2

= S2e,

Adding these areas to get the l a t e r a l

... = ( s +~ S2 + Sg + ...) e .
... = p, t h e perimeter of the

S e +
2

+ S3 +

Therefore,

A1 =

A = p

e.

L e t the required perimeter be y inchea. Since

52 = 10y, we have y = 5.2. The perimeter of the
base I s 5.2 inches.

5b

Cross-section is defined for pyramid exactly as for

prism.
When we say in Theorem 16-4 that two triangular regions
are simllar, we mean of course t h a t they are determined by
s i m L l a ~triangles.
In (1) of Theorem 16-4, to j u a t l f y
)I A 7 P t note
t h a t E [I Eq and that plane V A L i n t e r s e c t s E and Et
w
H
in AP and A I P 1 . Thus, AP 11 A I P t
by Theorem 10-1.
Similarly In (2) we show A
I(
Our procedure In Theorem 16-5 l a simply to split the
pyramid into triangular pyramids and apply Theorem 16-4

542

to each of these.

--

Problem S e t 16-2

544 1.
2.

an equilateral triangle; 3.

square;

25 square inches.

Hence,

VA = VB.

Similarly,

definition, so
h AVB
h w c s A CVD
by S.S.S.

= ...

P , Q, R and S
the mid-pointa of Af3,

be
-

Let

AC,

respectively.
and
Then
and PQ are each
parallel to BC and equal in
length t o
3C. Therefore,
SR and PQ are p a r a l l e l ,
coplanar, and equal In length
making PQRS a parallelogram.

VB

-I

[pages 540-5441

544

5.

L e t each edge of the base have l e n g t h s . Each face

is a triangle w i t h base s and altitude a .
1
1
Hence,
A = p a +pa+
or

..,

545

6.

By Theorem 16-5,

Area FGHJK = 10$

7,

square inches

The altitude of each face is

13 inches by the Theorem of
Pythagoras. Hence,
4(F1

10

13) = 260.

The l a t e r a l area is
260 square i n c h e s .
If x is the area of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n
the base then

X
9 * =
m
=(=)

Hence, i t s area is

38.

3 inches f r o m

and x = 56.25.

56.25 square inches.

Let
PS

PK = a and PB = b. Draw altitude PS.

JKLMN a t R . PB and PS determine a plane
which i n t e r s e c t s JKLMN and ABCDE in KR and
C-,
respectively. S i n c e JKLMN I( ABCDE, KR )I BS.
I n A PBS, by t h e Basic Proportionality Theorem,
PK
PR By Theorem 16-5, area JKLMN - PR
=
area ABCDE- (ETl .
area JKLMN
PK =!
2
Hence
area ABcDE =
= )
.

=.
9

The t e x t postulates the formulas f o r the volume of a

rectangular parallelepiped and proceeds to prove t h e remaini n g formulas far the volumes of prisms, pyramlds, cones,
cylinders and spheres. This is analogous to the procedure
followed in Chapter 11 when the formula f o r the area o f a

rectangle was postulated.

Cavalieri's Principle Is an extremely powerful p o s t u l a t e .
546-547
It can be proved as a theorem by methods resting on the theory
o f l i m i t 8 a s developed in i n t e g r a l c a l c u l u s . It will be used
throughout t h e chapter to prove theorems concerning the
volumes of solids.
A model f o r making Cavalierils Principle seem reasonable
can be made using thin rectangular rods in an approach
slightly d i f f e r e n t from that of the t e x t . Consider the
following statement: Glven a plane containing two regions
and a line. If f o r every line which intersects t h e regions
and is parallel to the given line the two intersections have
equal lengths, then the two regions have the same area.

Here too, it should be pointed out that the approximations

to the areas of the regions Improve as the thickness of the
rectangular rods becomes s m a l l e r and smaller. ( ~ l s o ,see
Problem 8 of Problem Set 1 6 - 3 . )

[pages 546-5471

You may wish to p o i n t out that while the proof3 of

Theorems 16-7 and 16-8 require t h e s o l i d s to have t h e i r
bases coplanar, in numerical application t h i s is n o t
necessary.
5 50
In the proof of Theorem 16-9, to h e l p the students
v i s u a l l z e how three triangular pyramids a r e formed by
cutting a triangular prism, some v f s u a l a i d should be u s e d .
Dlsected s o l i d s can be purchased from an equipment supply
company; or one could try to make them by cutting up a bar
o f laundry soap. The three pyramids are formed by c u t t i n g
the triangular prism by t h e planes through t h e p o i n t s S ,
P, R and the p o i n t s S, P, U,
Theorem 16-10 can be proved without recourse to
551
Cavalierits P r i n c i p l e by splitting the pyramid into triangular pyramids and applying Theorem 16-9. The proof in
the text was chosen because it applies j u s t as well to
cones as to pyramids, ( s e e Theorem 16-15)

5 49

552

1.

5 x 4 x v 3= 1 5 .

15 x 1728

2.

--

Problem Set 16-3

112 approx.

20 x 8 x 4.6 = 7 3 6 .

15 cubic feet of water In the

tank .

112 gallons approximately.

The volume is

33

736 cubic inches.

f i s h c a n be kept in the
tank.

[pages 549-552

552

4.

The base can be divided into s i x e q u i l a t e r a l triangles

with sLde 12. Therefore, altitude &F of A ABQ has
l e n g t h 6 6 . Slnce QC = 9 , by Pythagorean Theorem
CF = 4189. Hence the l a t e r a l area is

"2 ' 72

3 6 m .

Now,

V = $h,

or

5.

1836=$m(18)2*h. o r

The lateral edges w i l l a l s o be b i s e c t e d and therefore

corresponding sides of the section and base will be In
the ratio
and the areas of the sectfon and base
1
in the rati:, ''
The volume of t h e pyramid above t h e
of that of the entire pyramid because
section w i l l be
1
its base has
the area of t h a t of the pyramid and its
height is half a s great. The s o l i d below t h e plane will
the volume of the entire pyramid and the
then have
r a t i o of t h e t w o volumes is 1

h=17.

The height is

17 feet.

?.

553 % 7 . The volume of the complete pyramid which is 60 f e e t tall

is 320 cubic feet. The base of t h e smaller pyramid is
30 f e e t above the ground s o the part of the 60 foot
pyramid to be included contains 7 0320 or 280 cubic
feet ( s e e Problem 6 ) . The small pyramid capping the
monument has volume $ 4 2 or about 2.7 cubic f e e t .
Hence, the volume of t h e o b e l i s k in cublc feet is
approximately 282 - 7 .
*8.

Given a plane c o n t a i n i n g two r e g i o n s and a l i n e . If f o r

every line which i n t e r s e c t s t h e regions and is p a r a l l e l
to the g i v e n line the t w o intersections have equal
l e n g t h s , then the t w o regions have t h e same area.
Various examples are possible, Here is one:
C

<

553

Here I s a formal definition of c i r c u l a r cylinder, and

associate terms. I;et El and E2 be two parallel planes,
L a transversal, and K a
circular region in El, which
does not intersect L. For
each point P of K, l e t
PP9 be a segment parallel
to L with PI in E2.
The union of a l l such s e m n t s
is called a circular cylinder.
K is the lower base, or j u s t
the base, of the cylinder.
The set of a l l points PI,
that -la, t h e p a r t of the
cylinder that l i e s in E2,
I s called the upper base. Each segment PPt is called an
element of the cylinder. ( ~ o t ewe d l d n o t introduce the term
element in defining p r i s m . ) The distance h between El
and E2 is the altitude of the cylinder. If L is per*pendicular to El and E2 the cylinder I s a r1P;ht cylinder.
Let M be the bounding c i r c l e of K and C the center of
M.
The union of all the element8 PPr f o r which P belongs
to M is c a l l e d the lateral surface of the cylinder. The
t o t a l surface is the union of the l a t e r a l surface and the
bases. The element CC1 determined by the center of M l a
the axis of the cylinder. Cross-sections are defined for
cylinders exactly as f o r prisms .

--

554

Here is a f o r m a l definition of c i r c u l a r cone, and

associate t e r n . L e t K be a c i r c u l a r region in a plane
E , and V a p o i n t n o t in E.
For each p o i n t F in K there
is a segment W . The union of
V
a l l such segments is called a
c i r c u l a r cone with base Kand
vertex V. Each segment W
is an element of the cone.
- The
union of all elements PV f o r
which P belongs to the bounding
c i r c l e of K is the lateral
surface of the cone. The t o
surface is the union of the
l a t e r a l surface and the base.
The distance h from V to E
is t h e altitude of the cone.
If the center of the base c i r c l e
Is the f o o t of the perpendicular
from V to E, the cone is a
r i g h t c i r c u l a r cone.
555
A formal proof of Theorem 16-11 is somewhat involved
we present a basis for a formal proof. L e t M be the c i r c l e
which bounds the base of the cylinder. Let C be the center
of M and r its r a d i u s .
L e t E be the sectioning plane,
and C1 i t s i n t e ~ s e c t i o nwith
the element
of the
cylinder. Then the intersection
of E with the lateral surface
of t h e cylinder is the c i r c l e
M1 in E w i t h c e n t e r CI and
radius r.

555

To prove t h i s we must show that:

(a)

Any point

lies on
(b)

PI

comon to

and the lateral surface

MI.

Any point

P1 of c i r c l e M1

iB common t o the lateral

surface and E.
Proof of (a): Let PI be comon to the lateral surface
and E. Then PI l i e s on an element E
l
where P I s on
circle M (by definition of l a t e r a l surface). Then
PP1 1 1 C C 1 , since any two elements of a cylinder are parallel.
And PICl 1 1 W by Theorem 10-1. Thus, PPICIC I s a
parallelogram and PICl = PC = r, That is PI lie^ on
c i r c l e MI.

Proof of (b): let PI be a p o i n t of c l r c l e MI.

~ o t e P , P and P t are defined differently than in (a)).
Let
be p a r a l l e l to
and meet the baae plane in P.
A
Then PICl 11 W by Theorem 10-1 and PPICIC is a
parallelogram as above. Thus PC = PICl = r, so that
- P
lies on c i r c l e M. Then P determines an element PPt and
w
w
C+
PP1 11 CCL. Since,
1 C C , we see that
and
aoinc ide and PI l i e s on
From the diagram PI lies
on P P i
Thus, PI I s on the lateral surface. Slnce PI
is in E, the proof o f (b) l a complete.

ii;bl

-.

&

w1

Since MI bounds the cross-section, we have shown that

t h e cross-aection is a circular region. It remains to show
it is congruent to the baae. Thia l a a relatively simple
matter as outlined In the t e x t ,
555

Theorem 16-12 I s immediate from Theorem 16-11, since

the cross-section and the base are congruent cfrcular regions.

In Theorem 16-13 the proof that the c r o s s - s e c t i o n is a

c i r c u l a r region I s somewhat similar to that of Theorem 16-11.
F i r s t one would prove t h n - t the intersection of the plane and
the l a t e r a l surface is a c i r c l e .
In the diagram f o r Theorem 16-13, P is t h e center of
the base c i r c l e and W is a p o i n t on it. Q and R are the
intersections of the elements
and
w i t h the sectioning plane.
The reasons

in the proof of Theorem 16-13 are:

The A . A . Similarity Theorem and the d e f i n i t i o n of

similar triangles.
(1)

(2)

(4)

557

1 1 PW

that A V&R

area of c i r c l e Q =
ape. o r c i r c l e P

A m . Then

2
(#)

2,

RPW

J u s t as In proving Theorem 16-7 on the volume of a p r i s m ,

consider a rectangular parallelepiped with the same a l t i t u d e
and base area as the given cylinder, and with I t s base
coplanar with the base of t h e cylinder. Apply Cavalierits
PrFnciple

557

BO

To prove Theorem 16-15 proceed aa In Theorem 16-10.

Take a triangular pyramid of the same altitude and base area
as the cone and with i t s base coplanar with the base of the
cone. Apply Cavalierits Principle.

Problem S e t 16-4

2.

8 . 1 4 ~ 4 30 - 22. 1/) 4 1 & . 3 0

23 1

The number of gallons is

=

80

( m e f a c t o r s of

= 265

231

are

- 7 .11.

By

22 the computation can be simplified by reducing

using 7
fractlons )

3.

Subtract the volume of t h e inner cylinder f r o m t h a t of

the o u t e r . This gives

16r(2.812

16n(2.512

16~(2.8*- 2.5 2 )

or

161r(2.8 - 2.5)(2.8

2.5)

16~(.3)(5.3) = 80 approximately.
Approximately 80 cubic inches of clay will be needed,
=

4.

The ratio of the volumes 1s the cube of the r a t i o of the

altitudes, so

Hence
558

5.

V2

.064 x 27

1.73

approx-

L e t r be t h e radius of the base of the f i r s t can and

h be its h e i g h t . Then the radius of the aecond can is
Then
2 r and its height is

Volume of f i r s t can

m2h .

Volume of second can = a ( 8 ~ ) ~ =- 21rr2h.

Since the volume of the second can is twice t h a t of the

first, and the c o s t is twice the cost of the f i r s t ,
n e i t h e r is the b e t t e r buy.

558

6.

The volume of the pyramid is

202. 36
7
= 4800.

The radius of the base of the cone is half the diagonal

of the square, or 1 0 f i .
2 = 2008,
The area of t h e base of the cone l a r(10fi)

and the volume of t h e cone is

approximately

7.

20m*36

2400s = 7,536

L e t the radius of the base of eaoh cylinder be r and

the altitude be h . Then the volume of the cone in
A

Figure 1 is

rrzh

The volume of t h e t w o cones in

Figure 2 is

The volumes are the same.

No, since the sum of altitude8 would be the same as the
altitude of cone In Figure 1.

559 " 9 .

The volume of the f r u s t u m is the difference of the

volumea of two pyramids. Hence their heights m u s t be
found. If x represents the height of the upper pyramld

4'
=6
x = 16

from which
and x

8 = 24.

The volume I s approximately 636 cubic Inches.

To prove Theorem 16-16 we show t h a t the sphere and the

s o l i d bounded by the cylinder and the two cones have t h e same
volume by Cavalierits P r i n c i p l e . Then we can find t h e volume
of the sphere by subtracting the volumes of the t w o cones
from the volume of t h e cylinder.
The answer to the "Why?" is as follows :
560
Consider One of the cones. Since the altf tude of the cylinder
is 2r the altitude of the
cone is r. A l s o the radius
of the base c i r c l e of t h e
cone is r. Therefore, an
isosceles r i g h t triangle I s
559

formed by the altitude, t h e

radius, and a segment on the
surface of the cone j o i n i n g
V
the verfiex V to a p o i n t on
t h e base. Any line parallel to the radius, intersecting the
o t h e r two sides of this triangle, will form a t r i a n g l e
similar to t h e original one. Hence, the c r o s s - s e c t i o n of
the cone a t a distance s f r o m the vertex will be a c i r c u l a r
region w i t h radlus s ; and a will be the inner radius of
the s e c t i o n of the solid.
561
The argument of Theorem 16-17 should n o t be considered
a formal proof, but an i n t e r e s t i n g example of mathematical
reasoning based on a rather plausible assumption, namely,
that S , the surface area of the inner sphere I s the limit
of 6 as h approaches zero, where V is the volume of t h e
spherical shell and h is its t h l c h e s s . (we must e i t h e r
define t h e area of a surface or introduce some p o s t u l a t e
concerning it, if we want to reason about it mathematically.)
To Justify intuitively that hS is approximately the volume
of the spherical shell, we may consider it c u t open and
f l a t t e n e d o u t l i k e a p i e c r u s t t o form a thin, nearly flat,

cylinder. Then S becomes the area of the base of t h e

cylinder and h I t s height, so t h a t , i t s volume is hS.
(~ctuallysuch a process would involve d i s t o r t i o n and the
volume of t h e s h e l l would be s l l g h t l y greater than hS.)
v
In t h e course of reasoning when we say c
S as h
grows smaller and smaller (or h approaches zero) we mean
precisely the following: L e t h take as its successive
values an endless sequence of p o s i t i v e numbers,
hl, ha,
hn,
which approach zero ( f o r example,
I
1
1
...). Then since V I s determfned by

...,

,
'

...

,
'. * ' ' 9'

the value assig-ied to h, V will take on a corresponding

sequence of values, V1, V2,
V,
We assert

...,

...,

v2
that the sequence of quotients v1
. . . , Vn . .
1
will approach t h e f l x e d number S .
You may better appreciate t h i s method if we apply it in
a sampler case t o derlve the formula f o r the circumference
of a c i r c l e . Conslder a
circular ring with fixed
inner radius r , o u t e r
radius r + h and inner
circumference C
The area
A of the r i n g is approximately hC (it c a n be
flattened out to approximately a thin rectangle)
and A is approximately C . As the r i n g g e t s t h i n n e r and
thinner the approximation g e t s better and better, that is,
A
-h-C
as h-0.
But A = i r ( r + h ) 2 - a r 2 = * r h + r h 2
so that
A

r,

X'

%'

= 2m -t ?rh.

Now l e t
A

h-0.

approaches.

Then -A+ 2 n r .
Therefore,

But

hrr.

is the value which

for the area of the l a t e r a l

surface of a cylinder is similarly handled ( s e e Problem 11
of Problem S e t 16-51,
For t h e lateral surface of a right c i r c u l a r cone it is
somewhat more complicated and is gfven In d e t a i l below.
Derivation of Lateral Area of a R i g h t Cfrcular Cone.
A corresponding derivation

The figure shows a v e r t i c a l

section of a right circular cone
of base radlus R, altitude H,
and s l a n t height S. It is
covered w i t h a layer of paint
of thiclmess t. From similar
t r i a n g l e s we have
t = 5,
a
b = ii.
a
and B
Hence,
The volume of the p a i n t I s

We assume t h a t t h e l a t e r a l area A Is the limit approached

by v as t approaches zero. From above,
2
V
a
= &(R

As

.I.

+ m).

gets very small so does

v approaches the

limit

7TSR.

get very

small, and so

--

Problem Set 16-5

Surface area:
Volume :

4~16.

Approximately

$~64.

Approximately

The tank will hold approximately

201.
268.

10,752 gallons.

The area of a hemisphere is one-half t h e area o f a sphere,

2
2
or 2
, Since t h e area o f the floor is TP , twice
as much p a i n t is needed f o r the hemisphere, o r 34

gallons.

Volume of
T R ~ 2R =
2
3
$~TR ) =

cylinder is
2 r R3 ,
4

YR

which

is the formula f o r the

volume of the sphere.

4
S i n c e r = 1, the volume of the i c e cream I s TT
and
5
t h e volume of the cone Is
Therefore, the cone

will not overflow.

a.

The volume o f a cube o f edge s is s 3 ; the

volume of a cube of edge 4s Is ( 4 s )
o r 64s 3
Hence, t h e r a t i o of the volumes is 64 to 1.

If R and

4R

are r a d i i of the moon and the e a r t h

the volumes have t i e ratio

[pages 562-563

q3

y(4 R )

m.

= I

563

8.

The altftude of the cone is r plus the hypotenuse of

a 30'
60'
r i g h t triangle w i t h short s i d e r. So
the a l t i t u d e 1s 3r. Uslng a r i g h t triangle determfned
by the altitude of the cone and a radiua of t h e base,
the radius of base of the cone is
so the area
2
of the base is 3m
The volume of the cone is there1 .3m2 3r = 3m3
fore 7

rfi,

*9.

r be the radius of

Let

the tank in feet.

r2

18*

r2

324+ r2

- 6)*.

(r

12r + 3 6 .

12r = 360.
r = 30. The radius is
30 feet. Using
4 3
V = y , the volume
of the tank in cubic
4~ 303
feet is 7.

18

Converting this to cubic inches, finding the number of

gallons contained, and d i v i d i n g by 10,000, the number
27000 1728
of hours a tank f'ull will last is 4
231
or about 85 hours.

*lo.

L e t V be the original volume and R the o r l g i n a l

radius, v the new volume and r the new radius.
Then

Therefore,

"v = T2= = 43 ' =3 7 *R3

3 -R~

Or

R
3fi
r=-.

Hence,
Since,

3fi is
r

approximately

is approximately
[page 563 I

1.6,

54 R.

563 "11.

Let

be the volume of a cylindrical s h e l l ,

the
lateral area of the cylinder, and h the thickness of
vS
the shell. Then aa h gets smaller and
smaller. By Theorem 16-14 we know that
2
2
V = a ( r + h ) a - m a

Therefore,

Kv = m a + m.

Since,

h-0,

Hence ,

S =arm.

ha--+O

and E-2.ra.

Revlew Problems

1.

2.

a.

rhombus,

b.

8.

c.

61 approx.

3 2 n .

&*$-$-~-$r*l*l*ld

(4

3.

60.

120,

12

4 -8117 =
1) = y-

48 square inches.

$5

If

approx.

12 = 432.

5.

= 61.26

19 approx. + - 2 5 - h = 5 0 0 .
h = 60
a = 19

4.

108.
is the area of the cross-sectlon,
=

The volume of the first Is half the volume of the second.

[pages 563-5643

564

6.

4872

approx.
4000

~ ( 2 8 8 0- -.)

565 "8.

4
~~144.20-y-1O010.10=
4640 rr = 4872 approximately.
=

The volume of the s o l i d equals the volume of the large

cone decreased by t h e sum of the cylinder and the small,
upper cone. L e t h be the a l t i t u d e of the small cone.
Then 15 - h is the altitude of the cylinder. Since the
cones are similar,

T5=8
Hence,

y1 6 4 - 1 5 - (@

= 320a

9.
L

* 10.

45 .
h = B

and

7=

75

'45

.v,
a~

687.5

rg.

approx.

a parallelogram divides it into congruent

triangles. Therefore, by Theorem 16-8 the pyramid is
d i v i d e d i n t o t w o pyramids of equal volume.

A diagonal of

In t h e rectangular
parallelepiped, diagonals
and % of rectangle
ABXW a r e congruent and
b i s e c t each o t h e r at 0 .
Sfmilarly , .diagonals KF
A
0
and HQ b i s e c t each o t h e r
a t Or
By conaidering
the intersection of KP and G, it is evident that
0 ' = 0 . Therefore, a l l f o u r diagonals b i s e c t each other
at 0 . S i n c e the diagonals are congruent, it follows
that 0 is equidistant from each of the v e r t i c e s , and
is t h e center of the required sphere.

AX

Illustrative --T e s t Item f o r Chapter 16

A.

I n d i c a t e whether each statement is t r u e or f a l s e .

1.

A plane s e c t i o n of a triangular prism may be a region

whose boundary is a parallelogram.

2.

A plane section of

a triangular pyramfd may be a region

whose boundary is a parallelogram.

3.

The volume o f a t r i a n g u l a r prism is half the product of

the area of its base and its a l t i t u d e .

4.

In any pyramid a s e c t i o n made by a plane which b l s e c t s

the altitude and I s parallel to the base has h a l f the
area of the base.

5.

Two pyramids with the same base area and the same v o l m e
have congruent altitudes.

6,

The volume of a pyramld with a square base Is equal t o

one-third of i t s a l t i t u d e multiplied by t h e square o f a
base edge.

7.

The area of t h e base of a cone can be found by d i v i d i n g

three times the volume by the a l t i t u d e .
me volume of a sphere 1s glven by the formula 1 3

8.

p d

where

9.

i a I t s diameter.

A l l cross-sections of a rectangular parallelepiped are

rectangles.
10.

A cross-section of a c i r c u l a r cone 1s congruent

to t h e

base.
11.

Two prisms w i t h congruent bases and congruent altitudes

are equal in volume.

12.

In a sphere of radius 3 , t h e volume and the surface

area are expressed by the same number.

The area of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n of. a pyramid t h a t b i s e c t s

t h e a l t i t u d e is one-fourth the area of t h e b a s e .

The diagonal of a r e c t a n g u l a r parallelepiped 1 s 1

the sum of t h e t h r e e dimensions of the parallelepiped.
In a r i g h t circular cone t h e segment joining the vertex
with t h e center of the base I s the altitude of t h e cone,

is 22 feet wide, 26 f e e t long and 12

feet h i g h . If there should be an allowance of 200
cubic f e e t of a i r space for each person i n t h e room,
and i f t h e r e are to be t w o teachers in the room, how
many p u p i l s may t h e r e be in a class?
A school room

24 i n c h length o f w i r e is used t o form a model of the

How long a wire is needed to form t h e

edges of a second cube, if an edge of the second is
double an edge of the f i r s t ? What is the r a t l o of the
s u r f a c e areas of the t w o cubes? Of t h e i r volumes?
edges of a cube.

6 inches on a side is revolved a b o u t one

diagonal. Give t h e volume of the solid thus "generated1',
A square

If a r i g h t circular cone is i n s c r i b e d in a hemisphere

such that b o t h have t h e same base, f i n d the r a t i o o f
the volume of the cone to the volume of the hemisphere.

If a cone and a c y l i n d e r have the same base and the same

altitude, the volume of the cylinder is
times the
volume of t h e cone.
If the area of one base of a c y l i n d e r is
inches, the area o f the o t h e r base I s

24 square

s quare

inches,

and altitude 6,
t h e area of a cross-section one-half inch from the base

In a c i r c u l a r cylinder w i t h radius

In a c l r c u l a r cone with radius 5 and altitude 6 ,

area of a cross-section at a distance 2 from the

the

vertex I s

The area of the base of a pyramid with altitude 12

Inches is
times the area of a cross-section 2
inches fpom the base,
If the area of a croas-section of a pyramid is 1
the area of the base, t h i s cross-section of the pyramid
divides the altitude of the pyramid i n t o two segnents
whose r a t i o I s
to

The base of a pyramid 1s an equilateml triangle whose

perimeter is 12. If the altitude is 10, the volume
of the pyramid is

The base of a prism is a parallelogram with s i d e s 10

and 8 determining a 30'
angle. If the altitude of
the prism l a 14, the volume is
If the dimensions of a rectangular parallelepiped are
3, 5 , 6 , the length of a diagonal is
; the
total surface area l a
; and the volume is
If the diameter of a sphere I s 12, the volume of t h e
sphere is
, the area of a great c i r c l e is
and the area of the sphere is

Answers

A.

B.

1.

T,

T,

11.

2.

T,

7.

T,

12.

3.

F,

8.

T,

13.

4.

FJ

9.

TJ

14.

5.

T,

10.

F,

15.

1.

32 pupils.

2.

48

3.

3 & z

inches.

22 x 26 x 12 = 32.3
200
1
T
.

1
g.

The s o l i d consists of two r i g h t circular cones

with a common base having

3fi.

Chapter 17
PLANE COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The inclusion of a chapter on a n a l y t i c geometry in a

t e n t h grade geometry coume is a r e c e n t innovation. We

introduced I t at the end of the book f o r two reasons.
F i r s t , f o r flexibility In using the t e x t . Some t e a c h e r s
may prefer to teach analytic geometry in the eleventh grade
(or l a t e r ) In order to do j u s t i c e t o t h i s very important
i d e a which shows t h e complete l o g i c a l equivalence of
synthetic geometry and h i g h school algebra. They may feel
t h a t the t e n t h grade already I s crowded w i t h many essential
t h i n g s , and t h a t t o crowd it further does n o t do a s e r v i c e

to the understanding of s y n t h e t i c geometry as a mathematical

system or of the analytic approach. On the o t h e r hand, some
teachers may feel a sense of excitement over the opportunity
to i n t r o d u c e students to analytic geometry, and may be
g r a t e f u l f o r a chance t o communicate t h i s excitement t o
their students at the expense of omitting some more conventional material.
Secondly, t h e analytic geometry was introduced a t the
end in order to do j u s t i c e to both synthetic geometry and
analytic geometry. I f t h e student is t o obtain a deep
a p p r e c i a t i o n of the equivalence of Euclidean Geometry and
c l a s s i c a l algebra, he m s t undera tand these as separate
disciplines. H e already has spent much time in the study
of algebra, and it does not seem desirable t o fragment the
treatment of s y n t h e t i c geometry w i t h the piecemeal introduction of analytic Ideas - he may f a l l t o grasp t h a t t h e r e
is an autonomous subject of geometrg which i s logically
equivalent t o the autonomous subject of algebra.

In f a c t , a aurprlsing number of the concepts traeated

earlier in the book are necessary f o r analytic geometry.
The most obvious of theae concepts l a t h a t of the number
scale, but much more than t h i s is involved. The idea of
plane separation is involved in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the location
of points w i t h positive coordinates and points w i t h negative
coordinates. The theory of parallels j u s t i f i e s the r e c t angular network used f o r graphs. Similarity is used in
establishing the constant slope of a l i n e . The Pythagorean
Theorem f o m the basla for the distance formula. The
n o t i o n of a s e t of points a a t l s f y l n g certain conditions,
which is baalc in coordinate geometry, is treated synthetic a l l y in Chapter 14. These f e w examples will serve to
i l l u s t r a t e the considerable background of concepts it is
desirable f o r a student to have before beginning a c a r e f u l
treatment of analytic geometry.
567

The h i a t o r y of geometry, like the history of a l l of

mathematics, is a fascinating s t o r y . When one b o w s the

h i s t o r y of a subject, he can better appreciate the years

of development necesearg to p u t ft i n t o the form we m o w
it today. Since the development of analytic geometry waa
a major break-through in mathematical thought a t the time
Descartea discovered i t , students might be interested in
t h e h i e t o r y of fts development and discovery, j u s t as they
might be interested in the h i s t o r y of synthetic geometry.
Suggest to them the t i t l e of an available book on the h i s t o r y
of mathematics. ( ~ excellent
n
bibliography has recently
been published by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. Write for the pamphlet h he High School
Mathematica Library", by William L. Schaaf. Address:
NCTM, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N . W . , Washington 6 , D.C.)

[page 567 1

The idea of translating between algebra and geometry

can be used by the teacher as a means o f organizing a
cumulative summary of the chapter. The students can be
asked t o keep a geometry-algebra dictionary l i k e the
followlng

Algebra

Geometry
A point

An ordered pair of numbers

in a plane

(X~Y)
The end-points of a segment

(xl,yl)

The slope of

The number

PIP2.

and

(x2,y2)

m =

Y2
X2

The dlstance

PIP2.

The mld-point of

.
Y1
X1'

I The number
X1

P1P2.

X2

.TIY1

Y2

The s e t of ordered pairs of

numbers t h a t s a t i s f y some
llnear e q u a t i o n
Ax + By + C = 0 .
The common s o l u t i o n of t w o
l i n e a r equations.

A line.

The i n t e r s e c t i o n of two
lines.
Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines
a r e parallel.
Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines
are perpendicular.

568

I
I

m1 = m2*
mlmp = -l*

Notice t h a t we now set up a coordinate system on each

of two perpendicular lines, r a t h e r t h a n on only one l i n e ,
as we did in Chapter 2. T h i s enables us t o find the coordinates of the projections of any p o i n t on the two l i n e s .
We w r l t e these coordinates as an ordered pair (x,y)

We again have a one-to-one correspondence, this time

between ordered palrs of real nwnbera and points in a plane.
To each ordered p a i r of real numbers there corresponds one
and only one point in the plane, and to each point in the
plane there corresponds one and only one ordered p a i r of
real numbers.
Sections 17-2 and 17-3 cover material t h a t is familiar
to most students, and classes should move on aa quickly as
p o s s i b l e . X f students already know the terms abscissa and
ordinate, there is no reason to o b j e c t to t h e i r use of these
words. The terms are superfluous, however, and need n o t be
introduced by you.

Problem Set
574

~arteslan"I s used t o honor the discoverer, Descartes.

1.

I'

2.

(0,o).

3.

-3.

4.

The o r i g i n , or

5.

(2,l)

a.

IV.

c.

I.

b.

11.

d.

111.

7.

and

(0,~).

(2,0).

One of the coordinates m u s t be

c.

IV.

d.

111.

[page 5741

0.

575 "12. a .

b.

1
I

ir
r
F

576

y-axis, x-axia, z-axis.

xz-plane, yz-plane, xy-plane.

When we d e f i n e t h e s l o p e o f a line segment t o be the

q u o t i e n t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e between pairs of coordinates,
there is no need to introduce t h e notion o f directed distance,
b u t it is absolutely necessary to p u t the coordinates of the
two p o i n t s (xl,yl) and (x2,y2) in the proper p o s i t i o n in
the formula.

That is

'X2
* -- X1
- '*
X1 - X2

cannbt be used as

m = Y2
although rn =
is a l s o c o r r e c t . n o t i c e
X1 - X 2
t h a t in finding the s l o p e o f
it doesnTt matter which
point is labeled P1 and which one is l a b e l e d P2.

AB

578-579

It Is Important t o note here that

RP:,

and

PIR

are

positive numbers and we have to p r e f l x the minus sign t o the

fraction

RP2

if the s l o p e is negative.

However, the

formula defining the s l o p e of a aegment wlll give t h e slope

m as p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e without prefixing any minus sign.

For t h e Case (1) if rn

RP2

= yp

m<O,

y1

and

PIR

= x2

then m = -

0, then

xi.

y1

Y2

Yg

rn

X1

equivalent t o

Y2
2

Y1
X1'

RP2

V'

For the Case ( 2 )

RP2

Therefore Case ( 2 ) becomes

m =

and

PIR

which is

X2

if

x1

x2,

--

Problem Set 17-4

d.

The two p o i n t s in each part have the same

y-coordinate.

e.

If t w o p o i n t s in a plane have the same y-coordinate,

then t h e d i s t a n c e between them is t h e a b s o l u t e
value of t h e difference of t h e i r x-coordinates.

f.

No.

e.

The two p o i n t s in each p a r t have t h e same

x-coordfnate
f.

If two p o l n t s in a plane have t h e same x-coordinate,

the distance between them is the a b s o l u t e value of
the difference of t h e i r y-coordinates ,

[pages 580-5811

"11.

Flrst assume that

PA, PB have the
same slope m.
L e t F = (a,b),

f,

= (a

1,0).

Let
be p e r pendicular to the
x-axis. Neither
w
C )
PA nor PB is
perpendicular to
the x-axis, hence,
H

n e i t h e r PA nor
H
PB is parallel to
H
H
M
++
RS. L e t PA, PB i n t e r s e c t RS in Q, Q',
respectively, L e t Q = ( a + l , c ) , Qt
(a + 1,~')

==

Whence, c = c f and hence Q = Q t .

Hence,
(by P o s t u l a t e 2)
The converse has already been proved h he or em 17-1).
f;r
w
Hence, if PA, PB have d i f f e r e n t s l o p e s , then P,
A,
B cannot be c o l l i n e a r .

12.

14.

a.

Yes.

Slope of

Point

AB

3
-?.

b.

ia

96

g-E;

is common.

1.

b.

No.

C.

a - b .
7

Slope of

Therefore

[pages 582-583

f,

AB

BC

and

Is
H

BC

100

= 1.

coincide.

583

15.

S l o p e of

A3

is

= 1;

slope of
H

CD is

1 = 1.

C*

We are tempted to say t h a t AB 11 CD, b u t we must

make s u r e that they are a c t u a l l y two different lines.
We test by finding the s l o p e o f
which is
101 = 1. Hence, H
4-w
AB and AC must c o i n c i d e s o that

E,

is on

e
AB

f o l l o w s that

16.

and the lines can't be parallel.

C*
AB and CD c o i n c i d e .

It

C*

D r a w the segment which j o i n s ( 4 , 3 ) and the origin;

any o t h e r segment through the o r l g l n l y i n g on the line
determined by t h i s segment will a l s o s u f f i c e .

583

The information concerning slopes of parallel and

perpendicular lines c o n s t i t u t e s a very important p r i n c i p l e
f o r t h e s o l v i n g of geometric problems analytically. For
instance, if a student were asked t o show that two nonv e r t i c a l l i n e s were parallel, he would have to show that
their s l o p e s were equal; t o show t h a t a p a i r of oblique
l i n e s were perpendicular would require that he establish
the slopes t o b e negative reciprocals of each o t h e r .
Note that to show two s e p e n t s parallel it is n o t sufficient
t o show they have the same slope; it is necessary to show
a l s o that t h e segments are n o t collinear ( s e e Problems 11
and 15 of Problem Set 17-4).
585
To show why A PQB 3 h Q i P R t we f i r s t show t h a t
L QtPR' is complementary t o L QPR. This follows from
4 QIPRI + mL Q I P Q + m L WR = 180 and rnL Q q P Q = 9 0 .
Therefore L Q t P R ' a L PQR and L PQtRI PL &PR. Since
PQ = PQ1, the triangles are congruent by A . S . A .
In the converse we use S .A .S to show h PQR
A QTP R 1
By construction, R 1 P = RQ and L R and L R t are r i g h t
angles. We get R t Q t = PR as followa: m = RQ and

m' = - R I Q t Then mt = - -m becomes - R ' Q' = - PR

s i n c e the denominators are equal we have R f QI = PR.

m.

m,

and

L Q' PQ

Finally, we get

L Q' PR

fact that
that

a r i g h t angle by us i n g the
IS an exterior angle of A PQt R l and

L QPR = L P Q f R t .

Note that Theorem 17-2, and some theorems which follow,

are s t a t e d af'ter t h e proof rather than before. In this
way, the full theorem seem to be a reeult of the discussion
p e r t i n e n t to the t o p i c being considered.

Problern S e t 17-5

586

1.

Slope

3
AB = 2;
slope

M=%. slope
collinear.
Hence,

a#

Slopeof

AB=

3
CD = F;
hence, AB II CD or
-4
hence, A, B, C, are not

3'

(See Problems 11 and

w
CD, so that

Similarly, prove

2.

fX 1) AD.

15 of Problem Set 17-4. )

)I E .
-

2
2
-T,
slope of C D - -3.

Slope of BC = -3, slope of DA = - 3 .

Therefore oppoafte s i d e s are parallel and the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

587

1 L3

~ n d L2

1 L4,

3-

L1

4.

The second ie a parallelogram, as can be shown from the

- - s l o p e s of PQ, RS, QR, and E, which are

respectively,

2
-5,

by Theorem 17-3.

2
3,
-

3, - 3-

since the slopes of AB, BC,

1
3
are respectlvely, 4 , ?,
5 , ana S
.

parallelogram
-

AD

The f i r s t is not a

- - -

3-

Slope of

BC =

Slope of

AC = 0.

[ p a g e s 586-5187 1

CD and

b.

Slope of altitude to

Slope of altitude to

BC =

The altitude to
segment.

AC

5.
- 3.

has no slope; it is a v e r t i c a l

Both
and CD have t h e same a l o p e , -1; AC has
s l o p e 0. Therefore
11 E .
and BC have
d i f f e r e n t slopes. Therefore the figure is a trapezoid.
Diagonal AC I s horizontal since I t s slope is 0.
Diagonal BD is v e r t i c a l . A vertical and a horizontal
l i n e are perpendicular.
The s l o p e in each case is t h e same, ; 1
the a l o p e of

AB

AD

line joining (3n,0) to (6n,0)

given lines are parallel.
The s l o p e of the first line I s
second is

is

-,

- Q.

0. Hence, the

la

z.

The slope of the

Since the negative reciprocal of

the lines are perpendicular.

Appllcation of the slope formula shows that the slope

b
a
of
ia ,
is
By
- -and that of
Theorem 17-3, XY E. Hence, L X ia a right angle.

E l z.

L
PQR
-

will be a r i g h t angle If
PQ will be perpendicular t o QR if their slopes are
negative reciprocals; that I s , if:

from which
Slope

If

*
PQ

PQ

b = -17.
-1

= -;

alope

RS

-1

= =
;slope

QS = 0.

were the same as RS these three slopes would

have to be equal; but neither of the first t w o can be
zero for any value of a or b.
- If PQ 1 1 RS then -1 = -1
whence,

m,

588

Notice that it would be impossible f o r us to develop

the diatance formula without the Pythagorean Theorem, which
ln turn rests upon the theory of areas, parallels, and
congruence.
It might be in8 tructive with a good class t o have them

various
and
derive the distance formula
positions in the plane. In working with the d i ~ t a n c e
fomula, it does n o t matter in which order we t a k e PI and
P2 In as much as we will be squarhq the difference between
coordinates. The distance formula holds even when the
segnent PIP2 is horizontal or vertical.
-

Problem S e t 17-6

I
-

590

AD=4.5,

1.

and b. A B - 1 ,
AC=3,
BD = 3.5, CD = 7.5.

3.

a.

5.

e,

17.

b.

5.

f.

fi

c.

13.

g.

89.

d.

25.

h.

56.

a.

( y 2 - yl)

b.

4.

591 5.

-x2)

25.

By the distance

Since ST = RS

+ (xl

BC=4,

formula RS = 5,

R T = C and
the triangle I s isosceles.

S T - 5.

591

6.

A DEF wlll be a right triangle with

angle only if

a=

and

2 = 6&.

AC =

8 f i .

and therefore, from the T r i a n g l e

are collinear. It now follows
"between" that B is between

C.

Hence,
"10.

D E +
~ D F ~
= E F ~ . This is the case since

AB =
2 f i . BC =
Hence, AB + BC = AC,
Inequality, A , B, C,
from t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
A

a right

DF 2 = 4 5 and EF 2 = 5 0 .

DE 2 - 5 ,
7.

1D

WY

= XZ.

a.

Let A = (2,0,0), B = (2,3,0).

Fromthemeaning
of the x, y, and z-coordinates, OA = 2, AB = 3 ,
and BP = 6 . By the Pythagorean Theorem a p p l i e d
to A OAB, OB2 = 13, then a p p l i e d to A OBP,
OP 2 = 49 and OP = 7. (G may a l s o be considered
a diagonal of a rectangular b l o c k . )

b.

Generalizing the procedure in part (a), the

distance 1s J x *

y2

592

The mid-point formula will prove to be very u s e f u l in

the work which f o l l o w s . This w i l l be true, f o r example,
when we are speaking of the medians of a triangle. If we
know the coordinates of the v e r t l c e s of a triangle, and
apply the definition of a median, we can find the coordinates
of the p o i n t In which the median intersects the opposite
side. T h i s will give us t h e coordinates of its end-points
and enable us to f i n d t h e length and s l o p e of t h e median.
The proof of the mid-point formula is e a s i l y modified
to hold f o r horizontal and vertical segments.

Problem s e t 17-7

x = -31.

41.
The o t h e r end-point is at

4.

y =

- -

(-31,41).

since b o t h have lengths

by the distance
formula.
- since the slope of AC is 4 and
the slope of BD 1s
These are negative
r e c i p r o c a l s . AC and BD bisect each o t h e r s i n c e
us lng the mid-point formula each has the mid-point ( 3 , 5 )
AC S B D

-2.

594 5.

The mid-point
The mid-point
The mid-point

AB

X of'
Y of
2

By the distance formula

and BZ

2 m ,

6.

(3,2).
(-1,3).

is
is
of CA is

CX

(I,o).

5.

themid-points o f

Byfo-la,

fi,

AY =

fi

E, BC, CD

or

and

are w ( o , ~ ) , --6 , ~ ( 4 , 6 ) and ~ ( 5 , 1 ) ,

respectively. WX has length
and s l o p e - 5 .
YZ also has length
and s l o p e -5. XY has
C-*
H
slope 0, hence, WX # YZ, so that, WX I(
With the aame two aides p a r a l l e l and congruent the
figure la a parallelog~am.

7.

- m.

By the mid-point formula the o t h e r end-point of one

median is ( a 3a , and the other end of another
-a 3a
median is (T,-F).
By the slope formula, the slopes
of these medians are 1 and -1. Since 1 is the
negative reciprocal of -1, the medians are peppendlcular.

8.

From the similarity

between A PLPR

A FlP2S,
Since

TU

and

3 P 1S.

PIR

and
TU = 1 W .

TV = P,S,

FIR

I
I
T1

In terms of coordinates

I
I

!U

x =

T1 ( ~ a XI)

IV

+ XI.

This can a l s o be written

argument with

PIP2

x = 7.
x2
2X1 By a similar
+

projected Into the y-axia,

Therefore the c o o r d i n a t e s of

595+9.

a.

1
Replacing 5 by

r + s

previous problem, if x2

r(xp
from which,

are

in t h e s o l u t i o n of the

>

XI,

we get

xl) +. xl(r
r + s

S)

>

If x2 < xl, a similar argument leads to the

same result.
By a similar argument, with PIP2 projected i n t o
the y-axis,

595

Although we may place our axes in any manner we d e s i r e

in relation to a figure, there are advantages to be had by
a clever choice. For instance, if we are given an iaosceles
triangle, we may place the axes wherever we wish, then w e
the properties of an isosceles t r i a n g l e to determine the
coordlnatea of t h e vertices. Suppose we place it like this:

The student should be permitted to draw upon his howledge

of synthetic geometry and make use of the f a c t that the
altitude t o the base of an isosceles t r i a n g l e b i s e c t s the
base. Hence, the x-coordinate of the vertex should be
half the x-coordinate of the end-point of the baae that is
not at the o r i g i n . On the other hand the y-coordinate of
the v e r t e x is n o t determined by the coordinates of the other
vertices and ie an arbftrary p o s i t i v e number. Suppose we
place t h e axea like this with the vertex on the y-axis:

Then, since the altitude bisects the base, the lengths of

the segments i n t o which it divides the base are equal, and
therefore the end-points of t h e base may be indicated by
( a , ~ ) and (-a,~).

There a l s o are l i m i t s t o what we can choose f o r coordinates. For parallelograms, we find t h a t t h r e e v e r t i c e s

may be labeled a r b i t r a r i l y , but the coordinates of the
fourth vertex are determined by those of the other t h r e e .
Naturally there is more than one way In which we may label a
parallelogram. Below in t h e figure on the left the coordinates of p o i n t s A , B, and D were assfgned f i r s t .
Then the coordinates of C were determined in terms of the
coordinates of the other three pofnts. In the f i g u r e on
the right A , B and C were chosen first. Notice how the
coordinates of D a r e given in terns of the o t h e r co-

ordinates.
A Y

AY

D (b,c)

c(a+ b,c)

~ ( -a,c)
b

A (opl

CAUTION. The above discussion is based

upon the f a c t t h a t such things as i s o s c e l e s triangles or
parallelograms are given in the problem. If t h e problem
is to prove that a q u a d r i l a t e r a l i s a parallelogram or that
a triangle is isosceles, then we cannot assume such properties
to be true, and must establish, aa part of the exercise,
sufficient properties to characterize the figure.
If class time i s l i m i t e d , the end of Problem Set 17-8
would provide a satisfactory conclusion to the coordinate
geometry work. The balance of the chapter could be covered
in l a t e r courses.
One word of

--

Problem S e t 17-8

Therefore,
2.

DB

= AC

Locate the axes along

the legs of the triangle

A
~ ( 0 , b)
2

as shown.

By d e f i n i t i o n of midpoint PA
PB.
Therefore P = (a,b)
C(OPI
It must be shown that
PA = PC (or that
fB = PC). By the distance formula
PA = J(2a

3.

- a12 + ( 0 - b ) 2 =J=

and

L e t the x-axis contain

the segpnent and the

y-axis contain I t s midpolnt. Then the y-axis
is the perpendicular
bisector of' the segment.
Let

~ ( 0 , b ) be any

p o i n t of the y-axis, and

A ( - a , ~ ) and B ( ~ , o ) be
t h e end-points of the
segment. Then:

Hence

IPCO.b)

PA = PB.

A(-0.0)

B(O,O)

599

4.

Place the axes so that

the segnent will have

end-points A(-a,O)
B(~,o), and t h e y-axis
will be its perpendicular
his ec t a r . L e t ~ ( xy,)
be any p o i n t equidistant
from A and B. From
the distance formula
QA

Since

(x + a)*

+ y2

and

A(- o,O)
I

QB2 = (x

- a ) * + y 2.

w 2 = w 2 or

QA=QB,

(x + a)* + y2 = ( X
Simplif'ying, 4ax = 0.
x = 0, since

a12

y2.

0.

Hence Q must lie on the y-axis which is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
5.

The mid-point of
The mid-point of

AC = -)(, a + b c + O

BD

)-,(

a + b O + c

( aT ,+F )b. c

(aT ,+T b) . c

Since the diagonals have the same mid-points, they

b i s e c t each other.

Since
Since

R and S have the same y-coodinates,

RS is h o r i z o n t a l ,

R S = b- -- tpa= - .d
D C = d - b

RS

b + a - d
AB=a.

DC) =

= $(AB

- DC)

which was t o be proved.

Therefore +(AB

Hence,

and

*3

-.

RS

11

AB.

Mid-point of WS = ( a + d + b , e + c ) .
Mid-point of TR = (a I- b + d,c + e ) .
Therefore % and TR b i s e c t each o t h e r .
Area

ABC = area (XYBA)

Area

ABC =

area (YZCB) area ( X Z C A ) .

1 + r ) (b a ) +?(t+
1
1
T(s
s ) ( c b ) - ?(r + t) ( c a).

Multiplying out and combining terms,

1
area A ABC = ?(rb - sa + sc - t b + ta - rc),

area A ABC

XY

Slnce

a(t

s)

a.
(b

b(r

XR

a)*

cP

= (b2

Z Y ~= X Z +
~ XY2

Therefore

+
-

c(s

2
c )

a2

2XY

. XR.

t)

or

r)

b.

2ab,

Observe that this proof remains valid if

between X and Y.
S e l e c t a coordinate system
M = ( b , ~ ) , N = ( a +d,e)
A B =
~ 4a 2
BC* = 4 ( a - b ) 2 + 4c 2

indicated.

lies

C(2b.2C)

From these expressions the given equation can be

v e r i f i e d . Note t h a t
2
2
(a + d
b
]
'
= a* + d + b + 2ad - 2ab
2bd.

600

11.

Place t h e axes and label

the v e r t i c e s as shown.
2
2
A C ~ =+ c~ .
BC 2 = (2a b) 2 + c 2
T = 2 a ,2

MC* = ( a - b 1 2 + c 2 ,
Si n c e
(b2+ c2) + (4a2 4ab + b 2 + c 2)

Therefore

AC

+ BC'

= 2a 2

+ 2(a2 - 2ab + b 2+ c 2) ,

2
2
2
= 2 a + 2 [ ( a - b ) + c 1.
A B ~
2
= 7 + 2MC

Problem -Set 17-9

Y
A

Y
4

15,O)

I-5 0 )

*X

(5,O)
0

t
t

la.

The v e r t i c a l line
through ( 5 , O )

lb.

The two vertical lines

(5,0) and

[pages 600-6031

2a.

The half-plane above

the h o r i z o n t a l line
through (0,3)

2b.

A l l p o i n t s between the
l i n e s y = 3 and y = -3.

A l l p o i n t s between the

4.

A l l p o i n t s wlthin or on

3.

y-axis and the line

x = 2.

the boundary of t h e indicated strip.

5.

A 1 1 p o i n t s within,

or

6.

on the l o w e r boundary
of the i n d i c a t e d s t r i p .

A l l p o i n t s within the
second quadrant.

60 4
Y

7.

A l l p o i n t s w i t h i n Lndicated angle.

[pages 603-6041

A
e etc.
4

8a.

A 1 1 points on the
vertical lines
lndlcated.
Y

8b.

A 1 1 points on the
horizontal lines

indicated.

8c . The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the
aolutiona for ( 8 a ) and
(8b). 1 . e . , a l l points
Fn the f i r 6 t quadrant
with integral coordinates.

9.

The Fntersection of the 10. A l l pointa within or on

three half-planes formed
the boundary of the inby the three given
dicated rectangle.
conditions. i.e., a l l
p o i n t s within t h e angle
formed by the p o s i t i v e
part of the y-axis and
the ray from the origin
as shown.
[page 6041

All p o h t s in the i n t e r f o r

A l l p o i n t s except the end-points

The rays bisecting the

angles formed by the x
and y-axes fn first and
second quadrants.

Lines b i a ec t ing the angles

formed by the x and y-axes.

604 "15.

The square with vertices

(510),

and

(0,513

(-510)

(0,-5).

--

Problem Set 17-10

[pages 604,6101

The graph is
the y - a x l e .

I
611

18. a .

The yz-plane.

The xy-plane.

c.

to the yz-plane, i n t e r s e c t i n g
x = 1.

A plane parallel to the xz-plane, intersecting

t h e y-axfs at

611

x-axis.

A plane p a r a l l e l

t h e x-axis at
d.

The graph is the

y = 2.

The material in Section 17-11 may have been previously

covered In a f i r s t year algebra course. If t h i s is the c a s e ,
do not spend any m o r e time than is necessary on t h i s section.
You will note t h a t in the discussfon on this page, it
is necessary f o r us t o f i n d an additional point in o r d e r to
plot: the graph of the e q u a t i o n . We may do this in two ways.
The f i r s t would be to assign to x a value, substitute t h i s
value i n t h e given equation and compute the corresponding
value of y (or we could assign a value to y and compute
The second method depends upon t h e discussion here in
x)
the t e x t . For we know how a l i n e with a p o s i t i v e o r negative
s l o p e will lie, and we also h o w that if a line has a p o s i t i v e

[pages 610-6111

611

s l o p e then

Rp2 and if i t s s l o p e is negative,

"=P;R

"

=-v
RP2

Then, given one point on the graph and the s l o p e we can find
a second p o i n t by counting t h e units in t h e legs of the
right t r i a n g l e , Consider the example used by the t e x t ,
y = 3 x - 4. We see immediately that the y-intercept is -4
and that the s l o p e is 3. Since the slope is p o s i t i v e , the
graph w i l l r i s e t o the r i g h t . Hence, we can f i n d a second
p o i n t by s t a r t i n g at (0,-4)
and counting 1 unit to the
right and three units up t o t h e point ( 1 - We can check
to s e e t h a t we are c o r r e c t by a p p l y i n g the s l o p e formula to
these coordinates.

L e t us consider one more case, namely, when t h e s l o p e of t h e

given line is negative. Draw the graph of the equation
y =

2
- ~x

c 3.

We see t h a t the p o i n t

(0,3)

lies on the

graph, and to locate a second point by this method, we must

r e a l i z e that we w l t l l be working with a slope of - 3. The
graph, then, wfll r i s e t o t h e left and we can locate a
second polvlt by counting 3 u n i t s to the left from (0,3)
and 2 units up, as in the figure below.

Problem Set 17-12

5.

The graph is the whole

The graph I s t h e empty s e t ; l . e . , there are no p o i n t a

whose coortiinatea satiaPy the equation.

7.

The graph contains a single p o l n t , the o r i g l n

8.

The graph I s t h e empty s e t .

xy-plane.

(0,O).

--

Problem S e t 17-13

The emptg a e t .

The equations are

equivalent. Any
pair of numbers
whose sum is 3
is a comon solution.

3.

4000 miles.

619

4.

a.

The i n t e r s e c t t o n is
point (2,4).

b.

The i n t e r s e c t i o n is
the ray shown with

end-point

I
I
I

(2,4)

(2,4)

It

c.

The intersection l a
the i n t e r i o r of

L ABC.

5.

d.

The conditions are

a.

The i n t e m e c t l o n is
the interior of the
triangle with vertices

(2,419

y<2x

and y < 4.

and

(-1,41
b.

x + y < 3 ,
x

>

>

0,
0.

11

619

6.

The mid-point
coordinates

has
B t5,8 1

4-

The slope of

8 - 4

n=

AB

is

so t h e

2,

1
l

--

I
(

"

4.

y - 6 = - ~ + 2 , 0 r

A (3.4)

---

slope of L is
and
i t s equation is L:
7 - 6 = - $(x
41,

2y = 16.
Alternate solution:
for which PA = PB.

which reduces to x

L is the s e t of points
Thls gives

~(x,y)

2y = 16.

In the preceding problem, we found the equation

L: x + ~y = 16.
S i m i l a r l y , f o r M and N we f i n d
M:

3x

y = -3,

N: a -3 y = - 1 9 ,
The i n t e r s e c t i o n G o f L and M i s obtained by
solving their equations:
10 51
G = (7'7) Substltutlng in t h e thi& equation, we f i n d that G
lies on N a l s o .

620 *8.

Take a coordinate system in which Queen's Road is the

x-axis and Kingis Road is the y-axis.

The coordinates of the elm, apmce, and pine are as

indicated. The maple is gone, but its assumed p o s i t i o n
3
i a labeled ( 0 , m )
The s l o p e of EP is ?i, so i t s
equation (in slope-intercept form) I s
y = l 3f X + 3 .
M
The slope of SM is so i t s equation (in pointslope form) is
C,
m
SM: y = - $X
2).
S o l v i n g these two equations simultaneously , we find
t h e coordinates of A:

w:

Similarly, we g e t the equations

w
3
SP: y = p
3,

t
,

EM:

y = $(x

4).

w,

and the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n is

B:
m e line

X*

9m

Y2 = m*
\
has the equation,

620

The i n t e r s e c t i o n T of AB and the x-axis is found by

l e t t f n g y = 0 and solvFng f o r x:

X =

X1y2
y2

X2Y1
Yl

Now

Dividing, we get x = 8. ThereZ~rethe treasure.was

buried 8 miles e a s t of the c r o s s i n g .
Suppose now that the pine were a l s o missing. Assume
coordinates (0,p),
for P and carry through the
calculation in terms of both m and p . The algebra
is a little more complicated, but if it is done
correctly both m and p drop out in the final
r e s u l t , which is again x = 8.

620 *9.

AB,

C, perpendicular to the
base
i.e., it contains the altitude f r o m C. If
%$ where rn is its s l o p e , contalns the altitude
from A , 1t has the equation
The y-axls is a llne through

Y
SLnce

C+

AM

%Z= -

ao

7 and the equation of

m = 8,

7 ( +~4 ) .
8

y =

is

- -.
slope

n =

A M 1 BC,

~ u stl o p e

m(x + 41,

To f i n d the y-inlercept, l e t

0:

7 - 4 =T'
7
8

Now do the same for BN. which contains the altitude

P m m B. Slope X? = 8- = 2, s o the slope of %? 18
1 and its equation is

-,

- z1(x -

y =

7)

x = 0, we get the y-intercept

Letting

and EN meet at the point

the line containing the altitude from C.
For t h e general triangle,
Therefore

slope
slope

AM:

BC

AM

=-

C
b,

W = z,

80

- a),

b
y = -$x

and
ba

. ,-

the y-intercept is
S i m i l a r l y , slope
slope
w

BN:

$X

AC

so

- b),

the y-intercept i s

=--

and
ab

-. ,

a'

(0,s) on

620

Therefore the three altitudes meet at the point

ab
Note that this proof does not depend on the
( 0- )

signs of a, b, and c, but only on the fact that

A , B, lie on the x-axis and C on the y-axis.

621 *lo.

Let

A = (x1.y1).

( X ~ ~ Y ~ C) ,
= (x3,y3)

Then we have

The s l o p e of

If

G = (

X 1 f X 2 + X

t h e d o p e of AG

so
H

A I x,

w
AR is

, YI)

3 y1 + Y 2 + Y 3 )

then

is

is on t h e median

C,

AR.

Similarly, the slope of

BT is

[pages 620-6211

621

and the slope of

f--*

BG

is

Y1 + Y2 + Y3

- 72
rnZ1 = 3
Xl + X2 9- xX3

= m2,

3
- X2

is on the median BG. Similarly, we rind that

f,
G is on the median CS. Hence, the three medians
Fntersect in the p o i n t G whose coordinates are t h e
averages of the coordinates of t h e vertices.

so

The equatfon

3y

-k

1 = 0

is equivalent t o

3. - 5'

w h ~ o his in slope-intercept form.

1
Therefore the s l o p e is - 3.
The line M through
(1,2) perpendicular to L has s l o p e 3, so an
equation f o r it is

y = -

S o l v i n g the equations f o r M and L

find t h e i r Intersection P, we get

Computing the distance d

distance formula, we find

from
d =

[page 621 I

simultaneowly to

(1,2) to

-5 f i .

P by t h e

621 "12.

The lFne L with

epuatlon y = x haa
slope 1, so the
line M through (a,b)
perpendicular t o L has
alope -1, An equatAon
for M l a
M: g - b = - [ x - a),
x + y - a + b ,
Solving for the point of
Intersection P, we get
a + b a + b
p = I*-(

The distance is obtained

2
a + b
from d =
a) 2 + (-a + b

*13. From Problem 9 , we have H

From Problem 10, we have

To f i n d
-

AB

and

ab

= (0,- T
=

).

a + b c

D we get the perpendicular bisectors u, v

E:

Therefore,
Now

- bj2

a + b c2 + a b

of

From these equations we get,

621

= 2MD,

HD = 3MD,

HM+MD=HD.

This ahows that

H, M,

is between H and D,

and

D are collinear, that

and that

trisects

HD:

--

Problem S e t 17-14

626

1.

In each case the result is 25. This becomes obvious if

radii are drawn to the points on the c i r c l e .

2.

a.

(11,

(31,

b.

(31,

(4).

c.

(1).

3.

a.

Center (0,O); r = 3 .

627 4 .

a.

Replacing

(41,

(6)

f.

(4,3);

6.

and y In the equation by the given

coordinates s a t i s f i e s the equation.

(x2

- lox + 25) + y2 = 25,

512 +

012 = g2*
The center of t h e c i r c l e is
is 5.
(X

(y

[ pages 621, 626-6271

( 5,O) ; the radius

5.

c.

The ends of the diameter along the x-axis are

(0,0) and '(10,o). The s l o p e of the segment
joining (0,0) and (1,3) is 3 . The slope of
1
the s e p e n t joining (10,0) and (1,3) Is - J.
1
Since 3 and - 3
are negative reciprocals, the
lines are perpendicular and a r i g h t angle is formed.

a.

The x-axla intersects the circle where y = 0, t h a t

is where (x - 3 ) 2 = 25, or at p o h t s (-2,0) and
( 8 , O ) . The y-axis intersects the c i r c l e where
x = 0, that is where 9 + y2 = 25, or at points
(0,4)
and ( 0 , - 4 ) .

b.

- 8= 4 - 4

16.

The radiua of the larger circle fs

So the

eauation is
There would be another tangent c i r c l e of radius

1 and the same center.

The including c i r c l e l a x2

+ y2

= 100.

If 16 - 33rn2
intersection:

>

0, there are t w o points of

c.

16 - 33rn2 = 0, t h e r e is one point of

Intersection :

IP

=16m , m = - +-

rn2

and

m*

Thia means t h a t the two lines

are tangent to t h e c i r c l e .

If 16

33rn2

<

0,

there is no p o i n t of inter-

section.

628

9.

Put the given equation in standard form

(X

512 + (y

- 3)2 = 22.

given c l r c l e has center ( 5 , 3 ) , radius 2.

the required c i r c l e have center (a,b) and radius
Then b = a = r, s l n c e t h e c i r c l e touches t h e xy-axes, and the distance from center (a,b) to
center (5,3) is P + 2. Hence,

The
Let
r.
and

Thus, there are two solutions:

where

(approx.)
( approx )

= 10

..

or

+ 6 (approx.
10

18.37)

and

(approx. 1.63) and

[pages 627-6281

r2 = 337.3
r2 = 2.7

Review Problem

3E- The

median is v e r t i c a l and has no slope.

Place the axes and

aa s ign coordinates as
shown.

a.

PT

(2a9a), U = (a,2a).

=J-=

4a

QU
Therefore
b.

-t-

aJ5;
PT = QU.

Theslopeof
The slope of

Since

a - 0

QU =

PT=-=?.

Ir

2a = -2.

-2 is the negative reciprocal of

the segments are perpendicular.

1
T,

628

*c.

Using the point-slope form the equation of

y

0 = $(x

PT is:

- 0)

or

y = p .

The equation of

QU

ia:

The coordinates of V, given by the common

solution of the equations of $? and
are

. The distance V9
2
J(%0) + ( $ -p e l 2 =
8a,
(77
-5

is then
2a = length

of side.

629 lo.
Y
A

Take coordinate system as shown. Then M = ( b , c ) ;

N = (a + d , c ) .
w
Equation of MN is:
y = c.
C
Equation of diagonal
is: y = a
x.
PoMt R of intersection 1s ( d , c ) , which is a l s o
t h e mid-polnt of

[pagea 628-629)

Equation of
Equation of

13.

%? is
%8 I s

Lengths of parallel
sides are: l a l , Ib
Altltude is l c 1

y = x - 6.
y
3&.
Y

- dl.

15. A c i r c l e with center at the o r i g i n and radius

2.

*17. Find f i m t the lnteraection of the line x + y

2 and
the c i r c l e , Now x = 2 - g.
merefore.
(2
J r ) 2+ y2 = 2,
2
4 - 4
+ y 2 = 2,
2
(Y 1) = 0,
so that
y = 1
and
x = 1,
Thus the point (1,l) 18 the only point of intemection,
so that the l h e is tangent to the circle.

Review

Anplwera t o Review Berciaes

Chaptem 13 to 17

26. 1.

2-7. 0.
28. 1.

29. 1.
30.

0,

31.

0.

32.

1.

33.

1.

34. 1.
35.

1.

36. 1.

37.

0.

38.

0,

39. 1.
40.

0.

41.

1.

42.

0.

43.

0.

44.

0.

45.

1.

46.

0.

47. 1.
48.

o.

49. 1.
50.

0.

[pages 630-6331

---

Illustrative Test Items f o r Chapter 17

What name l a given to the projection of the point

i n t o the y-axis.

(5,0)

State the number o f the quadrant in which each of the

following points is located: ( 3 , 3 ) , (6,-21, (-2,8).
What are the coordinates of a point on the x-axis if the
distance from the p o i n t to the y-axis is 4?
A ray with its end-point at the o r i g i n makes a 30'
angle with the p o a i t i v e x-axis and extends i n t o the
first quadrant. What are the coordinates of a point
on t h e ray whose distance from the origin is 27

Determine t h e slopes of the l i n e segments between the

following pairs of points:
a.

(0,0] and

(5,3).

d.

(-110)

b.

(1,4)

(4,8).

e.

(-2,-3) and

c.

(-2,2) and (3,-4).

and

and

(-33-2)-

(-2,3).

If a aquare is placed with t w o of i t s sides along the

x- and y-axes, what are the slopes of each of its
diagonals

If scalene A ABC is placed with AB along the x-axis

which of the following lines has no slope?
AB,
the median to E, the altitude to AB, the angle
b i s e c t o r of L C .

Determine the distance between each pair of p o l n t s :

a.

(1,4)

and

b.

(-1,0) and

(2,3).

(-9,15),

c.

(a,b)

and

(-a,-b) ,

D.

E.

2.

If t h r e e of the v e r t i c e s of a rectangle a r e a t (0~11,

( 5 , l ) and (5,4) what is the length o f a diagonal
of the rectangle.

3.

The v e r t i c e s o f a trapezoid a r e

1.

A triangle has v e r t i c e s

Of the following equations which p a i r s of lines a r e

a. parallel, b. c o i n c i d e n t , c. intersecting,
d . pewendicular.

3.

A right t r i a n g l e has

1.

Using coordinate geometry p r o v e that the mid-point of

(b,c)
and (d,c). What is t h e l e n g t h of t h e segment joining
mid-po i ~ t s
of its non-parallel s ides ?
(0,0), ( a , ~ ) ,

A(o,o),

~(12,0) and ~ ( 9 , 6 ) .
What i s the e q u a t i o n of the median to s i d e AB?

v e r t i c e s ( 0 , 0 ) , ( m , ~ ), (0,n).
What is t h e equatlon of the median which passes through
the origin?
the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from
the v e r t i c e s .

2.

Show that the p o i n t s A , B, C, D whose coordinates a r e

(2,3), ( 4 , ( 8 ,
(6,4)
are vertices of a
parallelogram. Show that the f i g u r e formed by joining
the mid-points of t h e sides of ABCD is a parallelogram.

3.

Prove by coordinate geometry t h e theorem: If a l i n e

parallel to one side of a triangle b i s e c t s a second
s i d e , then it a l s o b i s e c t s t h e t h i r d stde.

Answers
The o r i g i n .

e.

The line is vertical and has no slope.

The altitude to

E.

b.

None.

c.

(ljand(3);
( 2 ) and ( 4 ) ;

d.

( 3 ) and (4).

(1)and(4);
( 3 ) and ( 4 ) .

Take a coordinate ~ y s t e m
as shown, wlth vertices
(o,o),
(a,@,(0,2n)
Then mld-point P of
hypotenuse haa coordinates

(m,n)
Distanoe of
f r o m each vertex l a

J-

(2)and13);

P
x
IO,OI

(em,01

2.

Slope
Slope

E = - l = s l o p e CD.
- 1
AD = P = slope BC

Hence,

I( 5.

so that

- 11 BC.

Likewise AD

The mid-pofnts of t h e sides taken in order are ( 3 , ~ ,

)
6
, ( 7 , 3 ) and 4
, Slopes of sides of the
1
figure formed by joining these mid-points are - 5
f o r each of one pair of sides and 3 for each of the
other pairs. Hence, t h i s figure a l s o is a parallelogram.
3.

Select a coordinate
system in such a way
that the vertices are

A(o,o),

Y
A

~(2a,0),

~ ( 2 b , 2 c ) . Let M
mid-point of AC,

be

MN I I E. Then
M = (b,c). Slope
MN=O.
Hence,
w
equatlon MN is y
w
Equation BC is y

~(20,o)

= c.
C

= =(x

Solving these equations we find

Hence, (from mid-point formula)
of BC.

Pa).

N
N

= (a

b, c )

is the mfd-point

FACTS AND
--

THEORIES

Science today is playing an I n c r e a s i n g l y important p a r t in

the life of the individual. No one can claim to be truly educated
unless he has a reasonable understanding of the f a c t s and methods
of science. This does n o t mean t h a t we must all become nuclear
p h y s i c i s t s , nor t h a t we must spend a l l our time reading books and
attending lectures on the latest c o l l e c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s discovered
by the physicists. But it does impose on us the o b l i g a t i o n t o
learn enough of the f a c t s of modern science to provide a foundation
for understanding. It does imply an intelligent eelection of
material t o be learned.
We, as educators, are e s p e c i a l l y obligated t o make such a
selection for o u r students. They come t o us wlth a miscellaneous
hodgepodge of disjointed f a c t s and pseudo-facts, gleaned from
newspapers, magazines, books, and other sources. We must help
them
with our own l i m i t e d Information
to s t r a i g h t e n out
thefr ideas, to build a reasonable conceptual structure upon which
they c a n hang new f a c t s , to distinguish between t h a t which is
significant and that which I s not, and, perhaps most Mportant of
all, to understand how new howledge is acqutred. If pursued t o
the extreme, t h i s last goal would lead us t o the f a r reaches of
epistemology and scientific method, which have been the subjects
of m a n y weighty tomes w r l t t e n by scholars over many l i f e t i m e s ,
and about which the last word has certainly not been uttered. But
to dismiss this t o p i c e n t i r e l y as being t o o subtle f o r the m a ture minds of our students is t o deny them t h e opportunity of
becoming a l i t t l e more mature in our classrooma.
What should be the aims of t h e mathematics teacher, fn the
light of what we have just said?
C e r t a i n l y we should help the student to become acquainted
with the facts of mathematics by working with t h e m . We agree t h a t
our subject is an essential tool in science and in daily life,
and t h a t the student should acquire a working f a c i l i t y in it.
Therefore we teach him arithmetic, elementary algebra, intuitive

--

--

geometry in the lower grades, advanced algebra, synthetic and

analytic geometry, possibly c a l c u l u s and o t h e r topics in t h e
h i g h e r grade s
It would be dffficult, however, t o defend the teaching of a l l
these subjects on t h e grounds of u t i l i t y alone. No one pretends,
for example, t h a t i t i s of p r a c t i c a l importance t h a t the bisector
of an angle of a triangle d i v i d e s the o p p o s i t e s i d e in the way
that it does. kle proceed, then, t o t h e second alm, of developing
in the student an apprecration of clear, l o g i c a l reasoning as
exemplified in mathematics, and an ability to transfer this type
of reasoning to o t h e r situations. We have been moderately, though
nat eminently, successful in this respect in the p a s t . Wether
our present e f f o r t s w i l l t e n d t o f u r t h e r t h i s obJective remains t o
be seen. We certainly hope so.
A third am, which has been receiving more a t t e n t i o n of l a t e ,
is to develop in t h e s t u d e n t an understanding of the structure of
mathematical systems. We are beginnfng to speak of closure,
commutativity, dlstributivity and so on in d e a l l n g w i t h number
systems, and -- s t i l l t o o t i m i d l y , perhaps -- of t h e aximatic
nature of geometry.
This third aim is closely r e l a t e d t o t h e b r o a d e r one mentioned
e a r l i e r , of helping t h e student t o understand how new lmowledge is
acquired, how man learns about t h e physical world, how he constructs, develops and t e s t s t h e o r t e s about the physical, b i o l o g i c a l ,
s o c i a l , and econonlc aspects of l i f e around him. L e t us address
ourselves b r i e f l y to these questions.
Whether we recognize it o r n o t , theory plays an i n d i s p e n s a b l e
r o l e in our study of any f i e l d whatsoever. The a c t s of naming,
classifying, and g e n e r a l i z i n g are conceptual in nature. Even
emotional r e a c t i o n s t o stimuli depend on a structuring of experlence. The r e a l vrorld -- whatever t h a t may mean -- reaches us only
by constructing a conceptual world to correspond to it. In setting
up a p a r t i c u l a r discipline, it is n o t necessary, however, t o refer
back always to t h e p r q ~ a r yd a t a s u p p l i e d by our senses. The raw
material f o r a theory a t one stage may be t h e conceptual world of

a previous stage.

For example, the c l a s s f c a l geometry of various

surfaces in three dSmenslons may be taken as t h e jumping-off place
f o r a study of abstract metric spaces, and we would then a b s t r a c t
from t h i s c l a s s i c a l geometry, testing our new theory against it.
In every case, then, we operate ajmultaneously in two different
It
p l a n e s , I! One is the primary, intuitive plane, containing the
raw data from which our theory will be abstracted. This, following Bridgman, we call the "P-plane." The second I s the conceptual

plane, the "c-plane." I n i t i a l l y , t h e C-plane i s empty, waiting t o

be f i l l e d with the concepts and relations which we construct.
We have complete freedom with respect to the concepts and
relations which we choose to insert in the C-plane, so long as we
do not assert any connection between i t and the P-plane, Naturally, we hope eventually t o set up a correspondence between the two
planes, and this hope guides our constructions and our choice of
language. Logically, there is no necessity to make the language
In the C-plane correspond to that of the P-plane, and in order to
avoid confusion it might be better to use different terms entirely.
For example, the "poln t s ," " l i n e s ,l' and ''planes " of axiomatic
geometry (the C-plane) might be replaced by other terms which have
But once
n o t been preempted in physical geometry ( t h e P-plane).
the formal d i a t i n c t f o n between the two planes and t h e i r languages
has been established and understood, there is a psychological
advantage t o be gained from the use of the same terms, f o r the
proposed correspondence i s then t r a n s p a r e n t l y indicated, Thus,
we h o w that the geometrical "pointt' is meant to correspond to
the physical point, the geometrical "line" to the physical line,
and so on. We can intuit, conjecture, and then perhaps prove
theorems i n the C-plane by peeking over i n t o the P-plane at the
corresponding 'Ifac t s ," arrived a t by experiment there. For
example, the concurrence of the medians of a triangle could be
guessed from drawing a number of physical triangles and t h e i r
medians on a piece of paper. This type of experience i s extremely
valuable and con~titutesan important psychological adjunct to
mathematical dfscovery. It must be pointed out carefully, though,
t h a t formal proof in the C-plane is necessary. Furthermore, the

l o g i c a l conclusion t o be drawn from this combined guessing and

proving process is not that we have made the geometrical theorem
more c e r t a i n by experimental v e r f f i c a t i o n , The truth of the
theorem has been established (in t h e C-plane) with complete cert a f n t y by l o g i c a l deduction from the axioms. Rather, our feeling
of satisfaction on seeing t h a t the theorem works out on paper
should stem from the confirmation of the correspondence between
the t w o planes. What we do tend to establish by such empirical
tests 1 s t h e adequacy of our postulate system to b r l r g about a
close correspondence.
Consider for example, what our situation would be i f we had
In our system all of the postulates of Euclidean geometry except
f o r the parallel p o s t u l a t e . Suppose, then, that we measured the
angles of many triangles and found, w3.thin the limits of experimental error, that the sum of the measures of the angles was 180.
Then, pasaing to the C-plane, we attempted to prove the corresponding result as a theorem, and of c o u r s e f a i l e d , The correct conclusion to draw would be that (a) we were not clever enough t o
f2nd a proof, or (b) that our axiom system was not adequate f o r
the purpose, H i s t o r i c a l l y , i t was the bellef that ( a ) was the
only possibility, together w i t h an hnperfect understanding of
axiomatlcs, that delayed the development of non-Euclidean geoemtry.
Eventually, of course, this very problem l e d to our present deeper
understanding of t h e connection between fact and theory.

What a r e the considerations that govern our choice of undefined elementa and relations and unproved p r o p o s i t i o n s (axioms,
postulates)? Certainly we want our system to be consistent: a
p r o p o s i t i o n and I t s contradfction should not both be provable in
the system. If we regard our axioms as inputs and our theorems as
outputs, then econonry and fruitfulness are desirable as increasing
output p e r unit input. Of course, this analogy is n o t t o be
taken t o o seriously, but it indicates why we should n o t p o s t u l a t e
everything. Unfortunately, some geometry t e x t s nowadays go t o
the extreme of setting down fifty or more postulates. There is
nothing logically wrong with this, but it militates against
economy, elegance, intuitiveness, slmplicfty, and ease of

--

verification i n a particular i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
properties that are
c e r t a i n l y desirable.
One property that we have not mentioned is that of bewg
c a t e g o r i c a l . This means that every two concrete I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
(models) of the system w i l l be essentially the same: it is
p o s s l b l e t o s e t up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements
and r e l a t i o n s of the two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , so that they may be
regarded as identical except f o r t h e names assigned t o the elements
and r e l a t i o n s . The two models a r e then s a i d to be isomorphic. If
we start d t h a p a r t i c u l a r P-plane and wish to describe it completely by means of an axiom system, wlthout permitting any nonisomorphic models, then we try to make our system categorical.
This is the case with Euclidean geometry or t h e real number system,
Somethes we reap an unelcpected harvest from the construction
of a c a t e g o r i c a l system. We may find two apparently d i f f e r e n t
Fnterpretations, and c a n then conclude t h a t they are essentially
identical because the system is categorical. Any theorem which
holds in one model is then sure to hold in the other. A n example
is the p a i r of models %, consisting of the real numbers under
addition, and M2, consisting of the p o s i t i v e r e a l numbers under
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . The one-to-one correspondence
is
established by the exponential function (from M1 t o m2) and t h e
logarithm (from M2 to M~). Another example is the pair of
physical processes, diffusion of a gas and heat-flow, b o t h being
governed by t h e same differential equation. S t i l l another example
1s t h e isomorphism of Euclidean plane geometry with the collection
of a l l peaf-number pairs, Thfs isomorphism allows us to s o l v e
geometrical problems by m e a n s of algebra, and v i c e versa.
A t o t h e r times, we find it more profitable t o make our
system non-categorical. This is true when we have several P-planes
which bear some resemblance t o each other. If t ~ ec a n construct, a
suitable C-plane so that each of the P-planes is an interpretation
of it, then anything we prove in the C-plane vcl12 hold Ln all of
i t s non-isomorphic models. This happens, f o r example, in the
case of group theory. It also happens when we s t a t e a few, but
not a l l of the axioms of Ehclidean geometry. In this case our

520
theorems, being provable, say, without the parallel postulate,
must hold a l s o f o r a l l geometrfes satisfying the stated axioms.
There I s no reason t o hide t h i s desirable state of affairs from
o w l students, f o r f e a r of violating t h e i r . T n t u i t i o n s about space.
Rather, we should regard such occasions as valuable opportunities
f o r teaching an important lesson.
Our discussion here has been f a r from exhaustive. We hope
t h a t it has served the purpose of pointing to a desirable and
sometimes neglected goal in education, and that it has indicated
how we, as teachers of mathematics, can approach t h i s goal.

EQUALITY, CONGRUENCE,

1.

& EQUIVALENCE

Angles and Segments.

In describing the r e l a t i o n of "equalityt'between angles and

segments, t h l s book departs from common usage, Before explaining
why this has been done, let us first note quickly how the new
usage compares with the o l d . Suppose we have two angles w i t h the
same degree measure r, like this:

and two segments of the same length, l i k e this:

In these t w o instances, t h e f a c t s a r e p l a i n . They would be

reported in the following ways, in the o l d and new terminologies.
In Words

In Symbols

Old

New

Old

The angles

The angles are

AA=LB

a r e equal,

congruent.

The segments
a r e equal.

The segments
a r e congruent.

AB =m

New

L A ~ L B
L A = rnL B)
* AB = CD

(or m

(or AB

CD)

From the t a b l e it is p l a i n that the new usage is n o t complicated.

We have simply substituted one word for another, and one symbol
for another. Of course, even slmple changes should be made only
f o r good reasons; they go against everybody's habits, and cause

much more trouble at first than t h e i r slmplic-lty would suggest.

We b e l i e v e t h a t there are very g o d reasons f o r the use t h a t we
have made of the word congruence. Followfng is an explanatSon
of what these reasons are.
2.

Various -Kinds of Equality.

The word "equals" is commonly used in mathefnatics I n a t

least t h i s many d i f f e r e n t senses:
(1) When we write 2 + 4 = 3 + 3, we mean that t h e number
2 + 4 and t h e number 3 + 3 are exactly t h e same number (namely, 6 )
Here "equals" means "is the same as."
( 2 ) When we say that two angles are equal, vre mean t h a t
they have the same measure, or the same shape.
(33 Two circles are equal if they have the same radius,
4 Two segments a r e equal if they have the same length.
( 5 ) Two triangles are equal if they have the same area,
(6) Two polyhedrons a r e equal if they have the same volume.

d i v i d e sharply into three groups.

(I) The f i r s t meaning ("is the same a s t t ) stands entirely
alone. T h i s is the l o g f c a l i d e n t i t y . It arises in a l l branches
of mathematics, including geometry.
(11) ' ' ~ q u a l i t y "expresses the same basic i d e a for angles,
circles, and segments, in (2), (31, and ( 4 ) . It means in each
case t h a t t h e f i r s t figure can be moved so as to c o i n c i d e w t t h
t h e second without stretching,
a fuller explanation, s e e
Appendix VIII, on Rrlgid Motion.) This idea is geometric, and is
one of t h e most b a s i c ideas in geometry. Applied to triangles,
it is always described as congruence and not as equality.
(111) " ~ q u a l i t y "t o mean equal areas or equal volumes, as

These uses of

or

in (5) and ( 6 ) , implies t h a t two t h i n g s are equal

the sm,e amount of " s t u f f . "
These are the three main ideas involved. We
words and the i d e a s overlap b o t h ways.
Not only
"equals" used in two widely d i f f e r e n t senses, but
involved in ( 2 ) , (3), and (4) is expressed by two
unrelated words.

if they contain

n o t i c e t h a t the
is the word
the baslc idea
apparently

students can and do l e a m to keep track of what is

meant, even when the words and the ideas overlap in this way. A l l
of us learned to do this, when we were in the tenth grade. The
whole thing becomes easier t o learn, however, and easter to keep
t r a c k o f , if the words match up wtth the ideas in a simpler and
more natural way, This can be done as follows:
"=I' ,
and say "equals, ' t only when
(I) We can agree to write
tt
we m e a n is t h e same a s . "
(This is the standard usage Fn nearly
a l l of modern mathematics.)
(11) We already have a word to express the i d e a that one
t r i a n g l e can be made t o coincide with another; we say t h a t they
a r e congruent. We can use the same word to express t h e same idea
when we are t a l k k g about angles, circles or segments,
I ) When we want to convey the i d e a t h a t two triangles
have the same area, we c a n simply s a y t h a t they have the same area.
Notfce t h a t if we do this we have n o t introduced any new
words into the language of geometry. We me not t
m to be
technical, A l l t h a t we are t r y i n g to g e t at is a situation i n
which the familiar and available words correspond in a natural
way to the familiar and basic ideaa. The correspondence looks
like this:
(I) =, between any two things whatever, means "is the same
Obviously

as,

It

(11) 2, between any two geometric figures whatever, means

that one can be moved so as to coincide with the other.
(311) Equality of area, e q u a l i t y of volwne, and so on, a r e to
be described e x p l i c i t l y as such.
A l l t h i s is straightforward language. We believe t h a t your
students w i l l find it easy to learn and easy t o use.
3.

Equivalence Relations.

All the uses of "equals, I' In mathematics or otherwise,

Involve the notion of two things belng --allke in some respect.
The particular respect to be considered may be made e x p l i c i t , as
in usage ( 5 ) above, or it may not, as in " ~ l lmen are created
equal. 1l As mentioned above, mathematicians have pretty generally

agreed to use t h e word to mem "alike in all respects"; that I s ,

tdentlcal, Instead of the o t h e r usage they speak of an "equivalence r e l a t i o n , " A r e l a t i o n between pairs of objects, from
some given s e t , is called an equivalence relation if it has the
followlng three p r o p e r t i e s :
(1) It is reflexive. That is, any object of the s e t 1s
equivalent to itself.
( 2 ) It is symmetric. That is, if A is equivalent to B,
then B is equivalent to A.
(3) It is transitive. That I s , if A is equivalent to B,
and B 1s equivalent to C, then A is equivalent to C.
In a mathematical development we may use several different
kinds of equivalence relations. To keep them separate we give
them different names and different symbols. In o u r geometry we
have used the followlng equivalence relations.
(a) Identity. The r e l a t i o n Itis the same as" is easily seen
to satisfy t h e three p r o p e r t i e s l i s t e d above. The word "equal1'
and the symbol 'I=" are reserved f o r this equfvalence relation.
(b) Congruence, Here again, the properties are easily
r the talk on Congruence f o r a general t r e a t checked. ( ~ e f e to
ment .) The symbol i a " 2
( c ) Similasity. Here again we have an equivalence r e l a t f on,

".

denoted by

'I-".

We have not Introduced any s p e c i a l n o t a t i o n f o r

"equality of area, " or "equality of volume, I' but each of these
relations is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, We could, if
it were convenient, introduce words and symbols for these equivalence relations.
Such insistence on exactitude of language and symbolism may
sometimes seem mere quibbling, b u t it is on such extreme carefulness that modern mathematics is based.
(d)

4,

Classification

Functions.

Equivalence r e l a t i o n s are connected closely with another

concept which is important in mathematics. This is classification.
The connection is as follows.

Suppose we have an equivalence r e l a t i o n

defined for a
c e r t a i n set S, We can then classify the elements of S into
disjolnt classes (i.e. no two classes i n t e r s e c t ) S1, Sp,
by p u t t i n g i n t o the same class a l l elements which are equivalent
to each o t h e r . Conversely, suppose that we have a classffication
of S into disjoint classes. Then we can define an equivalence
r e l a t i o n by saying t h a t
is equivalent to b If and only if
a and b a r e in the same class, These two constructions
Equivalence
Class ifi c a t i o n ,
ClassiffcationEquivalence,
a r e inverses of each other. If rue s t a r t with an equivalence,
pass to i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and then pass from t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
to I t s induced equivalence, we end up with t h e same equivalence.
Similarly, if we s t a r t with a classification; form t h e induced
equivalence, then f o m i t s induced c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , we end up
with the same classification.
A n example may make thls clearer. Suppose S is the s e t of
all polygons. Let us d e f i n e 2 among polygons by sayfng that
P, 2 Pg if P1 and Pg have t h e same number of sides.
his

...,

r e l a t i o n 2 obviously i s ref lexlve, synrmetric and transitive. )

The induced classification is then into triangles, quadrilaterals,
pentagons, hexagons,
n-gons,
, If we start with this
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i t s induced equivalence is: P1 2 Pg if PI and
if they are both n-gons ( f o r the
Pp are in the same class, i.e.,
same n). This is t h e same a5 the original equivalence.
Notice t h a t in t h i s example, our classification was by means
of a unique number attached to each polygon, namely the number of
sides, Whenever we have a unique number attached t o each o b j e c t
of a set S , we have a numerical function f ( a ) Thus, every
numerical function induces a classification: each class consists
precisely of those elements a wlth the same functional value
f(a). As another example l e t S be the set of angles and let
f ( a ) = mla. The corresponding equivalence r e l a t i o n is then o u r
familiar congruence 2, between angles.
On t h e o t h e r hand, not every equivalence r e l a t i o n is e a s i l y
characterized by a f u n c t i o n . If S is the s e t of triangles it

...,

..,

526
is hard to see how the simflarity relation, -, o r the congruence
relation, 2 , c a n be associated w i t h a f u n c t i o n . As a matter of
fact this can be done, but the methods involved are v e l l beyond
elementary mathematics, as w e l l as being h i g h l y artificial,

THE CONCEPT
-

CONGRUENCE

Congruence is a rich and complex idea with many ramifications

in geometry - there really l a nothing q u i t e like I t in algebra.
It applies to figures of a l l kinds - aements, anglea , triangles,
circular arcs, polygons, truncated pyramids - in f a c t to any conceivable f i g u r e . It plays an essential r o l e in the t h e o r y of
geometric measure of length, area and volume - it is intimately
related to the important concept of r i g i d motion.
We will examine c a r e f u l l y the conventional theory of
congruence and the related theory of l i n e a r measure. T h i s will
be contrasted with the theory of congruence adopted in our t e x t .
Finally we treat the concept of congruence f o r general figures
and i t s r e l a t i o n to the idea of rigid motion.

I.

of Con~ruenceand
- Conventional Theory The

Linear Measure

-----

1-1. Congruence in t e r n of s i z e and shape. The term

congruence Immediately c a l l s t o mlnd the famous dictum: Two
figures are congruent if they have the same s i z e and the same
shape. Certainly this statement emphaslzes the basic intuitive
or informal idea t h a t If two f i g u r e s a r e congruent, one is a
"replica" of the other. Also it p o i n t s up the important property
t h a t if we know two figures t o be congruent we can i n f e r t h a t
they have the same area (or volume) and t h a t they are similar.
B u t t h i s Is n o t the essential Issue. It l a : Does our
dictum define congruence? Is it r e a l l y a fomnal d e f i n i t i o n of
the term congruence in terms of more baslc ideas? Clearly the
answer is no. For the notions size and shape a r e more complex
than congruence. In order to measure (or d e f i n e ) size (area or
volume) we try to ffnd out how many congruent replicas of a basic
f lgure ( f o r example, square or cube) "fill out" a given f i g u r e .
So actually it would be more natural and s i m p l e to base the theory
of aize (and shape) on the Idea of congruence rather than t h e
reverse.

---

1-2. Congruence in t e r m of rigid motion. But there are

other " d e f i n l t i o n s " of congruence which we m u s t discuss - c o n s i d e r
t h e famous, "TWO figures are congruent if they can be made to
coincide by a r i g i d motion". Let us analyze t h i s . Conceived
c o n c r e t e l y , say in t e r n of two paper heart-shaped valentines, it
a f f o r d s an excellent i l l u s t r a t i o n of the intuitive idea of congruence and emphasizes again t h a t one 1s a "replica" of the other.
But t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n , like most physical situations, does n o t
have the precision required f o r an abstract mathematical concept.
Surely we would have to pick up t h e f i r s t valentine and move it
w i t h almost Z n f l n i t e gentleness to prevent bending it slightly
when gettfng I t to c o l n c i d e with the second one. And how could
we be certaln of p e r f e c t coincidence of the two valentines?
Wouldn't t h i a require p e r f e c t eyesight? It 1s c l e a r t h a t this
" d e f i n i t i o n " interpreted c o n c r e t e l y gives us a physical approximation t o t h e abstract idea of congruence but doesn't define it.
Moreover it I s not even a p p l i c a b l e in many physical aituatfons:
you hardly could get two "congruent" b i l l i a r d b a l l s t o coincfde
by a rigid motion.
Should we then conclude t h a t t h e idea of r i g i d motion 1s
essentially physical and can n o t be mathematicized as an abatract
geometrical concept? Definitely not. Mathematicians are
ingenious and c l e v e r people and it might be a mistake t o decide
beforehand that they could n o t c o n s t r u c t a precise a b s t r a c t i o n
from a given phyaical i d e a . M o s t famlliar mathematical
abs trac t i o n a had their origin in concrete physical 5i t u a t i o n s c e r t a i n l y geometry had I t s o r i g i n In p r a c t i c a l problems of
surveying t h e heavens and the e a r t h .
L e t us table for the present the question of whether we can
form an abstract geometrical theory of r l g l d motions, It would
seem that a treatment of congruence cased on a l o g i c a l l y satlaf a c t o r y theory of rigid motion could n o t be elementary and would
hardly be suitable f o r a f i r s t course. In any caee, without
deeper analysis, the second "definition" is not a definition a t
a l l and rnlght more properly be considered a statement of a property which rigid motions should have: namely, t h a t any rigid motion

t r a n s f o m a f i g u r e i n t o a congruent one.
Another S e f i n i t i o n . Consider a n d ' c r i t i c i z e a t h i r d
suggested " d e f i n i t i o n " :
Two ( p l a n e ) figures are congruent if a
copy of the f i r s t made on t r a c i n g paper can be made to coincide
with the second.
1-3.

1-4. Congruence of segments

Since our three "definitions"
do n o t define congruence we must probe more deeply. Here, as s o
o f t e n in solving problems, the i m p e r i a l i s t m a x i m , " ~ i v i d eand
conquer", is very h e l p f u l . Instead of t a c k l i n g t h e concept o f
congruence In its most complex form, that is, f o r arbitrary
figures, l e t us begin by considering a simple special case. A
line segment -- o r as we s h a l l c a l l i t , a segment
I s one of the
simplest and most important geometric figures. We n a t u r a l l y begin
by considering congruence of segnents.
L e t us r e c a l l how this is treated in Euclid o r in the convent i o n a l high school geometry course. Congruent segments, usually
called equal segments, are conceived as "replicas" of each other,
in general w i t h different locations i n space. Congruent segmenta
may coincide or be identical b u t they d o n ' t have t o . If segments
and
are congruent we may
A
i n t e r p r e t t h i s concretely t o mean
and
are " c a l i p e r equivalent"
- that is, if a p a i r of calipers ig
s e t so that t h e ends coincide wlth
A and B, then, without changing the
setting, the ends of the c a l i p e r s
can be made to coincide w l t h C and

--

aB
7

D.

of sements. What is
1-5. Basic p r o p e r t i e s of congruence the l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of congruence o f segments in Euclid?
Actually it is taken to be an undefined term. More precisely,
- using the n o t a t i o n AB
CD, congruence I s a basic r e l a t i o n
between the segnents
and
which we do n o t attempt to
d e f i n e . We study it (as always in mathematics) in terns of its

AB

basic p r o p e r t i e s which are formally s t a t e d as postulates. Some

of these postulates, which are n o t explicit in Euclid or in most
geometry t e x t s are:
- (1) ( ~ e f l e x i v eIan)
AB E AB;
( 2) (~ymmetryLaw) If
!= CD then CD
(3) (~ransitive~ a w )If ~ E C and
D CD = E F then AB
That Is, congruence of segnents s a t i s f i e s the t h r e e basic properties of equallty or identity and so is an example of an equivalence
relation. We must n o t assume that congruence mean8 Identity, since
dlstlnct segments can be congruent.
+ ( 4 ) (~ocationPoa tulate) L e t
AB be a ray and l e t CD be a
A
segment. Then there e x i ~ t sa
unique p o i n t P in
such that
cD
AP P CD.
A,
( 5) (~dditlvityPostulate)
*C
- - - B
Suppose AB
A I B 1 , BC
BIC1,
A'
1
B is between A and C and B'
B
'
C'
is between A ' and C i .
Then

= z;

==.

We i n s e r t a f e w words on the Important mathematfcal idea of

equivalence r e l a t i o n . The most basic example of an equivalence
r e l a t l o n and the one which suggests the concept is t h e r e l a t i o n
equality or i d e n t i t y . Equivalence r e l a t i o n s abound in geometry,
for example, congruence of figures or similarity or equivalence
of figures.
a discussion of equivalence r e l a t i o n s see the
Talk on Equality, Congruence, and ~quivalence.)

o or

1-6. Theory of linear measure.

Segments are geometric

figures, not numbers. B u t they can be measured by numbers
they do have lengths. In the conventional high school treatment
it is assumed with l i t t l e discussion t h a t lengths of segments can
be defined as real numbers. We indicate how to do t h i s . Although
t h e r e s u l t is familiar, the process is complex and subtle and
requires f o r i t s complete j u s t i f i c a t i o n additional postulates.
However, Postulates (1),
, ( 5 ) above are sufficient f o r an
understanding of the process.

.. .

--

We begin by choosing a segment W which will be unchanged

Now given
throughout the discussion ( a s o - c a l l e d "unitt' segment)
any segment
we want to measure AB in terms of W. Thia
+
involves a "laying-off" process. W
e take the ray AB and l a y - o f f

uv-

W on it repeatedly, s t a r t i n g a t A . Speaking p r e c i s e l y , there

is a point PI in
such that
S M l a r l y , we can
show t h a t t h e r e is a p o i n t P2 in
such t h a t ( a ) W 1 PIP2
and (b) P1 is between A and Pg. For convenience we write
condition ib) as ( A P ~ P ~ )contin;ing,
.
there is a point P3 such
that
Ed P2P3
and ( P ~ P ~ P ~By) t h i s process we develop a
sequence of p o i n t s PI, Pg,
, Pn,
on 3 such t h a t

(2)

.
. ..

( A P ~ P ~ ) ,(p1p2p3

...

--

( ' n - ~
P n - lP n1 -

I s laid-off on

AB n times
in a glven direction but n o t e how very precisely and objectively
( I ) , ( 2 ) say this, avoiding the somewhat vague terns "laying-off"
and "directiun". From another viewpoint we are laying the basis
f o r a coordinate system on the line by l o c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y the
p o i n t s PI, P2, ..., P
,
which are to correspond t o the
integers 1, 2,
n,
Now what has this to do w i t h the measure of AB? Clearly we
must learn how B is r e l a t e d to the points PI, P2, P3, .. . .
In the simplest case one of these might coincide with 8, for
example, Pa = B. Then of course we deflne the measure of
to be 3 .
Intuitively (1) and ( 2 ) say t h a t

...,

...
... .

1-7. Refinement of the approximation process. You may ask,

i id we have to go through t h i s elaborate process to explain that
if the "unit" segment W exactly covepa AB t h r e e times, then
t h e measure of
is 3?" Disregarding the importance of making
the idea "exactly coverat' mathematically precise, observe that t h e
process helps us t o define a meaaure f o r AB in the more general
and d i f f i c u l t case when no one of the p o i n t s PI, P2, ...
coincides w i t h B . For suppose B P a l l s between two c o n s e c u t i v e
then we wlll have
points of our sequence, say ( P ~ B P ~ ) Clearly
.
to a s s i a to AB a measure x such t h a t 4 < x < 5 . In other
words we have s e t up a general process which enables us at least
to determine an approximation to the measure of AB, t h a t I s t o
find lower and upper bounds for it.

We do not complete the discussion but indicate how it proceeds.

To f i x our Ideas, suppose ( P ~ B P ~ ) To

. get a b e t t e r idea of what
the measure of
should be we subdivide P P
into t e n con4 5
gruent subsegnents and proceed as above. Precisely, we s e t up a
s u b s i d i a ~sequence of p o i n t s Q1,
$ which d i v i d e P P
4 5
i n t o ten congruent subsegments . That is, we require

.....

..., 89,

If B were to coincide with one of Ql, Q2,

say
13 = Q6, we asslgn t o AB the measure 4.6.
If B f a l l s between
t w o of the Q1 s, say (Q6B+), we require t h a t x,
t h e measure of
AB, s a t i s f y
4.6 < x < 4.7.
In the latter case we repeat the process by subdividing Q
6%
i n t o ten congruent subaegmenta and proceed as b e f o r e .

1-8. The d e f i n i t i o n

oP

linear measure. Clearly we have a

complex process (though a refinement of a simple idea) which will
assign to segment & a d e f i n i t e declmal, terminating or endless.
This decimal we define to be the measure or length of A3.
1-9, Basic p~opertieaof linear measure. We write the
measure of
(W still beingfixed) as m(=).
Obaerve that
we really have here a function AB d m ( = )
which associates to
each s e p e n t a unique positive real number. What are the basic
properties of t h i s "measure function? They are eas lly grasped

(I)

m(E)

r n ( ~ )~ 3f~
f and only if

A'B' -

that is,
congruent aewents and only congruent segments have equal meaaures;

If (ABC) then m ( E ) + m ( E )
measure 1s additive in a natural sense;
(2)

(3)
l a unity.

m(W) =

m(E) -

that is,

- that i a , the measure of the unit eegment

Notice that ( 2 ) is a clear and useful form of the vague

statement, ttthe whole is the sum of i t 8 partsR.
We summarize In a theorem which c a n be deduced from a suitable
Bet of postulatea for Euclidean Geometry:

Theorem. Let the segment W be given. Then there exists

a function which assign8 to each segment AB a unique positive
real number m ( s ) aatisfying (1), ( 2 ) , (3) above.

1-10. Uniqueness of meaaure function. We naturally ask if

there 1s just one measure function? Clearly not. For the function
must depend on the choice of the
unit aegnent W . To be s p e c i f i c ,
U
M
V
rn
suppose we take as a new unit a e p e n t ,
UM, where M l a the mid-point of W
(that is
and ((uMv))
Then according to o u r theorem
there wlll be a measure f~nc610n;let w call it m1 (since we
have no right to assume it is the same as the o r i g i n a l measure
function) such that m 1 (K)= 1. We see quickly that m f
= 2;

m)

f u r t h e r it can be shown m 1( E ) = 2m(E) for any segment AB.

T h i s i s a f o r m a l statement of the t r i v i a l seeming fact that
" h a l v i n g the u n i t of measurement doubles t h e measurett. A c o r r e s ponding result holds In general :
Theorem. If rn,
of all segments, then

ml

a r e two measure f u n c t i o n s on the s e t

k is a fixed p o s i t f v e real number.

In the preceding example we had k = 2. Of course k need n o t
be an integer - it can be any p o s i t i v e r e a l number, r a t i o n a l o r
irrational. As a r e l a t e d example consider the corresponding
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e measure of angles: The radian measure of an
where

angle is
Summary:

times the degree measure af the a n g l e .

Any

two measure f u n c t i o n s on the s e t of all segments

are proportional.
What does t h i s mean f o r the development of the theory o f
measurement of segments? It says in effect that it doesn't matter
which measure function we choose, since making a d i f f e r e n t chofce
would only m u l t i p l y a l l measures by a constant, Thus, i n convent i o n a l geometrical theory, w e f i x a unit W a t t h e beginning,
determine a corresponding measure function, and t h e r e a f t e r use
t h i s measure f u n c t i o n as i f it were t h e only possible one. And
i n s t e a d of saying precisely the measure of AB ---i n terms of u n i t
W , we say simply the measure o f AB, and forget about W .
The s i t u a t i o n I n everyday life is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t - we employ
measure functions based on a v a r i e t y of units: inches, l i g h t
years, m i l l i m e t e r s , miles.
W
e close t h i s p a r t of our discussion by obseming t h a t the
distance between A and 3 is merely defined t o be t h e measure
of
Sometimes we want t o r e f e r t o the distance between A
and A i t s e l f . This we take to be zero. A separate definition
is required f o r this case since we may not r e f e r t o the segment
A 3 unless we know A # B.

z.

Was it necessary t o use the integer ten in t h e subdlvlsion process? Would others work? Could the process be
simplified by maklng a d i f f e r e n t choice?
Query.

11.

--

Congruence Based on Distance

In t h i s part we discuss t h e treatment of congruence adopted

in the t e x t , contrasting it with the conventional one. The point
of departure is to "reverse1'the conventional treatment and
define congruence in terms of distance. This enables us to use
our knowledge of the real number system early In the discussion
I t leads to a new treatment o f the Important geometric relation,
betweenness, and a new way of conceiving segments and rays.

11-1. The student1$ viewpoint. The conventional treatment,

in b r i e f , begins w i t h an undefined notion of congruence of
segments and deduces the existence of a distance functlon from a
s u f t a b l e s e t of postulates. The h i g h school student - In studying
t h i s treatment - somehow absorbs the idea that segmenta (and
angles) c a n be measured by numbers, and is permitted to apply h i s
knowledge of algebra whenever it is convenient.

11-2. The Distance Postulate. Since the student thinks of

segments and angles as measurable by numbera and it is hopeless
to prove t h i s a t h i s l e v e l from non-numerical postulates, it
seems most reasonable to make the existence of a measure function
or distance a basic postulate which is used consistently througho u t the course. So we adopt

Postulate 2 .

h he Distance ~ o s t u l a t e . ) To every

p a i r of
d i f f e r e n t points there corresponds a unique p o s i t i v e number,
If the p o i n t s are P and Q , then the distance between P

and Q La defined to be the positive number of Postulate 2,

denoted by PQ.

Don1t read i n t o this more than it says

it is a very weak
statement. Notice that it doesn't s t a t e a e i n g l e property of
d i s t a n c e - merely that there 1s such a t h i n g . In p a r t i c u l a r it
doesnl t say anything about length8 of segmenta
in fact we donrt
even have segments at t h i s stage of o u r theory.

11-3. The Distance P o s t u l a t e causes a change in viewpoint.

This may seem strange, but it i s n l t . Most t e x t s begin with a
discussion of points and l i n e s An a plane, including such basic
ideas as sepnent and m. As in Euclid these i d e a s essentially
a r e taken as undefined. But having adopted the D i s t a n c e Postulate
we can d e f i n e them. This is an Important - and unforeseen consequence of t h e Distance P o s t u l a t e : We don't get j u s t Euclid
with the theorems rearranged, but new i n s l g h t s i n t o the basic
geometric ideas and a new way of Inter-relating them.

as

11-4. "~etween"and "~ep;ment" defined terms. How then

can we define segment i n terms o f the basic terms p o i n t , l i n e ,
plane? It is easy to do t h i s using t h e a d d i t i o n a l n o t i o n o f a
p o i n t being between t w o points. Havlng adopted P o s t u l a t e 2, the
idea of distance is at our d i s p o s a l and we can define betweenness

Definition. L e t A , B, C be three c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s . If
AB a BC = AC we say B is between A and C, and we w r i t e
( A m .

We now define segment in terns of betweenness.

D e f i n i t i o n . Let A , B be two p o i n t s . Then sewent A 3
I s the s e t consisting of A and B t o g e t h e r with a l l points
that are between A and B. A and B a r e called endpoints of E. F u r t h e r re define in(=),
the measure or length of AB,
merely to be the number AB.

That is, the length of a segment is merely the number which

i s the distance between its endpoints. The contrast with conventional theory is s t r i k i n g : There congruence of' segments is
basic and a difficult argument is needed to prove the existence
of a measure function - here distance 1s basic and the proof of
the existence of a measure f u n c t i o n is t r i v i a l .
11-5.

Congrmence

or s,egrnents & D e f i n i t i o n .

absurdly easy to d e f i n e congruence of segments.

Now it is

D e f i n i t i o n . AB 2 CD means t h a t the lengths of

are equal, t h a t is AB = CD.

AB

and

CD

Formally what we have done is just t h i s . We took the basic

property relating congruence and measure ((1) of S e c t i o n

m(E)

m(z)

If and only if

a s m,

which 1s a theorem in the conventional treatment, and adopted it

a s a d e f i n i t i o n In o u r treatment. There, segments which were
congruent were proved to have the same measure - h e r e , segments
which happen to have t h e same measure are c a l l e d congruent.

11-6. Properties of congruent sements. Does congruence of

segments, as we have defined it, have the properties we expect?
We s e e quickly that
i s an equivalence r e l a t i o n , that is

(2)

If

(3)

If

= CD

5 Z E;

then
and

CDsEF

then

ABEEF.

These merely say

(1') AB = AB;

(2') If

AB = CD

( 3 t ) If

AB

then

CD

= AB;

CD and

CD = El? then AB = EF,

whlch are the b a s i c properties of equality of numbers.
=

F u r t h e r we have

( 5 ) Suppose
Then A C E

- - - AB

BC

A'Bt,

= BICt,

(ABC)

and

A'C'.

To prove t h l s we have

,
BICt ,

A 3 = A'B'

BC

so t h a t

The betweenness relations y i e l d

AB

+ BC

= AC,

A'B'

BlC' = A ' C '

(A'B~c').

and we get
AC = A ' G '

or

A C S A'C'.

Thus several of Euclldts (or ~ilbert's) P o s t u l a t e s for congruence

reduce, in our treatment, t o elementary properties of real numbers.

11-7, The Ruler Postulate. You may wonder if we can also

derive from Postulates 1 and 2 , the Location Property: ((41,
Section 1 - 5 2

be a ray and let

be a segment. Then there
exists a unique p o i n t P in 3 such t h a t
B.
The answer is - with a vengeance - no. On the basis of Postulates
Let

"

1 and 2, we can't even prove that a line contains

points.
Clearly Postulatea 1 and 2 are too weak to support the kind of
t h e o r e t i c a l structure we are t r y i n g to b u i l d . The t e x t supplements
them by adopting the powerful Ruler Postulate:

Postulate 3 .
h he Ruler P o s t u l a t e . ) The points of a l i n e
can be placed i n correspondence with the r e a l numbera in such a
way t h a t
(1) To every p o i n t of the line there corresponds exactly

one real number,

(2) To every real number t h e r e corresponds exactly one
p o i n t of t h e line, and
( 3 ) The distance between two points is the absolute value
of t h e difference of the corresponding numbers.
This guarantees at one swoop t h a t a line has the i n t r i n s i c
properties we expect of it. Now the lines in every model of our
t h e o r y will be well-behaved and r i c h l y endowed w i t h points. It
implies the congruence and o r d e r properties of a line in the
conventional theory. Specifically it yields: (1) a form of t h e
Location Property heor or em 2-4) ; (2) that a segment can be t'divldedt'
into a given number of congruent "parts1' in particular it can be
bisected (Theorem 2-5). It implies important order properties:
Theorem 2-1 which says in e f f e c t t h a t the order of points on a
line in terms of geometric betweenness corresponds exactly to the

order of their c o o r d i n a t e s in terms of algebraic betweenness;

and the Line Separation Property which is n o t explicitly dealt
with in the t e x t (see Commentary f o r Teachers, Chapter 2; also
Problem 12 of Problem Set 3 - 3 ) .
Observe the attractive inter-dependence of the weak Distance
P o s t u l a t e and the powerful Ruler Postulate. The f i r s t asserts
the exfstence of a distance function but permits it to be cornpletely trivial - the second t a i l o r s the line to o u r expectations but
is impossible of statement without the n o t i o n of d i s t a n c e
postulated in t h e first. Note t h a t if we weaken the Ruler
Postulate by dropping condition (3) and require merely the
existence of a 1-1 correspondence between the p o i n t s of a line
and t h e s e t of real numbers, w e may have pathological situations
of the type indicated in the diagram.
Here B is between A and C s i n c e - 7 AB + BC = AC, but -1,000, the coordinate of B, definitely is not
A
3
,B
4
C
I
between the coordinates of A and C . 0
- 1,000
3.2
Our discussion suggests an important point in mathematical
or deductive thinking. The Distance P o s t u l a t e enables us t o
deffne betweenness but not to prove the existence of a single
point between two given p o i n t s . This i a A l l u s trated by the finite
model above. The Ruler Postulate, however, Impliea the existence
of i n f i n i t e l y many poMt8 between any t w o . This illustrates t h e
p o l n t that a mathematical definition does not assert t h e existence
of the e n t i t y defined. You may characterize the pot of gold at
the end of the ralnbow with great precision but you may experience
equally great disappointment if you s t a r t to search f o r it before
provlng an existence theorem.
A final word. We may have oversold the deductive power of
the Ruler P o s t u l a t e and given y o u the impression that Postulates
1, 2 and 3 are sufficient for a complete theory of congruence.
This is n o t s o . Our theory so far is sufficient for the "lfnear"
theorg of congruence, specifically f o r congruence of segments but not f o r congruence of more general figures l i k e angles,
triangles, circular arcs or triangular pyramids. For this we

must i n t r o d u c e f u r t h e r postulates concerning congruence of angles

and triangles. We discuss this in the next part since o u r main

o b j e c t here has been to indicate the f l a v o r of the treatment in
the text in c o n t r a s t with the conventional one.

Iff. Congruence f o r Arbitrary Figures

and R i g i d Motions

In t h i s part we continue the discussion of congruence by

indicating how it is successively defined f o r familiar elementary
figures: angles, triangles, e t c . Then uslng the simple and
pawerful modem idea of t ~ a n s f o m a t l o nwe formulate t h e congruence
concept f o r arbitrary figures - t h i s surpasses in elegance and
generality anything obtained in the field by the classical
geometers. As a by-product we o b t a i n
after t w o millenia - a
precise mathematical concept OF r i g i d motion. This is a great
cultural achievement of our time. Rescuing from the jungles of
physical i n t u i t i o n Euclidfs cmde superposition argument, we
r e f i n e and p e r f e c t it to yield an objectively formulated concept
which will be of use to human beings as long as they are impelled
to think precisely about space.

111-1. Con~ruenceof angles. The conventional treatment of

angle congruence is similar to that sketched in Part I f o r congruence of segments - but naturally it is a bit more complicated
s i n c e angles are more complex figures than segments. It begins
w f t h an undefined relation L ABC
L PQR between two angles
whfch a s usual Indicates that they
are replicas of each other. This
may be i n t e r p r e t e d c o n c r e t e l y to
mean t h a t if a frame composed of
two j o i n t e d rods is s e t so that
the rods coincide with the rays
+
__*
BA and BC, then wlthout changing
the aetting the rods can be made t o
+
c o l n c l d e with
and &R. We
assume a s f o r segments t h a t congruence of angles is an equivalence
relation:

then

I ABC

L ABC;
(2) (Symmetry ~ a w )If L ABC a L PQR then L PQR GS L ABC;
(3) (~ransitive~ a w ) If L ABC 3 L PQR and 1 P&R = L XYZ
L ABC a L XYZ.
(1)

( ~ e f l e x i v eLaw)

The Location Postulate f a r segnents (()0, S e c t i o n 1-5) has

t h e analogue
( 4)

(Angle h c a t i o n Postulate)
Let L XYZ be any angle and 3 be
a ray on the edge of half-plane H.
Then there is exactly one ray 3,
with P in H, such t h a t
PAB
L XYZ.
And the Additivity Postulate
Section 1-5 appears in the
form

<

c5),

(5)

c;

(~ngle-~dditivity
Po8 tulate)
Suppose L 3AD
L B 1A I D t ,
L DAC
D r A t C i , D is in the
i n t e r i o r of L BAC and Dt is
in the i n t e r i o r of L B ' A ' C!
A
; :<tA
Then L BAC P L B t A f C 1 .
Essentially on the baais of
theae postulates a measure process
c'
C
can be s e t up which assigns to each
angle a unique p o s i t i v e real number
called i t s measure In such a way t h a t a f i x e d preassigned angle
("unitn angle) haa measure 1 (aompare Sections 1-6 to 1-9).
Denoting the measure of L XYZ by 4 XKZ, we have as you
would expect from our discussion of measure of segments:

(1)

4 ABC

AiBtCt

If and only if

(2) If C Zs i n t e r i o r to
ABC + m L CBD = 4 ABD.

(~ornpare (I), (2) Section 1-9

L ABD

then

L ABC a L A I B I C f ;

But there are two properties which are unique t o angular

measure. First there is a real number b which I s a l e a s t upper
bound for the measure S of all angles (b is 180 in the
familiar "degree measure")
Second t h e measure S of "supplementary adjacentt' angles (I .e., a l i n e a r pair) always have a
constant sum and t h i s sum is the
l e a s t upper bound b
Stated
precisely: If L ABC and
CBD a r e a linear p a i r , then
m L ABC + m L CBD = b.
A
B

lD

--

111-2. Congruence of angles based on angular measure. We

saw in (1) above that the conventional theory of angle congruence
y i e l d s (as for segments) t h a t two angles are congruent i f and
only if they have equal measures. This suggests (as f o r segments)
that we assume the existence of angular measure and define
congruence of angles in terms of i t . Thus the treatment i n the
t e x t assumes

h he

Angle Measurement P o s t u l a t e . ) To every

angle
ABC there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180,
(compare
called the measure of the angle, and w r i t t e n as mL ABC,
the Distance POS t u l a t e )

Postulate 11.

Clearly our postulate has been s e t up so t h a t the u n i t angle

is the degree. In o t h e r words the angle characterized by
mL ABC = 1 is what is usually defined to be a degree and will
have the property that ninety such angles laid " s i d e by side"
will form a r i g h t angle. P r e c i s e l y speaking the measure of a
right angle w i l l turn out t o be 9 0 . Notice t h a t the measure
of no angle can be 0 or 180 since o u r definition of angle
r e s t r i c t s t h e s i d e S to be non-collinear.
a discussion
of t h f s restriction see Commentary for Teachers, Chapter 4.)
Now f o l l o w i n g a familiar path ( s e c t i o n 11-51 we adopt the

o or

Def i n l t ion. L ABC

L PQR meana t h a t 4 ABC = PQR.
Then properties (11, (2), (3) of 111-1 above reduce to familiar
equality p r o p e r t i e s of real numbers. m e Angle M c a t i o n Property
((4) above) must be postulated and is Introduced in the form:

P o s t u l a t e 12. (The Angle Construction Postulate .) L e t

be a ray on the edge of half-plane H. For every number r
between 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray Siif, w i t h P
H, such that m L P A B = r .

in

It might be thought now t h a t the additivity property f o r

angles ((5) above)) could be derived as a theorem as was the corresponding property for segmente @ee ( 5 ) , S e c t i o n 11-6). This i s n ' t
80.
B u t it is a simple and 5mportant property of angles, and it
Is perfectly natural t o postulate it:
Postulate 13. h he Angle-Addition postulate .) If D I s a
p o i n t in the interior of LBAC, then 4 BAC = 4 BAD + rnL DAC.
II

F l n a l l y we need a postulate to express the peculiarly

angular" property of supplementation:

Postulate 14. h he Supplement Postulate.)

+
are opposite rays and AD is another ray, then
=

and AC
DAC + m L DAB

If AB

180.

111-3. Con~ruenceof t r i a n ~ l e s . We are now ready to consider

congruence of triangles. Our definition of' congruent triangles
(Chapter 5 of t e x t ) is essentially the conventional one: One
triangle is a "copy" of the other in the senae that its parts are
II
copies" of t h e corresponding parts of the other. But obaeme
the precision with which it is formulated. The correspondence
doesn't depend on individual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e vague term
"corresponding" but is based objectively on a p a f r i n g of the

vertices

CAt--,CtA'

which induces a pairing of sides and of angles

~

'

' BC-B'Cf
,

Notice how spelling out the notion r'corresponding" in this way

h e l p s to point up the importance of the notion of a congruence
which is not mentioned i n t h e conventional treatment. Thus o u r
treatment brings t o t h e f o r e the idea of a 1-1 correspondence
between t h e vertices of A ABC and A A I B I C 1 which ensures that
they are congruent because it requires corrbesponding s i d e s and
corresponding angles t o be congruent, t h a t is to have equal
measures. This simple idea is capable of broad genera1:zation.
Do we need postulates on congruence of triangles? We have a
l o t of Information on congruence of segments and congruence o f
angles, separately - b u t nothing t o i n t e r - r e l a t e these ideas.
For example, we can't y e t prove t h e base angles of an isosceles
triangle a r e congruent. Thus we introduce t h e S .A,S , Postulate
t o bind t o g e t h e r our h o w l e d g e of segment congruence and angle
congruence.
Now l e t us exarnfne more closely the notion of congruence of
triangles. Is i t really necessary t o require equality of measure
of six pairs of corresponding parts? If we t h i n k of the s i d e s of
a triangle as its basic determining p a r t s i t seem very n a t u r a l
to define congruent t r i a n g l e s as having corresponding s i d e s which
are congruent. Naturally if we were to adopt t h i s d e f i n i t i o n w e
would postulate that if t h e corresponding s i d e s of t w o t r i a n g l e s
are congruent their corresponding angles also are congruent, in
o r d e r t o ensure t h a t thls d e f i n i t i o n o f congruent triangles is
equivalent t o the familiar one. Notice how much simpler the
d e f i n i t i o n of a congruence between triangles becomes if we adopt
the suggested definition. It i s merely a 1-1 correspondence
between the v e r t i c e s of the triangles,
A U A t

BWBr,

C-Cl

which "preserves" distances in the sense t h a t the distance between

any two vertices of one t r i a n g l e equals the d i s t a n c e between t h e i r
corresponding v e r t i c e s in the second t r i a n g l e , t h a t is
AB = A ' B ' ,
BC = B I C ' ,
AC = A ' C ' .

1
Congruence pf quadrilaterals. The main objection t o
t h e suggested d e f i n i t i o n is t h a t it doesnlt generalize in the
obvious way f o r polygons - n o t even for quadrilaterals.
T h l s is attested by t h e f a c t t h a t a
square and a rhombus can have s i d e s
o f t h e sane length and n o t be congruent. So to guarantee congruence
of q u a d r i l a t e r a l s i t is not s u f f i c i e n t
to r e q u i r e j u s t that corresponding
s i d e s be congruent, and it Is customary to supplement t h i s by
requiring the congruence o f corresponding a n g l e s . Thus the
conventional d e f i n i t i o n r e q u i r i n g congruence both of sides and
o f angles a p p l i e s equally well t o triangles and quadrilaterals.
However angles, though v e r y important, are r a t h e r strange
creatures compared to segments and it seems d e s i r a b l e , if p o s s l b l e ,
to characterize congruent quadrilaterals in terms o f congruent
segments, or e q u i v a l e n t l y , equal distances. This is not so hard.
Golng back to a t r i a n g l e we observe t h a t its t h r e e v e r t i c e s
taken two at a time y i e l d three segments or three distances and
that t h e f i g u r e is in a sense determined by these t h r e e d i s t a n c e s .
S i m i l a r l y the f o u r vertices of' a q u a d r i l a t e r a l yield n o t four,
but s i x segments ( t h e s i d e s a n d the d i a g o n a l s ) and s i x c o r r e s p o n d i n g distances, which s e r v e t o determine the q u a d r i l a t e r a l . This
suggests:
If we have a 1-1 correspondence
A-At,
B-Bl,
C-C4,
D-Dl
between t h e v e r t i c e s of t h e quadrilaterals ABCD, A t B t C I D 1 s u c h
t h a t corresponding distances a r e preserved, that is
AB,AC,AD,BC,BD,CD 1 A t B i , A 1 C ' , A ' D 1 , B I C ' ,BID+, C I D f
we call t h e correspondence a congruence and we write
ABCD
A t B I C t D i . It is n o t hard to show t h i s d e f i n i t i o n equivalent
to the more familiar one.

111-5. Congruence o f a r b i t r a r y f i g u r e s . We now must face

the problem of formulating a g e n e r a l def'initlon of congruence.
The piecemeai process we have employed, defining congruence
separately f o r segments, angles, t r i a n g l e s , quadrilaterals is
unavoidable in an elementary t r e a t m e n t but is n e i t h e r s a t i s f y i n g
nor complete. For it s t i l l remains t o d e f i n e congruent c i r c l e s
and congruent circular a r c s and congruent e l l i p s e s and congruent
rectangular s o l i d s , e t c , In each case we construct an a p p r o p r i a t e
d e f i n i t i o n , we are s u r e it is c o r r e c t , and are equally sure the
general concept has eluded us.
So let's make a f r e s h start. Suppose F and F' are two
congruent figures. Our basic i n t u i t i o n is t h a t F r is an exact
copy of F . Somehow this entails t h a t each "part" of F' coplea
a corresponding "partt'of F - t h a t each point of F t behaves
llke some corresponding p o i n t of F. If F has a sharp p o i n t
at A then F t must have a s h a r p p o i n t at a corresponding p o i n t
A';
if F has maximum flatness at B then F f haa maxlmwn
flatness a t a corresponding p o i n t B 1; f f F has a largest
chord
of length 12.3 then F 1 has a corresponding largest
c h o d PI&'
of the same length, 12.3;
and so on. How can we

P&

t i e together these i l l u a t r a t l o n s in a simple and precise way?

111-6. A congruence machlne. Suppose i n s t e a d of conceiving

F1 aa a given copy o f F, we take F and try t o make a copy Fl
of it. As an illustration l e t P be a house key. Then F i can
be produced by a key duplicating machine. The machine has the
secret of the congruence concept - how does it work?
The machine has two moving p a r t s :
a scanning b a r which traces the given
P
key and a cutting bar which c u t s a
blank I n t o a d u p l i c a t e . As t h e scanning bar traces F s t a r t i n g at I t s
t i p A,
the c u t t i n g bar traces t h e
blank s t a r t i n g at its corresponding
n'
tfp A ' .
As the scanner moves t o
p o s i t i o n B, t h e c u t t e r c u t s away the metal and comes to rest at
a corresponding position B t . When B rises t o a "peak" so does

B1 - when B falls to a trough so does B 1 - when B traverses

a l i n e segment, B 1 traverses a l i n e segment of equal length.
What guarantees that this process yields a true copy? Simply
this:
When the scanner is fixed in a p o s i t i o n B, the c u t t e r
comes to rest i n a p o s i t i o n B 1 such that distances AB and
A ' B 1 are equal. And t h i s is true f o r each p o s i t i o n B -of the
scanner. Clearly what the machine does I s to a s s o c i a t e to each
chord AB from A of F an "equal1'chord A I B 1 from A ' o f
F t . And it associates t h e chords by a s s o c i a t i n g t h e i r endpoints
B and B t . Precisely speaking, the machine e f f e c t s a 1-1
correspondence X s X f between F and F 1 such that the
d i s t a n c e AX always equals the distance A I X t .
Does this p r o p e r t y hold j u s t f o r A , the t i p of F, and
A'
i t s correspondent in F1? C l e a r l y not. The machine doesnlt
know where we s t a r t . What we have asserted a b o u t the chords of
F from A will hold just as well for the chords from any p o i n t
of F, So the 1-1 correspondence X-XI
between F and F 1
has t h e s t r o n g e r p r o p e r t y that f o r every c h o i c e of P ~ n dQ if
P u p 1 , Q
Q then PQ = P t Q f , or as we say t h e c o r r e s pondence preserves distance. Here we have the essence of the
concept of congruence,
The legend has it t h a t when Pythagoras succeeded in p r o v i n g
t h e theorem ascribed to h i m , he was so e l a t e d that he sacrlflced
a hecatomb of oxen to the gods. Surely in the light of t h i s
tradition the formal d e f i n i t i o n o f congruence deserves a section
all t o itself.

------

111-7. The d e f i n i t i o n , L e t X s X 1 be a 1-1 c o r r e s pondence between two s e t s of p o i n t s F, F 1 such that

P-PI,

Q-Q'

always implies PQ = P I Q 1 . Then we say F is congruent to F 1

and we write F Z F 1 , Moreover we call the 1-1 correspondence
a congruence between F and F a .

This d e f i n i t i o n is the culmination of two thousand years of

thinking about congruence. Although it may seem quite a b s t r a c t
I t unifies and unites the pLecemeal d i s c u s s i o n of congruence we
have given. Every instance of congruent figures discussed above
from segments to quadrilaterals can be proved t o be a case of our
general definition. This i a discussed in detafl in Appendix VIII
of t h e text on Rigid Motion.
As a simple i3lustratlon of the d e f i n i t i o n l e t F and F t
each be a t r i p l e o f non-collinear p o i n t s , say F is [ A , B, C]
and Fl is ( A ' , B 1, C l 1. Let the 1-1 correspondence between
F and P i which preserves distance be
(1) A c - , A f ,
B o B 1 , Cc-*C1.
Then
8
8'
0
'
we have AB = A t B 1 , BC = B f C t ,
,0
4\
A
'
\
A
'
\
0 \
AC = A I C f
We see IntuitIveTy
t h a t F 1 1s a copy o f F. NOW
A
C A'
C'
s h i f t from t h e p o i n t t r i p l e s to the triangles they determine. The
S.S .S. Theorem t e l l s t h a t A ABC is congruent to A A t B ' C l
in
the conventtonal sense.

.,

It follows (see Appendix VXII) t h a t A ABC A A I B r C 1 in the

sense of o u r definition. Actually t h e r e Is a 1-1 correspondence
between the i n f l n i t e p o i n t sets A ABC, A AIB1 C 1 which makes the
v e r t i c e s correspond as In (1) and which has the property that
P-PI,
Q U Q 1
always i m p l f e s PQ = P I Q t .
Observe how the correspondence between the triangle is engendered by the trivial seeming correspondence between t h e i r v e r t i c e s . For example, if P l a on
its correspondent P t is
determined as the unique point P i on A 4 B 1 such that
A ' P t = AP. L e t us think of the f i n i t e s e t of its vertices,
[ A , B, c ] , as a "skeleton" of A ABC. Then if the skeletons
[ A , B, c ] , [ A 1 , B t , C']
of two triangles are congruent the
triangles as a whole are congruent - using "congruent" in its

present sense. This idea was t o o complex to introduce In

Chapter 5 of the t e x t . But it was fore-shadowed there in the
insistence that congruence of triangles was the consequence of
the existence of a " ~ o n ~ n a e n c between
e"
them - that is, a 1-1
correspondence between t h e i r sets of vertices which preserves
lengths o f aides and measures of angles.
There is an essential element of complexity i n the d e f l n l t i o n
of congruence: It requires ( ln general) the pairing o f f of the
p o i n t s of two i n f i n i t e sets so as to preserve distance . This is
unavoidable - i t even seems t o be present in the comparatively
slmple problem of duplicating keys. There I s however an important
element of simplicity: We don't have to mention angles and the
preaemation of their measures - the distance concept covers the
situation. It followa easily t h a t angle measures are preserved:

for i f Pc--,Pt , Q-Q1

, R w R i correspond under a congruence
between F and F 1 , and P, Q, R are non-colllnear, we see
by the S . 3 . S . Theorem that m L PQR = rnL P ' Q I R v .
You may find it interesting to give for quadrilaterals a
discusalon l i k e the above f o r triangles
consider the v e r t e x
s e t s [A, B, C, Dl, [ A ' , B 1 , C t , D i ] of quadrilaterals ABCD,
AIBlC ' D t as their l'skeletons". In t h i s connection r e c a l l the
discussion o f congruence o f quadrilaterals a t the end of Section
111-4.

111-8. Motlon i n fieometry. We can s t a t e t h e definition of

rigid motion now, b u t it probably w i l l be more meaningful if we
say a few words f i r s t about the sense in which "motion" is used
in contemporary geometry.
L e t a body B move phyaically from an initial p o s i t i o n F
in space t o a f i n a l p o s i t i o n F 1. It I s not necessary f o r our
purposes in geometry (as compared say with kinematics o r f l u i d
dynamics) to bother about the intermediate stages of the motlon.
So we can d e s c r i b e the motion merely by specifying the initial
p o s i t i o n X In F of an arbitrary p o i n t P of body B and
i t s correspond1ng final position XI in F 1 . In its most general
form, then, a motion is conceived as a 1-1 correspondence or
transformation between two figures F and F 1
The technical
term "trans f armation" is often preferable to "mokion" since I t
doesnft suggest v a r i o u s irrelevant attributes of physical motion.

111-9. Rigid Motion. A motion or transformation between

two point s e t s F and F f is a r i g i d motion If it preserves
distances - that is If it 1s a congruence between F and F' as
deflned Ln S e c t i o n 111-7. A d e t a i l e d discussion of the concept
of rigfd motion appears i n Appendix VIII of the t e x t .
To introduce y o u t o the i o d e r n theory of congruent figures
and r i g i d motion we have put the maim emphasis on t h e f i r s t , since
Lt is more familiar and seems e a s i e r to apprehend. However,
glancing back a t the definition of congruent figures, you see it
implicitly Involves the n o t i o n of r i g l d motion. In fact now we
can reword i t : F i s congruent t o F' provided there exists a
r i g i d motion between them, or as we say more graphically, a rigid
motion which "transforms F i n t o F
T h i s is t h e h i g h l y
r e f i n e d culmination of the vague and famous c l a s s i c a l statement
which served t o Introduce our d i s c u s s i o n o f congruence:
"Two
figures are congruent if they can be made to coincide by a rigid
rno t i o n . "

Sometimes the clarification of the basic concepts of a branch

of mathematics firms up the foundations, p u t s the capstone on t h e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and s e t s it to rest. This is not so here. The
concept of r i g i d motion has stimulated the study of c l a s s i c a l
geometry, has yielded new i n s i g h t s and helped t o unfold new unities.
It has suggested the study of more general geometric t r a n s f o m t i o n s ("non-rigid motions") and has presented problems t o the
f i e l d of Modern Algebra, s i n c e motions tend to o c c u r In c e r t a i n
It
natural a l g e b r a i c fo m t i o n s " called groups
In the f i r s t place congruence and r i g i d motion have an impact
W e can talk preciseon geometry since they apply to all f f gures
ly n o t merely about congruence of (or rigid motion between) triangular pyramids or spherical zones or hyperbolic paraboloids but
also of lines, planes, space, half-planes, rays, e t c . A t f i r s t
it may sound s i l l y to say a line is congruent to a line
but
try to f i n d a better replica of a line than a l i n e ! It must be
j u s t because the r e l a t i o n congruence applied to l i n e s is so fundamental and u n i v e r s a l that we are n o t conscious of it - as a f i s h
must be unconaclous of the notion humidity. I n a f i r s t approach,
congruence takes on importance as applied to segments (or angles
or triangles) precisely because n o t all segments (or angles or
t r i a n g l e s ) are congruent to each o t h e r .
So it may seem trivial to say a l i n e is congruent to a line
or a plane t o a plane or space t o itself. B u t suppose we shift
the focus from the s t a t i c idea of congruent figures t o the dynamic
and l o g i c a l l y prior - idea of r i g i d motion. Is it trivial t o
say there e x i s t r i g i d motions between l i n e s o r between planes or
between space and i t a e l f ? Just to ask this question discloses a
broad vista: One of t h e p r i n c i p a l concerns of contemporary
geometry (or contemporary mathematics) is the a tudy o f transformations ( r i g i d and non-rigid) of n-dimensional spaces.

Conslder t h e simplest case:

Rigid motions which transform a
line L I n t o a line L 1 . If
L )I L 1 we have slides o r transl a t i o n s which ''move" the p o i n t s
I
o f L along p a r a l l e l transversals
to g e t t h e i r corresponding p o i n t s
of Lr
If L and L t meet in
just one p o i n t C we have a
rotation about C. If L and
L 1 c o i n c i d e , t h a t is L = L 1,
we have two types of r i g i d motions
operating on L:
8
(1) t r a n s l a t i o n s a l o n g L;
( 2 ) r e f l e c t i o n s o f L in a point C ,
where p o i n t C o f L is
"fixed" ( t h a t is it corresponds t o itself) and every o t h e r p o l n t
of L IImoves1' on L from one s i d e of C to t h e o t h e r .

S i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s apply to planes. The t h e o r y culminates

in the study of rigid motions of space - t h a t is between space and
i t s e l f . Here t h e basic types a r e translations, I n which no p o i n t
is fixed, rotations in which each p o i n t of a l i n e ( t h e axis o f t h e
rotation) is f i x e d , and r e f l e c t i o n s in a plane E in which each
point o f plane E i s fixed and t h e half-spaces separated by E
a r e "interchanged". More p r e c i s e l y a r e f l e c t i o n in E is a
transformation X w X 1 such t h a t if X is in E then X T = X
and if X is n o t in E then E is t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r
of XX1
A l l rigid motions o f space are " c o r n b i n a t ~ o n so~f~ t h e s e
three b a s i c t y p e s , j u s t as a l l p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s other than 1
are combinations o f primes.

You may say that the theory of rigid motions of lines, planes

and space is a t t r a c t i v e and relatively simple, but haven't we left

out t h e annoying complexities involved in the study of s p e c l f i c
congruent f i g u r e s lFke segments, truncated triangular pyramids
and cones with oval bases? Not at a l l ! They a r e elegantly
covered in the theory of rigid motions of the basic "linear
manifolds It: line, plane, space.
As a very simple illustration
P' Q'
suppose segment
is congruent
t o segment A'B'
rigid motion between them which,
let us say, makes A correspond
1
t o A'
and B to B'. Now we
P
Q
A
B
R
have the remarkable result that
this rigid motion,which is a c e r t a i n kind of 1-1 correspondence
between segments AB and AtB1 can be extended to form a rigid
w
*
motion between the whole line AB and the whole line A t B 1 and t h i s extension can be made in j us t one way. Thus we don't
disturb t h e correspondence between AB and A'Bf but
it by suitably defining a unique correspondent f o r each p o i n t of
w
AB n o t in E, so that the final correspondence l a a r i g i d
motion between
and A 1 Bl
So in the study of rigid motions
between lines as wholes, we are automatically covering all possible
rigid motions (and hence all possible relations of congruence)
between "linear" figures; (that is, subsets of lines which contain
more than one ~ o i n t ) Similarly any r i g i d motion between "planar"
figures (that is, subsets o f a plane which are not contained in
any line) is uniquely extendable to a rigid motion of t h e i r
containing planes. Finally we observe that any conceivable rigid
motion is encompassed by a rigid motion of space.

Non-rigid
-

motions. As we have indicated, modern

geometry is concerned with t r a n a f o m t i o n s that do n o t preserve
distance, as well as w i t h those which do. In Euclidean Geometry
the most important example is a similarity, which bears the same
relation to s i m i l a r f:gures that a congruence or r i g i d motion
does t o figures which are congruent. Formally suppose X - X 1
is a 1-1 correspondence between figures F and F t such t h a t
PP' ,
Q- Q'
always implies P t & I = k.PQ where k is a f i x e d p o s i t i v e number.
Then we c a l l the correspondence a similarity transformation o r a
similarity and we say F is similar t o F'. It easily follows
that a similarity transformation although it is n o t in general
a rigid motion - always presemrea angle measures. T h i s definition
of similar figures, when restricted to triangles, can be proved
equivalent t o t h e familiar one. The slmplest general type of
similarity is the dilatation (in a plane or in space) - t h i s 1s a
similarity which leaves a given p o i n t C fixed and radially
"stretches" the distance of any p o i n t f r o m C by a positive
f a c t o r k.
111-10.

Other important types of transformations are c e n t r a l in

various geometric theories
For example, "parallel p r o j e c t ion"
between planes I n af f ine geometry; ''central projection" between
planes In projective geometry; and topological t r a n s f o m t i o n s ,
which are a t y p e of continuous 1-1 correspondence, in topology.
The theory of map-making is concerned with various "projections"
or other kinds of transformatLons between a sphere and a cone,
cylinder o r plane.
And so we have ended our talk by touching upon a modern
generalization of rigid motion which well m i g h t merit a t a l k f o r

itself.

INTRODUCTION TO NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

About one hundred and f i f t y years ago, a revolution in mathematical thoughtbegan w i t h the discovery of a geometrical theory
which d i f f e r e d from the classical theory of space formulated by
Euclid about 300 B,C. Euclidts Geometry Text, the Elements, was
the f i n e s t example of deductive t h i n k i n g the human race had known,
and had been so considered f o r t w o thousand years. It was b e l i e v e d
t o be a p e r f e c t l y a c c u r a t e description of physical s p a c e , and a t
the same time, the only way in which the human mind could conceive
space. It is no small wonder then t h a t the development of t h e o r i e s
o f non-Euclidean geometry had an impact on mathematical thought
comparable to that of Darwin in biology, Copernicus in astronomy
or E i n s t e l n in p h y s i c s .
How d i d t h i s revolutionary change come about? Strangely
enough it may be considered to have had i t s origin in Euclldls
t e x t . Although he lists h i s postulates at the beginning, he ref r a i n s from employing one of them until he can go no f a r t h e r
without it. This is t h e famous fifth p o s t u l a t e which we may s t a t e
in e q u i v a l e n t form as

Euclidls Parallel Postulate, If p o i n t P is not on l i n e L,

there e x i s t s only one line through P which is parallel to L.

It seems probable t h a t Euclid deferred the introduction of

the f i f t h p o s t u l a t e because he considered it more complex and
harder t o grasp than h i s other postulates
The consequences of introducing Euclidls Parallel P o s t u l a t e
are almost phenomenal. Using it we g e t In sequence:

is

1.

The Alternate I n t e r i o r Angle Theorem f o r parallel l i n e s ;

2.

The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle

180;

3.

Parallel lines are e v e w h e r e e q u i d i s t a n t ;

4.

The existence o f rectangles of preassigned dimensions.

As remote but recognizable consequences of E u c l i d t s P a r a l l e l
P o s t u l a t e , we have :

5.

The familiar theory o f area in terms o f square u n l t s

which in e f f e c t reduces any plane figure to an e q u i v a l e n t r e c t angle ;

6.

The f a m i l f a r t h e o r y of s f r n i l a r i t y ;

7.

The Pythagorean Theorem.

It is hard t o

see how any of these i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s could be

proved wfthout recourse to Euclid's Parallel P o s t u l a t e or an

equivalent assumption.
There is no e x p l i c i t evidence that E u c l i d considered t h e
f l f t h p o s t u l a t e an improper assumption in his b a s i s f o r geqmetry.
B u t generations of mathematicians f o r over 2000 years were
dissatisfied with it, and worked h a r d and long in attempts t o
deduce it as a theorem from t h e o t h e r seemingly simpler p o s t u l a t e s
Right up t o the beginning of the 19th century a b l e mathematiclans
convinced themselves that they had s e t t l e d t h e problem only to
have flaws discovered in t h e i r work. Sometimes they employed t h e
principle of the indirect method and developed elaborate and
s u b t l e arguments to prove that the d e n i a l o f Euclidls P a r a l l e l
P o s t u l a t e would f o r c e one i n t o a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . None of these
arguments s t o o d up under a n a l y s i s . Finally e a r l y in the 19th
century, J. Bolyal (1802-1860) a Hungarian army officer, and
N . I . Lobachevsky (1793-1856) a Russian p r o f e s s o r of mathematics
a t t h e University o f Kazan, independently introduced theories of
gecrnetry based on a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f E u c l i d ' s Parallel Postulate.
The purpose of' t h i s talk is t o give an e l e m e n t a r y i n t r o ductlon to the non-Euclidean theory of geometry which Bolyat
and Lobachevsky c r e a t e d .

I. Two Non-Euclidean Theorems

In t h i s part we try to give you - without a long preliminary
discussion - the f l a v o r of non-Euclidean geometry. Our viewpoint
is t h i s : Suppose we consider the hypothesis that t h e r e are two
llnes p a r a l l e l t o a particular line t h r o u g h a particular p o i n t .
What will follow? As a basis f o r o u r deductions we assume the
postulates of Euclidean geometry except the Parallel P o s t u l a t e ,
specifically Postulates 1,
15 of the t e x t .
-C-

...,

Theorem 1. Let P be a point and L a line such t h a t there

a r e two lines through P each of which is p a r a l l e l t o L. Then
L is wholly contained In t h e i n t e r i o r o r some angle.

Let l i n e s M and N contain P and be p a r a l l e l to

L. Then M and N separate t h e plane i n t o f o u r " p a r t s " each of
which is the i n t e r i o r o f an angle. Specifically these p a r t s o r
regions may be l a b e l l e d as the I n t e r i o r s o f t h e angles L APB,
A t P B f , L AIPB, A APBt where P is between A and A T on M
and P is between B and B' on N. L e t Q be any p o i n t of L.
Since L does n o t meet M o r N, Q is n o t on M or N. So Q 1s
in one of t h e f o u r angle I n t e r i o r s say t h e i n t e r i o r of L A t PB.
Now where can L l i e ? Note that one of its p o i n t s Q is in the
interior of L A I P B and that L + d o e s n o t meet the sides o f t h e
angle L A t P B . Clearly L is trapped i n s i d e L A'PB and the
theorem is proved.
Proof:

Observe how strange t h i s is when compared w i t h the Euclidean

situation where only a p a r t of a line can be contained in t h e
i n t e r i o r of an a n g l e , as indicated i n t h e f i g u r e . But n c t e - as
always in mathematics - the inevitability o f the r e s u l t once t h e
hypothesis is granted. You may say the argument is valid abstractly - but it doesn't correspond to physical r e a l i t y .
A s you make a statement like t h i s you begin to tread the path
of t h e non-Euclidean geometers. A l l t h a t one needs to think mathematlcally is a s e t of precisely stated assumptions ( p o s t u l a t e s )
from whf ch conclusions (theorems) can be derived by l o g i c a l reasoning. Are these assumptions absolutely t r u e when a p p l i e d to the
physical world? We d o n ' t really know, It is not our professional
concern as mathematicians t o answer t h e question. It lies in t h e
domain o f physicists, astronomers and s u r v e y o r s . As human beings
who work in mathematics we m y l i k e t o feel that o u r t h e o r i e s a r e
applicable to p h y s i c a l reality. But t h i s doesn't r e q u i r e the
a b s o l u t e t r u t h of our p o s t u l a t e s o r o u r theorems. When Euclidean
geometry is applted by an a r c h i t e c t o r engineer o r surveyor he
doesnt t r e q u i r e r e s u l t s which a r e a b s o l u t e l y correct - he m i g h t
consider t h i s a mirage, R a t h e r he demands r e s u l t s c o r r e c t to the
degree of p r e c i s i o n required by h i s problem - accuracy of one p a r t
in a hundred m i g h t be excellent in a pocket magnifying g l a s s b u t
one p a r t in a million m i g h t be too rough for a far-ranging

astronomical t e l e s c o p e .
Our f i r s t theorem indicated how positional o r non-metrical
p r o p e r t i e s in a non-Euclidean geometry might differ from o u r
Euclidean expectattons. Now we show how m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e angle sm of a t r i a n g l e - are a l t e r e d when we
change the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e .
Theorem 2 . L e t P be a p o l n t and L a line such t h a t t h e r e
are two l i n e s through P each o f which is p a r a l l e l t o L. Then
t h e r e e x i s t s a t l e a s t one triangle the sun of whose angle measures
Is less than 180,

We f i r s t prove a lemma.
Lemma. If the sum of the angle measures of a t r i a n g l e I s
greater than o r equal to 180 then t h e measure of an exterior
angle is less than or equal to the sum of the measures of the two
remote i n t e r i o r angles .

Proof:

Wehave

a + b + c >-1 8 0 . Hence

Proof of Theorem 2: Suppose the theorem false. Then the

sum of the angle measures of every triangle is greater than or
equal t o 180.
P

L e t L be a line and P a point such t h a t there are two

lines through P p a r a l l e l t o L. L e t line PQ be perpendicular
to L at Q. Since there are two lines through P parallel to
w
L one of these must make an a c u t e angle with line PQ. Suppose

then line %? is parallel to L and makes an a c u t e angle,

M
L WX, with line PQ. L e t line PY be perpendicular t o line
wlth Y on the same s i d e of line %$ as X. L e t mL YPX = a;
then a < 90. ( ~ h l n kof a as a small p o s i t i v e number, say .I.)
Now l o c a t e RI on L so t h a t QR1 = PQ and R1 is on the same
s i d e of PQ as X and Y. Draw segment PR1.
Then d P a 1 1s
i s o s c e l e s so that rnL QPRl = m L QRIP = al. Since the e x t e r i o r
angle of b PQRI at Q is a right angle, the Lemma implles

al

a1

and
al
Let

4 YPRl = bl.

Then
b

2al

90

45.

+ al

90,

so that

bl = 90

and

b1

<4 5

Moreover

bl

>

al

a.

Now we repeat the argument by constructing a new triangle.

Extend sement
to Rg making R1R2 = PRl. Draw E2.
Then A PR1R2 is isosceles, so that mL RLPR2 = mL R1R2P =
By the Lemma
a2 + a2 = 2a2 2 al,

&R1

So that

2a2

and
Let

a2

m L YPR2 = bg.

2 a1 2 45

2 45
T O

Then
b2

a2 = bl,

b2 = b l

since

bl ( 45

Mopeover

and

ag

we

b2

>

a*'

have

a.

Continuing Fn this way we obtain a sequence of real numbers

which are leas than or equal to respectively

but a l l of which are greater than the fixed p o s i t i v e number a.

This I s impossible since repeated halving of 45 must eventually
produce a number less than a . So o u r supposition is false and
the theorem holda.

A proof of this type, though n o t d i f f i c u l t , may be unfamiliar

and you may have to mull it over a b l t to appreciate it better.

In i n t u i t i v e terms I t is n c t very hard. There are two main points.
+
F i r s t , the ray PX which doesntt meet L acts as a s o r t of
boundary f o r t h e rays PRI,
PR2,
which do meet L. Thus the
angles L YFR1, L YPRp,
have measures bl, b2,
which
are greater than a. On the other hand (if the sum of the angle
measures of every triangle is a t l e a s t 180) we can pile up
successive angles L QPR1, L R1PR2,
..., starting at ray

-.. .

...

x,

a,

- 45, 9, ... so
L YPR2, . .. have measures at mast

of measures at least

L YPR1,

...

that the angles

45, ,
,45

.. .

we have a c o n t r a d i c t i o n in that the angles L YPR1, L YPR2,

have measures which approach zero but are a l l greater than a
f b e d p o s i t i v e number a ,
A f i n a l remark. You may o b j e c t that we have n o t r e a l l y
L
C
C
j u s t i f l e d that PX is a "boundary" f o r PR;,
PR;,
.. . . To

So

...

t a k e care of t h i s observe that

C,

+
PR1

and

PX are on t h e same s i d e

of lfne PQ. Consequently one of them must

+
+
formed by PQ and the o t h e r
Suppose PX
w
Then PX would meet lLne &Rl. Since this
PR1 m u t l l e i n s i d e L QPX
S i m i l a r l y for

fall i n s i d e the angle

fell lnside L QPR1.
is impossible,

PR2,

.. . .

Neutral Geometry
We are using the term "neutral geometry" in g h l s p a r t t o
indicate t h a t we are assuming neither Euclidls Parallel P o s t u l a t e
nor i t s contradictory. We shall merely deduce consequences of
Euclidta Postulates o t h e r than the Parallel P o s t u l a t e , ( a p e c i f i c a l ly our dLscusaions are based on Postulates 1,
15 of the text).
O u r r e s u l t s then will hold in Euclidean Geometry and in the nonEuclidean geometry of Bolyai and Lobachevsky sfnce they a r e
deducible f r o m postulates which are common t o b o t h theories. Our
study is n e u t r a l also in the sense of avoiding controversy over
t h e Parallel Postulate. Actually its study helps us to accept
the idea of non-Euclidean geometry since it points up the f a c t
that mathematically we have a more basic geometrical theory which
can be definitized in either of two w a y s .
We proceed to derive some results in neutral geometsy. Since
you are Familiar with so many s t r i k i n g and Important theorems
which do depend on Euclid's Parallel Pbstulate you might t h i n k
that there are no i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in n e u t r a l geometry. However, t h i s is n o t s o . F i r s t we sketch the proof of a familiar
and important theorem of Euclidean geometry whose proof does n o t
depend on a parallel Postulate (see t e x t , Theorem 7-1).
11.

...,

Theorem 3. A n exterior angle of a t r i a n g l e is larger than

either remote i n t e r i o r angle.

Proof: Given A ABC with exterior angle L BCD. We show

rnL BCD is greater
than m L B and m L A . L e t E be the mid-point
of segment BC and let F be the point such that AE = EF and
E is between A and F. It follows that A BEA h CEF ao
that
B = mL ECF,
But
4 BCD = m L ECF + mL FCD.

Substituting

rnL B

for

rnL ECF

we have
r n l BCD = mL B +

nL FCD,

so that

4 BCD > rnL B.

The proof is completed as usual by applying the above argument to
show that the vertical angle of L BCD is larger than L A .
C o r o l l a r y 1. The sum of the measures of two angles of a
triangle is less than 180.
Proof: Given A ABC we show rnL A + m L B < 180. By the
theorem m L A is less than the measure of an exterior angle at
B. T ~ U S
m L A < 180 - 4 B
so that
This c o r o l l a r y is important since, without assuming a parallel
postulate, It gives us information about the angles of a t r i a n g l e .
It tells us f o r example, t h a t a triangle can have at most one obtuse
angle o r at most one r i g h t angle.

Corollary 2. In a plane two lines are parallel if they are

both perpendicular to the same line (compare text, Theorem 9-2)

Proof: The basic properties of perpendicular lines In

Euclidean geometry are studied p r i o r to the introduction of the
Parallel Postulate, and so are part of (or are valid in) n e u t r a l
geometry. Thus the familiar proof of t h e c o r o l l a r y is applicable:
If t h e two lines met we would have, in a plane, two lines perpendicular to the same line at the same point. Thia is impossible
and the l i n e s can't meet.

on
L.

Corollary 3 . Let L be a line, and let P be a point n o t

L. Then there is at least one l i n e through P, parallel to

Proof: This follows from C o r o l l a r y 2 by t h e f a m l l i a r theorem

on the e x i s t e n c e of perpendiculars: Let L1
L through P, and
Lp L1 through P . Then Lp 11 L1.

almost hackneyed - dlscusslon

has yielded a very important principle: That parallel l i n e s
e x i s t . More p r e c i s e l y , t h e r e e x i s t s at l e a s t one line parallel
t o a g i v e n line through an external p o i n t .
And we got t h t s r e s u l t
w i t h o u t assumlng any parallel postulate! So t h e crucial polnt in
our s t u d y of t h e theory of parallelism will be whether there is
one, o r more than one, l i n e p a r a l l e l to a given line through an
external p o i n t .
To prove an i m p ~ r t a n t ,and n o t s u f t i c i e n t l y well known,
theorem of Legendre (1752-1833) we Fntroduce t h e following:
Lemma. Given A ABC and L A . Then t h e r e e x l s t s a t r i a n g l e
bAIBIC1
such t h a t :
( a ) It has t h e same angle measure sum as
AABC;
(b) ~ L A ~ < ~ L A .
Observe that t h i s familiar

We use the same construction as in Theorem 3 , Let

E be the mid-point of BC and l e t F s a t i s f y AE = EF and E
is between A and F. Then A BEA
A CEF and corresponding
angles have equal measures. A APC is the A AIBIC1 we a r e
s e e k i n g . We have
LA -t m L B + mL c m L l + mL 2 + rnL 3 +
4
=dl+rnLZ'+rnL3I +mL4
= mL CAF + mL AFC + rnL FCA.
To complete t h e p r o o f n o t e t h a t
mLA = r n L l + m ~ 2 = m L I + r n L 2 ~
so t h a t
mL A = rnL CAF + m L AFC.
Hence one of' t h e terms on the r i g h t is l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o 1
1
t h e term on t h e l e f t , t h a t is $ r n ~A . Consequently A AFC can
b e relabeled A AIBICl S O as t o make t h e theorem v a l l d .
Proof:

mL

Note that since we have not aasumed Euclidls P a r a l l e l Postul a t e we don't know that the angle measure sum I s constant f o r a l l
t r i a n g l e s . So the lenrma is a simificant result in that we can
c o n s t r u c t from a given t r i a n g l e a new one with the same angle
measure sum. In i n t u i t i v e terms we can replace a triangle by a
"slenderer" one without altering i t s angle measure sum. In effect
the ppoof shows t h i s by c u t t i n g off A ABE from A ABC
ing it back on as A FCE.
Now we can prove the following remarkable theorem.

and past-

Theorem 4. (Legendre.) The angle measure sum of any triangle

is less than or equal to 180.

Proof: Suppoae the contrary. Then there must e x i s t a triangle, A ABC, whose angle measure sum is 180 + p, where p is
a p o s l t i v e number. Now we apply the Lemma. It tella us t h a t there
exists a slenderer t r i a n g l e , A AIBIC1, whose angle measure sum
also I s

180

such t h a t

4 Al < & A.

To f i x our ideas l e t ua say p

A1

= 1

+ 4 B1 + 4 C1

rnL A = 25. Then

and 4 A1
g.

and

= 181

Pressing our advantage we reapply the lemma. So there is a

still slenderer triangle, let us call I t A A p 2 C 2 ,
whose angle
measure is

180

4 A2

+
+

B2

< & Al.

That is

C2 = 181 and

mL A n

4 A2

and

9.

Continuing in t h i s m y , we g e t a sequence of triangles each w i t h

angle measure am 181 and w i t h successive angles of measures
no greater than
25,

9, ,

* * *

To see t h i s is impossible, consider

mLA5

<

A B C

55 5

for which

P.

We have

m L As

r n l B5

+ 4 C5

181 and

rnL A s 4 -.25

Certainly

mL A s <

1,

but

m L Bs
by Corollary 1 to Theorem 3 .

+ 4 C5 <

180

Adding the inequalities,

This contradiction implies o u r supposition false, and t h e theorem

is establf shed.
Note t h e point of the proof i e to g e t a t r i a n g l e so "slender",
t h a t is with one angle so small, t h a t the triangle can't e x i s t by
Corollary 1 above. It may now be i n s t r u c t i v e to write out the
proof in general terms wlthout assigning s p e c i f i c values t o p
and mL A .

Corollary 4. The angle measure sum of any quadrilateral is

less than or equal to 360.

111.

Do Rectangles Exist?

We continue to study neutral geometry, and are interested in

whether a rectangle can e x i s t In such a geometry, and what happens

if it doea. So most of o u r theorems will have the hypothesis that
a rectangle e x i s t s . W
e use freely the results of Part I1 on
neutral geometry.
The existence of a rectangle i n a geometry is n o t a trivial
thing
irnagine what Euclidean geometry would be like if you didn't
have or couldntt use rectangles. If you try to construct a rectangle you w2ll flnd you are assuming Euclidls Parallel Postulate
or one o f i t s consequences, such as, the angle measure sum of a
triangle fs 180,
F i r s t , to avoid ambiguity, we formally define rectangle as
we shall use the term:

Definition. A (plane) quadrilateral is called a rectangle

if each of its angles is a right angle.
Notice that s i n c e we are operating In neutral geometry and
have not assumed Euclidrs Parallel Postulate, we can't automatically apply familiar Euclidean propositions, auch aa (1) the opposite
sides of a rectangle are parallel, or (2) that they are equal in
length, or (3) that a diagonal divides a rectangle into two congruent triangles, If we want t o assert any of these results we
will have to prove them from o u r definition without assuming a
parallel postulate
For example, (1) is Immediate by Corollary 2.

Theorem 5. If one p a r t i c u l a r rectangle exists then a r e c t angle exists with an arbitrarily large s i d e .

Restatement: Suppose a rectangle ABCD e x i s t s and x is a

given positive real number. Then there exists a rectangle with
one side of length greater than x .

Proof: We use ABCD as a "building block" t o construct the

d e s i r e d rectangle. Construct a quadrilateral DCEF congruent to
ABCD, so t h a t
and
are on . o p p o s i t e sides of line
Then DCER Is a rectangle. Moreover, B, C, E l i e on a l i n e by
a familtar perpendicularity property. Similarly, A , D, F are
c o l l i n e a r . So ABCEF'D is a quadrilateral ABEF and consequently
a rectangle. Note ABEF has the p r o p e r t y that

w.

Similarly we c o n s t r u c t FEGH a congruent replica o f ABCD

C,
so that % and
are on opposite s i d e s of line EP, And we
see that ABGH is a rectangle such t h a t

Continuing Fn this way we can c o n s t r u c t a rectangle ABYZ

that

AZ =

such

rn

f o r each p o s i t i v e Integer n. Now choose n s o b i g that

Then A3YZ satisfies the conditions o l our theorem.

nAD

>

C o r o l l a r y 5. If one p a r t i c u l a r rectangle exists, then a

rectangle e x i s t s wlth two a r b i t r a r i l y large adjacent aides.
Res tatemenl: Suppose a rectangle ABCD e x l s ts and x, y
are given positive real numbem
T h e n there exista a rectangle
PQRS such t h a t PQ > x and PS > y.

Proof: By the theorem we have a rectangle ABYZ with

AZ > x. By placing successive congruent replicas of ABY!Z t lon
top" of each other starting with ABYZ, we eventually get a
rectangle A A I Z ' Z with AA1 > y and AZ > x .

x.

Theorem 6. If one particular rectangle exists then a r e c t angle exists with two adjacent sides of p r e a a s l p e d lengths x , y.
Proof:
Our method i~ that of a tailor: By the l a e t corollary
we get a rectangle PQRS such that PQ > x and PS y; then we
cut it dorm to fit.

>

s'

Ell

YP

Q'

Qt in
such t h a t POr = x . Drop a
perpendicular f r o m Q l to line Ciif with foot R 1 + Ye show
PQ' R' S is a rectangle. ft certainly ha8 rfg h t angles at P, S ,
R' . We show 1 P Q I R f alao is a pight angle. Suppose mL PQf R r
> 90. Then the sum of t h e angle measures of quadrilatergl
PQ'R'S is greater t h a n 360 contrary to the corollary of
Legendre' s Theorem (part 11) . Suppose m L P e t R t < 9 0 . Then
mL QQt R + > 90 and quadrilateral QQ1R' R has an angle measure
sum greater than 360. Thus the only posslbllity is m L PQIFtl = 90,
and PQrR 1S is a rectangle.
In the same way there is a p o i n t S t in PS such that
PS = y . Drop a perpendicular f r o m S
to line Q f R t with foot
R . Than as above PQ' R v IS1 I s a rectangle, and it has s l d e a
PQt and PS
o f lengths x and y
There is a pqint

Theorem 7. If one particular rectangle exists then e v e r y

r i g h t triangle haa an angle measure sum of 180.

Proof: Our procedure Is to show: (1) any r i g h t triangle Is

congruent to a triangle formed by the splitting of a rectangle by
a diagonal, and ( 2 ) the latter type of triangle must have an
angle measure o f 180. Let A ABC be a right t r i a n g l e w i t h
r i g h t angle a t B. By Theorem 6 there exists a rectangle A l B ' C t D '
w i t h A ' B 1 = AB and B I C T = BC. Draw A I C T . Then
A ABC S A A ' B I C 1 and they have the same angle measure sum.
L e t p be t h e angle measure sum of A A t B t C t and q be t h a t
of P A t C ' D 1 . W e have

We want to show p = 180. By Legendrets Theorem p < 180 o r

p = 180. Suppose p < 180. Then by (1) q > 180, contrary t o
Legendreis Theorem. So p = 180 must hold and the proof Is
complete,
Theorem 8, If one particular rectangle exists then every
triangle has an angle measure am of 180.
8

Proof: Any t r i a n g l e A ABC can be s p l i t Into two r i g h t

triangles. Each of these has angle measure sum 180 by Theorem 7.
It e a s i l y follows that the same holds f o r A ABC.
T h i s is a r a t h e r s t r i k i n g result: The existence of one puny
rectangle w l t h microscopic sides inhabiting a remote p o r t i o n of
space guarantees t h a t every conceivable triangle has an angle
measure sum of 180. S l n c e this is a typically Euclidean Property
we are tempted to say t h a t if in a n e u t r a l geometry a rectangle
exists , the geometry mu8 t be Euclidean. The s taternent is c o r r e c t
but n o t fully justified, slnce to characterize a neutral geometry
as Euclidean we must know t h a t it s a t i s f i e s Euclidls Parallel
Postulate. This can now be pmved without trouble.

Theorem 9. If one particular rectangle exists then Euclidl s

P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e holds.
Proof: Suppose a rectangle exists but Euclidts P a r a l l e l .
P o s t u l a t e f a i l s . Then there m u s t exist a line L and a p o i n t P
such t h a t there are two lines through P parallel t o L, since
by Corollary 3 there is at least one line p a r a l l e l to a given
l i n e through an external p o i n t . Then by Theorem 2 there exists
one triangle, a t least, whose angle measure sum is less t h a n 180.
This c o n t r a d i c t s Theorem 8. Consequently Euclidis Parallel
Postulate mwt hold.
What we have j u s t i f i e d is a remarkable equivalence theorem,
namely: Euclidts P a r a l l e l Postulate is logically e q u i v a l e n t t o
the existence of a rectangle. T h a t is, takfng e i t h e r of these
statements as a p o s t u l a t e we can deduce the o t h e r as a theorem,
provided o f c o u r s e we assume the postulates f o r a n e u t r a l geometry.
An i n t e r e s t i n g conditfan equivalent t o t h e existence of a
rectangle is the existence of a triangle whose angle measure is
180:

Theorem 10. Tf there e x i s t s one particular triangle with

angle measure sum of 180, then t h e r e exists a r e c t a n g l e .
8

Proof : Suppos e A ABC has angle measure swn 180. F i r s t

we show there is a r i a t triangle with angle measure sum 180.
S p l i t A ABC Into two r i g h t t r i a n g l e s , whose angle measure sums

are say

and

q.

Then

We show p = 180. By Legendre's Theorem, p 5 180. If p < 180

then q > 180 contrary t o Legendrefs Theorem. Thus there is a
r f m t triangle, aay A ABD, which has angle measure sum 180.
E
B

Now we put two isuch right triangles together to form a rectangle. Construct A AEB
A BDA with E on the opposite side
of lLne AB from D. Show ADBE is a rectangle.
sum

Corollary 6. If one particular triangle has angle measure

180 then evew triangle has angle measure sum 180.

Proof:

By Theorems 10 and 8.

Corollary 7. If one particular triangle has angle measure

awn 180 then Euclldts Parallel Postulate holds.
Proof:

By Theorem 10 and 9.

Corollary 8. If one p a r t i c u l a r triangle has an angle measure

sum which is less than 180 then every triangle has an angle
measure sum leas than 180.
Proof: Suppose A ABC has angle measure sum lesa than 180,
Conaider any t r i a n g l e A PQR. By Legendreis Theorem I t s angle
measure sum p must s a t i s f y p = 180 or p < 180. Suppose
p
180. Then by Corollary 6, A ABC has angle measure am 180,
contrary t o hypothesis. Thus p < 180.
Comparing Corollaries 6 and 8 we observe an important fact.
A neutral geometry La "homageneoua" In the sense that a l l o f its
triangle8 have an angle measure sum of 180 or they a l l have
angle measure sums lesa than 180. The f i r s t type of neutral
geometry is merely Euclidean geometry
the aecond type corresponds
to the non-Euclidean geometry developed by Bolyai and Lobachevsky.
This w i l l be discussed in the next part.

Ekercise 1. Suppose there is only one l i n e parallel to a

p a r t i c u l a r line L through a particular point P. Prove that
Euclidf s Parallel P o s t u l a t e holds.
Exercise 2. Suppose there are two lines parallel to a
p a r t i c u l a r line L through a particular p o i n t P
Prove there
are two lines p a r a l l e l to each line through each external p o i n t .

IV

Lobachevskian Geometry
Now we introduce the non-Euclidean geometry of B o l y a i and
Lobachevsm as a formal theory based on its own poetulatea
We
c a l l t h e theory Lobachevskian geometry t o signalize the l i f e t i m e
of work which Lobachevsky devoted to the theory. To study
Lobachevskian geometry we merely assume the postulates of Euclidean geometry but replace Euclidfs Parallel Postulate by hbachevskyts Parallel Postulate: If p o i n t P is not on line L there
are a t least two lines through P which are parallel to L. In
other words we asswne the p o s t u l a t e s of n e u t r a l geometry ( ~ o s t u lates 1,
15 of the t e x t ) and adjoln Lobachevskyfs Parallel
Postulake. Conscqvently the theorems which we have already derived are valid in Lobachevskian geometry. In f a c t , by putting
together two e a r l i e r r e s u l t s we g e t the following important
theorem.

...,

Theorem 11.
than 180.

The angle measure sum o f any triangle i s less

P r o o f : By Theorem 2 there exists a triangle whose angle

measure sum is less than 180. Hence t h e same is true of every
triangle by Corollary 8.
C o r o l l a r y 9,
less than 360.

The angle measure sum of any quadrilateral is

Proof: By the c o r o l l a r y t o Legendreis Thearem ( P a r t 11,

Theorem 2) the o n l y o t h e r possibility for the value Is 360 - and
t h i s is ruled out by Theorem 11.
Corollary 10. There e x i s t no rectangles.

Now we show t h a t s i m i l a r triangles can*t e x i s t in Ubachevskfen geometry, except of course for the trivial case of congruent
triangles.

Theorem 12. Two t r i a n g l e s are congruent if t h e i r correspondi n g angles have e q u a l measured.

A

A'

Proof: Suppose t h e theorem f a l s e . Then there exist A ABC

and A A'BIC' which are not congruent such that rnL A = rnL A 1 ,
mL B = rnL B t ,
C = rnL C f . Since the triangles are n o t congruent
AB # A'Bt
Similar(otherwise they would be congruent by A . S . A . ) .
l y A C f A I C I and B C # B ' C t .
Consider the t r i p l e s AB, A C , BC
and A t B t , A I C i , B ' C ' .
One of these t r i p l e s must contain two
numbers which are greater than t h e corresponding numbers of the
o t h e r triple. Consequently it is not r e s t r i c t i v e to suppose

mL

>

and AC > A t C t .
Then we can find B 1 $ on
such that A I B 1 = AB"
and
Ci
on AC such that A I C 1 = ACu
I t f o l l o w s that
AAB1lCrlrAAiB'C' sothat
mL A B I t C f 1 = m L B 1 = m L B .
Hence
BBt C 1
i s supplementary to L B. Similarly
C C 1 B"
is supplementary to L C . Therefore quadrilateral B B t l C t l C
has an angle measure sum of 360. This contradicts C o r o l l a r y 9
and o u r proof is complete.
We have here a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t with Euclidean geometry.
In
view of Theorem 12, in Lobachevskian geometry t h e r e cannot be a
theory of similar f i g u r e s based on the usual d e f i n i t i o n . For if
AB

A'Bt

two triangles were similar, the measures of t h e i r corresponding

angles would be equal and they would have to be congruent. In
general two similar figures would be congruent and so have t h e
same size. In a Lobachevskian world, pictures and statues would
have to be l i f e - s i z e to avoid distortion.

Now l e t us consider the question of measurement of area. For

the sake of simplicity we restrict ourselves to triangles. Clearly
the Euclidean procedure of measurLng area in terms of square units
will n o t apply since squares don't exist in Lobachevskian geometry.
To c l a r i o the problem we ask what are the essential characteristics of area. As a minimum we require:

(I) The area of

a triangle s h a l l be a uniquely determined

p o s i t i v e real number;
2 )

T2

Congruent triangles shall have equal areas;

(3) If a triangle T is split i n t o two triangles T1 and

then the area of T shall be the sum of the areas of T1 and

It I s easy to verify that the familiar formula for the area of a

triangle In Euclidean geometry satisfies these conditions.
There fa a similar area formula (or area "function") in
Lobachevskian geometry but it is most naturally expressed in terms
of the angles of a triangle. To s t a t e it formally we introduce the
Definition. The defect (or deficiency) of A ABC
180 - (mL A + m L B + m L C > .

is

Note t h a t the defect of a triangle literally is the amount by

whlch its angle measure sum falls s h o r t of 180.
The defect of a triangle has the essential properties of

area :
Theorem 13.

The d e f e c t of a triangle s a t i s f i e s P roperties

(11, (21, (31, above.

Proof: Clearly (1) is satisfied s i n c e the d e f e c t of a triangle is a d e f i n i t e positive number. Property (2) holds since
congruent triangles have equal angle sums and so equal d e f e c t s .

To establish (3) let A ABC

be given and let D be a p o i n t of
BC, so that A A 3 C is split i n t o
A ABD and A ADC. The sum of
the defects of the latter two
triangles is

which is t h e d e f e c t of A ABC.
Are there o t h e r area f'unctions besides t h e d e f e c t ? It is
easy to verif'y t h a t if we multiply the d e f e c t by any p o s i t i v e
constant k, we obtain an area function which s a t i s f i e s Properties
1 , ( 2 (3)
This is not as remarkable as I t m i g h t seem, since
the specific form of o u r definition of d e f e c t depends on our basic
agreement to measure angles in term of degrees. If we adopt a
different unit f o r the measure of angles and define "defect" in
the natural manner, we obtain a constant multiple of the defect
as we defined it. To be s p e c i f i c , suppose we change the u n i t of
angle measurement from degrees to minutes. This would entail two
simple changes in the above theory:
(a) each angle measure would
have to be multfplied by 60; (b) the key number 180 would
have to be replaced by 60 times 180. Thus the appropriate
d e f l n l t l o n of "defect" would be 60 t b e s the defect a s we
defined it.
Finally we note t h a t it can be proved that any area f'tmcticn
s a t i s f y i n g (I), ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) must be k times the defect ( o u r
definition) f o r some p o a l t l v e constant k. In view of t h i s it is
natural to define t h e area of a t r i a n g l e to be I t s defect.

Query. Which o f the Properties (I), (21, ( 3 ) h o l d s for the

defect of a triangle in Euclidean geometry?

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that in Euclidean spherfcal geometry

the sum of the angle measures of a triangle is greater than 180
and the area of a triangle is given by i t s ttexceas", that is its
angle measure sum minus 180.
Given A ABC with p o i n t s , D, E, F in
respectively. Prove that the defect of A ABC is
the sum of the defects of the trfangles ADF, BED, CFE, and
DEF
Exercise
AB, BC, AC

1.

Exercise 2. If p o i n t s P, Q, R are i n s i d e A ABC

that A ABC has a larger defect than A PQR.

prove

We conclude t h i s part by observing that the familiar Euclldean p r o p e r t y - parallel lines are everywhere equidistant - faila
in Lobachevskian geometry. In fact t h e r e are parallel l i n e s of
two types. If two parallel l i n e s have a common perpendicular
they diverge continuously on both sides of t h i s perpendicular.
If two parallel l h e s don't have a common perpendicular they are
asymptotic - that is If a p o i n t on one recedes endlessly in the
proper directLon, its distance to the other will approach zero.

Conclusion
In I t s f u r t h e r development Lobachevskian geometry is at least
as complex as Euclidean geometry. There is a Lobachevskian s o l i d
geometry, a trigonometry and an analytic geometry - problems i n
mensuration of curves, surfaces and s o l i d s require the use of the
calculus.
You may object that t h e structure is grounded on sand - that
Lobachevskian geometry is inconsistent and eventually w i l l yield
contradictory theorem. This of course was the implicit belief
that led mathematicians f o r 2,000 years to try to prove Euclid's
Parallel Postulate. Actually we have no absolute test f o r the
consistency of any of the familiar branches of mathematics. But
it can be proved that the Euclidean and Lobachevskian geometries
stand or fall together on the question of consistency. That is,
if either is Inconsistent, so is t h e other.
Once t h e I c e had been broken by Bolyal and Lobachevskyls
successful challenge to Euclidfs Parallel Postulate, mathematicians
were stimulated to s e t up o t h e r non-Euclldean geometries - that is,
geometric theories which c o n t r a d i c t one or more of Euclid's
P o s t u l a t e s , or approach geometry i n an e s s e n t i a l l y different way.
The best known of these was proposed in 1854 by t h e German
mathematician Riemann (1826-1866). Riemann! s theory c o n t r a d i c t s
Euclid's Parallel Postulate by assuming there are no parallel
lfnes. T h i s required the abandonment of o t h e r postulates of
Euclid s i n c e we have proved the exlstence of parallel l i n e s without assuming any p a r a l l e l postulate (Corollary 3)
In Rlemannts
theory, in c o n t r a s t to those of Euclid and Lobachevsky, a l i n e
has f i n i t e length. Actually there are t w o types of non-Euclidean
geometry associated with Rlemannls name, one c a l l e d sfngle
e l l i p t i c geometry i n whlch any two l i n e s meet in j u s t one p o i n t ,
and a second, double e l l l p t l c geometry, In which any two lines
meet in two points. The second type of geometry can be pictured
in Euclidean space as t h e geometry of points and great c i r c l e s
on a sphere.

Riemann a l s o introduced a radically d i f f e r e n t kind of

geometric theory whlch bullds up the p r o p e r t i e s of space in the
l a r g e by studying the behavior of distance between p o l n t s which
are c l o s e together. This theory, called Riemannian Geometry,
is useful in applied mathematics and physics and I s the mathematical basis of Efnsteinfs General Theory of Relativity.
Bolyai and Lobachevsky have opened f o r us a door on a new
and apparently limitless domain.

MINIATURE GEOMETRIES
1. Preamble. In a given s e t of postulates f o r a special
p a r t of mathematlcs, I t is hardly to be expected that t h e laws of
classical logic, the rules of grammar and a definition of a l l the
terms be Included. We recognize their need but assume them whenever used. We a l s o assume t h a t t h e reader is familiar w l t h the
usual laws of arithmetic and algebra that may be w e d . Indeed
there may be other needed l o g i c a l assumptions t h a t are overlooked
so t h a t the emphasls may be placed upon the particular t o p i c under
immediate discussion, and t h e postulates wlll be confined to those
that have an immediate geometric use.
2. Characteristics of-a postulate system. What postulates
should we make? There is no d e f i n i t e answer t o t h i s question.
The answer depends upon the audience and upon the purpose and the
preferences (or prejudices) of t h e individual. However, there
are some desfrable characteristics of a p o s t u l a t e system, which
we proceed to discuss. We may n o t be able to attain all of them,
and may have t o make some compromises.
( 1) Simplicity,* The p o s t u l a t e s should be s imple , t h a t is,
easily understood by the audience f o r which they a r e intended.
But sfrnple is a relative term, and depends upon the experience
of the audience.

Paucity. It may be d e s i r a b l e to have o n l y a few undef i n e d e n t i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s and t o make o n l y a few assumptions
about them. It may be necessary t o sacrifice t h e s e c h a r a c t e r l s tics t o gain simplicity of understanding. Most t e x t s on plane
geometry f o r beginning s t u d e n t s do s a c r i f i c e t h e s e characteristics, and some t e x t s over-do It to avoid p r o v i n g converses,
especially If the method of proof by c o n t r a d i c t i o n is needed.
This puts a high premium on f a c t u a l geometry as against logical
geometry. It 13 not my purpose here t o condemn o r commend t h i s
(2)

*See Nelson Goodman,

co he Test'of Simplicity", Science,

October 31, 1958, Vol. 128.

p o i n t of view. It a l l depends upon the audience and the purpose

of the t e x t , but it may be very difficult to determine (except by

the Rule of ~uthorlty)whether the system s a t i s f i e s the next

charac t e r i s t f c

Consistency. The p o s t u l a t e system should be c o n s i s t e n t .

It should not be self-contradictory. This part may be easy to
determine. For example, we would not want to include t w o asswnptions such as ( A ) ; Tko l i n e s in the same plane always have a
p o i n t in common ( ~ r o j e c t i v e~ e o m e t r y ) and (B): There are lines
in the same plane that have no p o i n t in common (Euclidean G e o m e t r y ) .
B u t more is needed. The p u s t u l a t e system should never lead to a
contradiction. This may be difficult to determine or Impossible
t o determine. We seldom know a l l the consequences of the p o s t u l a t e
system, and In that case the proof of absolute consistency may not
be posa lble . We content ourselves with relative cons i a tency . If
we can give at least one interpretation of the undefined terms
based upon our experiences or experiments f o r whlch we grant all
the assumptions are true, we are satisfied. We call such an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a model. In the case of a simple system such as
that for a miniature geometry, the construction o f such models
may be possible, and indeed in more than one way. In a complex
postulate system, such as that needed f o r a l l of Euclidean Geometry,
l o g l c a l l y developed, this may be extremely difficult. If we have
more than one model f o r t h e same system so that we can find a
correspondence connecting every entity and relation of one model
with an e n t i t y and relation of each of the other models, that is,
put t h e models into one-to-one correspondence, we say the models
are isomorphic. We shall do t h i s f o r some of our miniature
geometries. But for more complex geometric systems, we may not
have more than one model. The r e l a t i v e consistency of Euclidean
Geometry is proved (but it is much too difficult for us to do it)
by using arithmetic as a model, and showing it is p o s s i b l e t o put
Euclidean Geometry i n t o one-to-one correspondence with arithmetic
logically developed. Since we have never found a contradiction in
arithmetic, we are content to say Euclidean geometry is as consistent as arithmetic. If we wish to prove that a non-Euclidean
(3)

geometry is r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t , we f i n d a model ( i n t e r p r e t a t i o n )
within Euclidean geometry f o r it and a f t e r that is done (it I s n o t
an easy task and is beyond our i n t e n t ) , we h o w non-Euc1idea.n
geometry is c o n s i s t e n t if Euclidean geometry is. This is n o t the
only way it can be done, for arithmetic (algebraic) rnethrLC.sare
also available.
( 4) Independent e , It may be desirable t o have a l l the
p o s t u l a t e s independent, especially if we are seeking m ~ d e l s By
t h a t we mean t h a t the postulate system i s such that no p o s t u l a t e
can be derived from t h e o t h e r s . The arguments present in (2)
above are again applicable. In a given postulate system, it may
be p o s s i b l e to prove that some of t h e assumptions could be derfved
from o t h e r s , but it may be s o d i f f i c u l t t h a t i t i s a task t o be
avoided. However, it is n o t really difficult to prove: "Two
distinct l i n e s cannot have more than one point in common" from
the assumption: "There i s one and only one l i n e t h a t contains two
d i s t i n c t p o i n t s " . The method of contradiction is used, and thTs
points out the essential importance of t h i s method of proof if we
wish to make good use of o u r assumptions of l o g l c . The independence of all the postulates of a system i s most r e a d i l y found i n
terms of models. If we can f i n d a model that s a t i s f i e s all but
one of t h e postulates and denies that one, then that particular
postulate is independent of the others. If we can do this for
each postulate I n turn, then the postulates form an independent
sys tern.

(5) Completeness : A postulate system f o r Euclidean geometry,

or any other s p e c i a l geometry we wish to discuss, should also be
complete. T h a t is, we must include enough postulates t o prove a l l
t h e theorems we wish to prove. T h i s t o p l c wlll n o t be discussed
in detail here; it is enough to Include a warning n o t to o v e r l o o k
t a c i t asswnptfons as Euclid* and h i s i m i t a t o r s d i d .

---

*See Felix Klein, Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint; Meserve, The Foundations of Geometry, p . 230-231; Wilder,

~ounhationsof ~ a t h a i c s ,Chapter 1, 2.

We illustrate various ideas mentioned above by coneining our

attention to incidence properties alone and make no attempt to
discuss postulates of measure or separation, but do recognize t h a t
parallelism is essentially an fncfdence property. F i r s t we confine
our attention to three types of miniature geometries which contain
only a f i n i t e number af p o i n t s and lines:
I. A three p o i n t - three line geometry; 11. A four point - slx
l f n e geometry; 111. A seven p o i n t - seven line geometry.
After that we illustrate the incidence properties of Hyperb o l i c Geometry by considering t w o models in which the number of
p o i n t s on a l i n e is i n f i n f t e and where we change the Parallel
P o s t u l a t e from ,its usual Euclidean form.

3.

A three p o i n t
--

geometry.
Undefined: p o i n t , line, on.

Concerning these undefined terms, we make the following f o u r

postulates :

PI. There e x i s t three and only three d i s t i n c t p o l n t s .

P2.

On two d i s t i n c t points there is one and only one line.

P3.

Not all p o i n t s are on the same l i n e .

P4.

On t w o d i s t i n c t lines there is at least one p o i n t .

n o t aeem to be any
direct contradiction. The r e l a t i v e consistency of the system is
accepted on the basis of any one of the following three isomorphic
models.
As f a r as consistency is concerned, there does

(a) The usual model of a triangle, consisting

of three non-collinear p o i n t s , but here a l f n e contains only t w o points. The l i n e segments of a more
complete geometry are merely drawn to p o i n t out the
three pairs of p o i n t s . A l i n e is merely a s e t of
t w o p o i n t s . It is easy to observe t h a t Postulates
Pl
P4 are a l l s a t i s f i e d .

A
B

(b) A group of' t h r e e boys f o m i n g committees of two fn a11

p o s s i b l e ways. If the boys are c a l l e d A , B, C, the committees
a r e t h e t h r e e p a i r s ( A,B) , (B,c) , (c,A)
If the p o s t u l a t e s are
read with 'boyt replacing 'pointt, tcomrnitteet replacing 'line1
and 'member o f 1 replacing 'on', with possible changes in language
t o preserve t h e meaning, it is easy to see P1, P2, P3 are
o b v i o u s l y s a t i s f i e d by the way the comrnlttees were formed. A
simple observation of the three committees checks P 4 ,

P o i n t s are interpreted as the s p e c i a l ordered number

triples ( x , ~ , z ) : ~(1,0,0),
8(0,1,0), c ( o , o , ~ ) . Llnes a r e
interpreted as t h e s p e c i a l equations x = 0 , y = 0, z = 0. A
'pointi is 'on1 a l i n e t if its coordinates s a t i s f y the equation
of the line.
P1 f o l l o w s from o u r choice o f coordinates.
P2 must be v e r i f i e d : ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) and ~(0,1,0) are b o t h on
z = 0 but n o t b o t h a r e on x = 0 or y = 0. A similar v e r i fication is needed f o r the other palrs of p o i n t s .
P 3 : The p o i n t ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) does n o t s a t i s f y t h e equation of
t h e line %?, x = 0.
~ 4 :There are three d i s t i n c t p a f r s of lfnes (I) x = 0,
y = 0;
(ti) y = 0, z = 0; (iii)z = 0 , x = 0. It is easy to
v e r i f y t h a t ~(0,0,1), ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) , 3(0,1,0) l i e on the palrs (i) ,
(ii), ( iii) respectively.
We prove t h r e e theorem directly from t h e postulates without
a model. For h e u r i s t i c purposes any one of the models could be
(c)

used

Theorem 1. On two distinct lines there is not more than one

point,

Proof: If two lines had two d i a t i n c t points in common, then

Postulate P2 would be contradicted. Hence Theorem 1 is t r u e ,

Theorem 2.

There e x l s t three and only three lines.

Proof: Since t h e r e a r e t h r e e and only t h r e e p o i n t s ( ~ l ) ,

there are only three pairs of p o i n t s : A , ,
(B,c), (C,A)
Each such pair determines one and only one line ( ~ 2 ) .These
lines are a l l d i s t i n c t ( ~ 3 ) Hence there are three and only

three lines.

Theorem 3 .

Not a l l lines a r e on the same p o i n t .

There are t h r e e and only three llnes ( A , ,

(B,c) ,
(C ,A) , h he or em 2) . The f i r a t and t h i r d are on the p o i n t A , b u t
t h i s point is n o t on the l i n e (B,C) because of P 3 . A similar
argument concerning the p o i n t s B and C completes the p r o o f .
Proof:

Of course all three of these theorems could have been v e r i f i e d

In any model. That Is, we could have taken them as p o s t u l a t e s too,

b u t then the system would not have been an independent one.

To

demonstrate the independence of the o r i g l n a l system P1 - P4 we

use geometric models but either o f the o t h e r models could be used
equally as well. We use the notation P4' to indicate t h a t P4
is denied but PI, P2, P3 are s a t i s f l e d . Slmllar meanings are
given to P3' , P2' , and P I t
The model P 4 + is constructed by
adding a f o u r t h l i n e (denying Theorem 2) In such a way t h a t there
a r e two lines which have no p o l n t in common. This denies ~ 4 ,

canmit t e

three
~ 3 '

but the o t h e r postulates are satisfied. I n t h e model P3' , a l l

three p o i n t s are on the same line and the o t h e r p o s t u l a t e s may be
verified
In the model f2' , there are two lines which contain
b o t h A and B . In terms of the committee interpretation you may
t h i n k of A and B both being on two d i s t i n c t committees, say
t h e Finance Committee and the Custodian Committee. The model f o r
P1' I s not shown here. It must c o n t a l n more than three p o i n t s .

The amallea t such model which w f ll a l s o satisfy the o t h e r axioms

is the model f o r a seven point geometry to be discussed in Section
5. After that model is presented t h e proof of t h e independence of

the system

PI

- ~4

will be complete.

--

4.
A four
peometry. Again polnt, l i n e , and on are
undefhed. To d i s t i n g u i s h the poatulatea from those just used we
use the l e t t e r Q.
Ql.

There exist four and only four d i s t i n c t p o i n t s .

Q2.

On two distinct p o i n t s there is one and only one line.

Q3.

Every l i n e contains two and only two points.

(p2)

Theorem 1. There exist s i x and only six lines.

The number of pairs of points is the number of com-

Proof:

binations of four things taken two at a time,

qC2 = 4 * 3 =

(a)

and t h i s is t h e number of lines (Q2). These lines are a l l dist i n c t , ((23) Hence the theorem is proved.

If we c a l l the points 0, A , B, C, the l l n e s are represented

by the p o i n t pairs ( 0 , ~ ) ;( 0 , ~ ) ; ( 0 , ~ ) ; (A,B);
( A , c ) ; (B,c).

Deffnition.
common.

Two l l n e s are parallel if they have no point in

Note that the word p a r a l l e l l a used In a very special sense.

No concept of a plane ha^ y e t been introduced.

Theorem 2. Through a given point n o t on a given l i n e there

is one and only one line parallel to the given line.

lies on three and only three

(Q
Q2, Q3).
l, If we pick one
of these lines, aay AO, nelther of the rernainlng points, B and
C, can l i e on It (a),and hence the two lines have no point in
common and so are parallel by deflnltion.
Proof: A given point, say A ,
l i n e s and these lines are d i s t i n c t

Several models of this geometry are available.

The two-member
committee model is quite apparent. Each member is on three committ e e s but there is always a unique second committee that can meet
while t h i s member is engaged in committee business.
In order to p r e s e n t geometric models, we imagine the model t o
be embedded in o r d i n a r y Euclidean geometry and then a b s t r a c t from
the diagram those features t h a t are wanted. One such model is that
or a complete quadrangle (a term borrowed f r o m p r o j e c t i v e geometry)
which consists of f o u r points, no t h r e e collinear, and the six
l i n e s which they determine by pairs. Of course you must recognize
t h a t o u r l i n e is only a p o i n t - p a i r .
It is easy t o v e r f f y t h a t
P o s t u l a t e s Q l , Q2, Q3 are all s a t i s f i e d . Models Q 1 8 , Q2', Q3+,
needed to prove the postulates are independent, are more o r less
self-explanatory.

A
QI, Q2,Q3

.@3
4
QI '

S
~ 2 '

43'

Q2l bothers you, think o f It i n terms of a diagram

drawn on a sphere w i t h N and S being the poles, or if you know
something of chemical bonds, t h i n k of it in terms of a double bond
between N and S , and all t h e r e s t as single bonds.
The flgure f o r Q1, Q2, Q3 could be imagined in ordinary
3-space thus forming a tetrahedron. Indeed we could then add
addi tionax pos tulat e s .
Undefined: plane.

If the model

~ 4 . On three points there is one and only one plane,

If we t h i n k e n t i r e l y in terms of plane geometry each of t h e
models already drawn a l s o s a t i s f y Q4.

Q5.

Every plane contains three and only three p o i n t s .

None of t h e models of plane geometry satisfy this axlom,

which, however, l a s a t i s f i e d by the tetrahedron model. That i s ,
t h e t e t r a h e d r o n model satisfies all five postulates Q1 - Q5. It
is p o s s i b l e to present models in 3-space to prove t h e independence
of t h e s e f i v e postulates b u t t h i s will n o t be done here, but the
reader is urged to try h i s hand at it.
Another p r o p e r t y of the tetrahedron model that the reader may
be interested in proving is that it satisfies Incidence Postulates
1, 6, 7 , 8, and Existence Postulate 5 of o u r t e x t .
The committee interpretation of t h f s enlarged system takes
i n t o account three -member committees as we 11 as two -member
committees. Our tetrahedron model is for a f o u r p o i n t - six line
- four plane geometry.
L e t us return to the system Ql, QZ, 83 and i t s two geometric
interpretations and discuss algebraic sys tema isomorphic t o them.
For the complete quadrangle model, we consider points as t h e
s p e c i a l ordered number triples (x,y,z):
~(1,0,0);~(0,1,0);
C(0,0,1);
0 1 , l l ) . As llnes we take the six equations x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0, x = y, y = z, z = x . We say a p o i n t is on a
line if i t s coordinates s a t i s f y the equation of the line.
Ql is s a t i s f i e d by the way coordinates were introduced. It
is now p o s s i b l e t o verify Q2 and Q3. There are s i x pairs of
p o i n t s and it is p o s s i b l e to show that any pair lies on one and
only one l i n e and this l i n e contains neither of the o t h e r p o i n t s .
For example, ~(0,1,0) and c(o,o,~) s a t i s f y the equation x = 0,
but n e i t h e r ~(1,0,0) nor ( 1 1 1 ) do; ~(0,1,0) and 0(1,1,1)
satisfy the equation x = z, but neither of the p o i n t s ~{1,0,0)
or ~(0,0,1) do. Similarly, f o r the f o u r o t h e r palrs
For the tetrahedron model, we consider polnta as the special
ordered number t r i p l e s ( x , y , z ) : ~(1,0,0)
; B(O, 1,0); C(O,O, 1)
and 0(0,0,0). ( ~ o t et h e difference between the two models.) As
the lines we consider the s i x pairs of equations whfch can be
formed from the four equations x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + z = 1.

( ~ h e s eare the equations of the four planes.) Q1 is satisfied by

t h e way c o o r d i n a t e s were introduced, It is now posszble t o v e r i f y
Q2 and Q3. For example, ~(0,1,0) and C(0,0,1) satisfy t h e
two equations x = 0 , x + y + z = I, but both do n o t lie on
elther y = 0 or z = 0 , A similar analysis can be given f o r
every o t h e r pair of p o i n t s . I n t h i s algebraic model, Postulates
&4 and Q5 a l s o m y be v e r i f i e d .
A seven p o i n t geometry. As mentioned e a r l i e r t h i s geometry
5. is one t h a t denies t h e existence of only three p o i n t s b u t s a t i s f i e s
P2, P 3 , P 4 o f the three-point geometry. We pepeat these
p o s t u l a t e s for convenience o f reference. The essential distinction
between t h i s geometry and those already discussed 1s t h a t every
l i n e contains t h r e e and only three p o i n t s . It is necessary to
i n c l u d e a p o s t u l a t e which guarantees there is a t l e a s t one line.

Undefined:

point, l i n e ,

on.

P2.

On two d i s t i n c t p o i n t s t h e r e is one and only one line.

P3.

Not all p o i n t s a r e on t h e same l l n e ,

P4.

On two d i s t i n c t lines there is at least one p o i n t .

P5.

There exists at least one l i n e .

~ 6 .Every line is on at least three p o i n t s .

P7. No line is on more than three p o i n t s .

Of course ~6 and P7 could be p u t together t o say: Every
lLne is on three and only t h r e e p o i n t s .
We construct a s p e c i a l model f o r t h i s p o s t u l a t e system by
s e l e c t i n g seven d i s t i n c t p o i n t s , which we c a l l A , B, C, D, E, F,
G. We d e f i n e seven and only seven l i n e s , a, b, c, a, e, f , g,
each beLng a s e t of three p o f n t s , by means of t h e following t a b l e .
A

It is n o t o u r purpose to d i s c u s s the many theorems that can

be proved from t h i s p o s t u l a t e system, b u t to p o i n t out several
interpretations of it. It may b o t h e r you a b i t to call (D,E,F)
a l i n e , but it is a line by definition j u s t as much as t h e t r i p l e
(A,B,F) is a line. Of course t h i s geometry is n o t l i k e the
Euclidean geometry o f your experience -- it is a f i n i t e projective
.geometry where we have considered only incidence p r o p e r t i e s . However, its interpretation as a group of seven persons and seven
committees of t h r e e and only three members is also available.
Since we set up the model by d e f l n i t i o n (committee aspect) and
then drew a diagram t o correspond, we must verify all the Postulates
P2 t o P7. This may be long in detail but it is n o t difficult.
7 ' 6 ) and 21 pairs of
-2lines, but an examination of the table shows t h a t each row contains
each letter once and only once, and each l e t t e r is in three and
only three c o l m s , and t h i s will simplify the d e t a i l s . It is
merely time consuming t o v e r i f y all the postulates; t h e s e p o s t u l a t e s
a r e a11 satisfied in the geometric model. To v e r i f y P 4 , for
example, from the table, it Is necessary t o consider 21 p a i r s of
lines, and indeed it is e a s y t o v e r i f y n o t o n l y t h a t each p a i r has
a p o i n t in common ( t h e r e are no pairs of parallel lines) but only
one p o i n t in common,
The r e s u l t s can be t a b u l a t e d as follows
There are

21

( C

p a i r s of p o i n t s

7 2

Not only may we v e r i f y P2 - P7 in t h i s way, but a l s o t h e dual o f

each of these statements
The dual is o b t a i n e d by interchanging
the words p o i n t and l i n e wherever they appear. For example,
the dual statement to ~6 and P 7 comblned would read:

~ 6 7, .

Every p o i n t is on three and only three l i n e s

This is easlly verif Led from the defining table.

The algebraic Isomorphism f o r t h i s geometry consists of the

following aas1g;nments of coordinates t o p o i n t s and equations t o
lines :

A l l the postulates could be verified purely algebraically.

For example, D(O,L,I) and ~ 1 , both

)
l i e on t h e llne
x I- y + z = 2, but not both are on any o t h e r line. T h e l i n e
x = y contains the three points ~(0,0,1), (
1
1 F(I,I,O)
but no o t h e r p o i n t . This is enough t o give the general idea.
Models f o-r a hyperbolic geometry. In order t o dFscuss
such a model, it w i l l be embedded in a Euclidean plane. Hence we
assume that the postulates of Euclidean geometry a s s t a t e d in the
text have been made and Euclidean geometry has been developed. We
will use the terms point, line, plane, and c i r c l e as developed in
such a treatment. The corresponding words placed in quotes will
stand Sor entities In a new geometry, and will be defined by means
of Euclidean t e r n . In t h i s way we w i l l obtain models t o i l l u s trate some of the incidence p r o p e r t i e s of hyperbolic geometry.
The f i r s t model is oft e n called a p r o j e c t i v e model, b u t the
explanation of the term is beyond our present means. Consider a
circle. W
e define a "point" o f our new
geometry to be a point in t h e i n t e r i o r of'
the c i r c l e ; a "line" is a chord of t h i s
c i r c l e without i t s end-points ; the "plane"
is the i n t e r i o r o f the c i r c l e . It is easy
t o observe that two " l i n e s " may o r may not
i n t e r s e c t . If two chords of the c i r c l e
i n t e r s e c t on the c i r c l e , we say that the corresponding " l i n e s " a r e
"parallel". Note that t h e r e is a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n between two
It
lines" being t t p a r a l l e l " and two " l i n e s t t not intersecting, It is

6.

also easy to observe that through a given "point" P, there are

exactly two " l i n e s " , PA and
which are "parallel" to the
tt
l i n e t t AB, and that t h e r e are an i n f i n i t e number of "lines"

z,

t h a t do not intersect the "line" AB.

In the above model length and angular measure are distorted,
and a study of p r o j e c t i v e geometry is needed t o discuss t h e model.
There is a model, called P o i n c a i r e t s Universe, where length is
distorted but angular measure is n o t (but no proof i s intended).
To understand this model some knowledge of orthogonal c i r c l e s i n
Euclidean ~ e o m e t r yis required, and the corresponding theorems are
n o t usually presented In an introductory c r u r s e In plane geometry.
We state the necessary d e f i n i t i o n s
and theorems ( w i t h o u t proof) ,
Two c i r c l e s are orthogonal If
their angle of intersection is a
right angle. By the angle of i n t e r section of two circles we mean the
angle between the tangent lines
drawn at a common p o i n t .
Through two p o i n t s there is one and o n l y one c i r c l e ( o r line)
orthogonal to a given c i r c l e .
In the Poincaire model, a "point" is again a point inside a
gfven circle C, and the "plane1' is the set of all points in the
I n t e r i o r of the circle. A "line" is either a diameter of the
c i r c l e C , without i t s end-points, or that part o f a circle o r t h o gonal t o t h e c i r c l e C which lies inslde C. We note, therefore,
that through two "points" there is one and only one "line". Two
It
lines" are said to be "parallel" if their corresponding diameters
o r c i r c l e s i n t e r s e c t on C. It I s again easy to observe that
n
through a given "point" P, there are t w o " l i n e s " PA and
which are "parallel" t o the "line" ,
and that there are an
infinite number of "lines" through f t h a t do n o t i n t e r s e c t the
One more idea may be observed i n t h i s diagram (based
"llne"
on t h e assumption that angular measure is n o t d i s t o r t e d ) .
through

s,

tf

The sum of the measures of the "angles" of a " t r i a n g l e n

such as A PQR o r A APB is less than 180.''
A more detailed study o f the geometry of the circle in t h e
Euclidean plane, including a study of the concept of c r o s s - r a t i o
1s needed to carry the discussion Further. Some further results
and suggestions o r indications of ideas that m i g h t be investigated
can be found in Eves and Newson, Introduction to FoundatLons and
Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics.

It is p o s s i b l e to develop the t h e o r y of area, as f a r as we

need i t , from a very simple set of p o s t u l a t e s , which a r e intuitivel y acceptable. In some r e s p e c t they are more intuitive than thk
ones given in the t e x t , being simpler to state and r e q u i r i n g fewer
preliminary d e f i n i t i o n s . For example, it is not necessary to define
polygonal region in order t o s t a t e the p o s t u l a t e s . It is s a t i s f y i n g
that t h i s is one of t h e many cases In mathematics in which i n t u i t i o n
and r i g o r go hand in hand. We shall sketch t h i s development a t
least up t o t h e point where i t is clear t h a t w e could proceed as in
the text, by deriving as theorems the postulates of the t e x t which
are n o t a l r e a d y included i n our s e t . Some of the early theorems
may appear obvious and hardly worth proving; b u t if we recognize
the f a c t t h a t postulate systems a r e constructed by fallible h m n s
and need to be tested by t h e i r consequences, then we should derive
s a t i s f a c t i o n from the p r o v a b i l i t y of some "obvious" statements by
means a f o u r pos tulate sys tern.
We always speak of the area of something, and t h l s something
fs a region or a figure -- which are slmply names for c e r t a i n sets
of points in a plane. Thus, area is a function of s e t s , an assignment of a unique real number to a s e t . Whenever we speak of a
function, it is important to be quite c l e a r as to the domaln of the
f u n c t i o n , t h a t i s , the s e t of objects f o r whfch the functlon provides us with an answer. In o u r c a s e , we must ask, what s e t s are
to have an area assigned to them? We could limit ourselves, if we
wished, to simple s e t s , like polygonal regions. This has the d i s advantage t h a t it elminates regions bounded by circles, e l l i p s e s ,
hyperbolas, and other smooth curves, regions whlch (our i n t u i t i o n
t e l l s us) should have a r e a s . O f course, we do n o t want huge sets
like the whole plane, or half-planes, or the interiors of angles,
t o have area. These all have the property of being unbounded.
Fortunately, it can be proved that it is possible to assign a
reasonable area t o every reasonable s e t in the p l a n e . The f i r s t

II

reasonablet1 means that t h e area f u n c t i o n will not v i o l a t e o u r

I n t u i t i o n . The second "reasonable" we s h a l l i n t e r p r e t in the
widest p o s s i b l e sense, namely, as "bounded". A bounded s e t is one
that can b e enclosed in some square ( o r circle). We shall t h e r e f o r e adopt as our f i r s t area postulate the following:

Postulate A 1
There is a function A ( c a l l e d area) defined
for all bounded sets In t h e plane; t o each bounded s e t S, A
assigns a unique non-negative number A ( S )

L e t us observe immediately t h a t a p o i n t and a segment are

bounded sets, so we have committed ourselves to the unfamiliar

positlon of a t t r i b u t i n g an area t o such s e t s . The area will turn

o u t t o be zero, of course. There a r e excellent precedents: l e t
us recall that we have allowed ourselves t o speak o f the d i s t a n c e
from a p o i n t t o i t s e l f as being zero. Analogously, in the theory
of probability it is u s e f u l t o have events w i t h zero probability,
even though the events a r e p o s s i b l e . Indeed, the t h e o r i e s o f
l i n e a r measure, area, volume, probability, and c o u n t i n g all have
a g r e a t deal in common, since they arc concerned with a s s i g n i n g
measures t o v a r i o u s s e t s . Far from being a disadvantage, t h e
concept of zero area is extremely valuable. It makes explicit
o u r sound intuition of what s e t s are "negligible" as f a r as area
1s concerned. For example, the A r e a Addition P o s t u l a t e I n the
text ( P o s t u l a t e 19) essentially a s s e r t s t h a t the area o f t h e union
of t w o s e t s is equal to the sum of their areas, provided t h a t they
o v e r l a p in a " n e g l i g i b l e " s e t -- a f i n i t e union of p o i n t s a d
segments. It is somewhat e a s i e r t o accept an Area Addition
P o s t u l a t e in which t h e "negligible" s e t is the empty s e t , as in
Postulate A2 t h a t follows, and to prove later that c e r t a i n s e t s
r e a l l y are " n e g l i g i b l e t t .

Postulate A 2 , If S and T are bounded s e t s in the plane

which have no p o i n t s in common, then t n e area of t h e union of S
and T is equal to the sum of the a r e a s . T h a t is, if V is the
union o f S and T, then A ( V ) = A ( S ) + A(T)

We have already remarked that P o s t u l a t e A 2 is weaker in one

respect than the Area Addition P o s t u l a t e in t h e t e x t , for it does
not allow even one p o i n t i n common to the s e t s S and T. Observe
also that Postulate A 2 does not need t o assert the existence of
A ( v ) . This is in f a c t a simple consequence of P o s t u l a t e A l , f o r
the union of two bounded s e t s is a l s o bounded.
Our t h i r d postulate will give the essential connection between
our geometry and area. For thia we need a somewhat mope general
concept of congruence than the usual one. Two s e t s will be called
c o n p e n t if there is a one-to-one correspondence between them
which preserves a l l distances. More precisely, suppose there is a
one-to-one correspondence between S and T such t h a t , A and
B being any p o i n t s of S corresponding to A ' and 3' in T,
the distance
is equal to the distance A 7 B r Then we shall
aay that S is congruent to T, or S
T. Our d e f i n i t i o n s of
congruence for segments, angles, t r i a n g l e s , and circles are s p e c i a l
cases of t h i s more general d e f i n i t i o n . For a fuller treatment, see
the Appendix on Rigid Motion and t h e Talk on Congruence. If our
area function is to be reasonable, then congruent sets should have
t h e same area:

Postulate A 3 .
A(S)

If S

is a bounded s e t and

= T,

then

ACT).

Again, it is easy to see I n t u i t i v e l y that if

and S
A1

T,

then T

is bounded, and

S is bounded
A (T) exists by Postulate

Now let us consider the area of a square of a i d e 1 together

with its interior. For all we know from the f i r a t three postulates,
thia area might be 0. This does violence to our Intuition, and
even more, we could then prove t h a t every bounded s e t has area 0.
Therefore we must postulate t h a t t h i s area is p o s i t i v e , say equal

to k.

But then the new area function defined by

A'

(s)

rI ; ~ ( ~ )

would be just as good as the o l d and would have the desirable

property t h a t it assigns the value 1 t o the u n l t square and its
interior. We shall therefore postulate t h i a imediately:

P o s t u l a t e A 4 . If S is the set consisting o f a s q u a r e of

s l d e 1 t o g e t h e r w i t h its i n t e r i o r , then A ( S ) = 1.
T h i s postulate essentially does no more than (a) rule out
the trlvial case of a constantly zero area function, and ( b ) fix
the unlt by which we measure t h e area of a s e t . We can thlnk of
I t as a normalization postulate, and shall speak of our area
function as being normalized.
Summing up our f o u r p o s t u l a t e s -- these a r e a l l we need -- we
see t h a t we have a non-negative (Postulate ~ l ) , f i n i t e l y - a d d i t i v e
( p o s t u l a t e ~ 2 ,) normalized ( P O S t u l a t e ~ 4 f) u n c t i o n of bounded s e t s
in the plane (postulate A l ) , invariant under r i g i d motlon (or
congruence) (postulate ~ 3 ) . The term "finitely-additive" refers
to the fact that we can easily replace the two s e t s in P o s t u l a t e
A 2 by any finite number of s e t s , no t w o of whlch have a p o i n t in
common.
A t the beginning of t h i s talk, we s t a t e d t h a t !.t is p o s s i b l e t o
asslgn a reasonable area to every reasonable s e t in the plane.
T h i s theorem, a s s e r t i n g t h e existence of such a function, is
rather deep and d i f f i c u l t t o prove. Nevertheless, it provides us
with a sound basis f o r a treatment o f a r e a in the plane, The s e t
of four postulates matches our i n t u i t i o n quite well, e s p e c i a l l y
if we have n o t subjected to close scrutiny the v a s t generality
involved in the phrase "all bounded sets in the planet1. It should
be remarked t h a t t h e theorem does n o t guarantee a unique f u n c t i o n ,
b u t any t w o functions that s a t i s f y the conditions will agree for
decent, non-pathological s e t s such as polygonal regions, c i r c u l a r
regions, and regions bounded by arcs of smooth curves like p a r a b o l a s ,
hyperbolas, e l l i p s e s , e l c .
It would be pleasant if this treatment could be generalized
to volume in three dimensions
Surprisingly, the corresponding
statement in t h r e e dimensions is f a l s e , One form of t h e BanachT a r s k i Paradox z s s e r t s that it is p o s s i b l e to s p l i t each of two
spheres of different r a d i i into t h e same f i n i t e number of s e t s ,
corresponding s e t s from each sphere being congruent. If t h e t h r e e dimensional statement were t r u e , the corresponding s e t s would have

equal volumes, by t h e invariance under congruence, and t h e r e f o r e

the spheres would have equal volume, by the finite-additivity of
volume. On the o t h e r hand, t h e usual formula for t h e volume of a
sphere would be v a l i d , thus leading to a contradiction. In threedimensions, therefore, I t is necessary to limit our volume functlon
t o a more r e s t r i c t e d c l a s s o f sets than the bounded ones, T h i s
res t r l c t i o n i a no cause f o r alarm, since the resulting domain of
the volume function Is still much wider than we need for ordinary
purposes. The s e t s t h a t we exclude a r e a l l really "wild", With
t h i s one modification t h e methods used here a r e s t i l l applicable
in three -dimensions
Now we shall proceed w i t h the business of developing the consequences of o u r set o f postulates. These consequences we shall
s t a t e as theorems, F i r s t , however, we need a simple r e s u l t which
has nothing directly to do with area, but which is a basic property
of o u r r e a l number system.

Theorem 1. If a is a non-negative number such t h a t f o r

every p o s i t i v e integer number n, na 5 1, then a = 0 .

The statement may seem a l i t t l e s t r a n g e , but I t is s p e c i f i c a l l y designed t o y i e l d the type of result needed, namely that a
certain number is 0. For example, suppose t h a t we wish to prove
that a certain formula ylelds t h e c o r r e c t value f o r the area of a
given f i g u r e . Let t h e area be A and the number given by the
formula be B. Denote by a the absolute v a l u e o f t h e i r d i f f e r ence, (A-BI.
Then we wish to prove that a = 0 . We may be a b l e
to show t h a t no multlple of a exceeds 1. If so, then Theorem 1
assures us that a = 0 and therefore that A = B. Another way of
stating Theorem 1 is: There is no positive number which I s simul1
1
taneously < 1, q,
3,
,1
. S t i l l another way is: Every
p o s i t i v e real number is less than some p o s i t i v e integer. If we
regard t h i s l a s t statement as being a mown property of real
numbers, then t h e proof o f Theorem 1 is q u i t e easy. Suppose,
indeed, t h a t a s a t i s f les t h e hypotheses of t h e theorem, but
1 is a p o s i t i v e number, and there Is a p o s i t i v e
that a > 0. Then a

...

1
Integer n such that a
< n, by what we have j u s t said, For
t h i s n, 1 < na, contradicting the hypothesis na ( 1. Therefore
the assumption a > 0 is f a l s e . Since a > 0 or a = 0 by
hypothesis, and the first is f a l s e , the second must be true.
We can now prove some r a t h e r obvious r e s u l t s which are usually
assumed Implicitly in c u t o r n a r y treatments. They a r e , in fact,
somewhat less obvious than some of the theorems t h a t Euclid took
the trouble to prove ( e . g . , the theorem t h a t v e r t i c a l angles a r e
congruent). It is interesting to contemplate what the situation
m i g h t have been if Euclid had decided t h a t these were worthy of
statement and p r o o f . Perhaps school boys f o r centuries would
have studied and proved:

Theorem 2.

The area of a p o i n t I s

0.

Proof: Let S be a unit square plus Its i n t e r i o r . By

P o s t u l a t e A 4 , A($) = 1. L e t n be an arbitrary positive i n t e g e r ,
and choose n points PI, P2,
., Pn i n S. I f T I s t h e
s e t ( p l J , . , P , then by Postulate A 2 (rather, by the
generalization of Postulate A2 t o n disjoint s e t s ) , we have
A ( T ) = A ( P ~ ) + A(P*) +
+ A(P,).
Now any two one-pain+. a e t s

..

. ..

...

are congruent, so by Postulate A 3 , A ( P ~ )= A(P2) =

= A(P,).
and A(T) = ~ A ( P ~ ) . Let R be a l l of S except f o r the p o i n t s
of T. Then R and T have no p o i n t s in common and their union
i a S . By P o s t u l a t e A 2 ,
A ( T ) + AIR)
= A@].
By Postulate A l , A(R) 2 0. Therefore-

I A(S) *

Substituting 1

for

A(T)
A(S)
and

4
In 'Ihearem 1, we may take
by Postulate A l .

Therefore
every p o i n t is congruent to
Po8 tulate A 3 .

~ A ( P ~ f) o r

( 1.
~

A(T),

we g e t

a = A ( P ~ ) , since

A ( P ~ ) Is non-negative
t h a t is, A ( P ~ )= 0. Since

a = 0,
P, A(P) = 0

for every p o i n t

P,

Observe that in the proof of Theorem 2, we proved and made

use of a s p e c i a l case of:

by

If T

Theorem 3.

is a subset of t h e bounded s e t

S,

then

A(S)

The proof may be l e f t to the reader.

Now we s t a t e a useful theorem which Is similar to Postulate A2,
but which has a weaker hypothesis.
Theorem 4. If S and T a r e bounded s e t s , V is t h e union
of S and T, and I is the intersection of S and T, then
A(V) = A ( S ) + A(T)
A(I).

Proof:

Let

be the p a r t of S n o t In T. Then t h e
1 1s S , and S 1 and I a r e d i s j o i n t . By

S1

union of S T and
P o s t u l a t e A2,

~ ( s )= A(s~)+ ~ ( 1 ) .
A l s ~ ,the union of

disjoint.

S1

and
By P o s t u l a t e A2,
A(V) =

T is V,
A(S)

and

St

and

are

A(T).

Therefore

A(V) = A ( S )
= A(S)

Theorem 5 .
union, then

If

and
A{V)

A(I)

-I- A ( T )

A(T)

- ~(1).

T are bounded s e t s and V

A ( S ) -F A ( T ) .

The proof f o l l o w s from Theorem 4 on observing t h a t

b y Postulate A1

is t h e i r

~ ( 12
) 0,

Theorem 6. If S1, Sg,

is t h e i r union, then
A(V)

A(S,)

...,

+ A(s,)

are bounded s e t s and V

S,
t

... + ~ ( s , ) .

The proof follows from Theorem 5 by induction.

Next, we prove another "obvious'I theorem.

Theorem

7.

Proof:

Let

The area of a segment is

BC

0.

be a given segment, of l e n g t h

a natural number m such that

m.

k.

There is

-*

On the ray BC,

let D be the point such t h a t BD = m. To prove t h a t A(BC) = 0

it is sufficient to show that
= 0, by Postulate A 1 and
Theorem 3 . Now
is the union of rn segments S1,
., S,
of length 1. These segments are not d i s j o i n t , but we c a n still
apply Theorem 6 t o get

~[m)

..

~(5)
)l A@,)
+ ... + n(s,)

since

...,

MslL

are all congruent. Therefore it I s s u f f i c i e n t

Lo show bhat a se-etlt
of length 1 has area 0. The proof of t h i s
proceeds as In Theorem 2, by f i t t i n g an arbitrary number n of
disjoint unit segnents w i t h i n a unit square. We omit t h e details.
We are now in a position t o prove that the boundary of a polygonal region (defined in Chapter 11) has no influence on its area.

Sl,

S,

Theorem 8. L e t R be a polygonal region and let R t be the

a m region with a l l or part of the boundary removed. Then
A(R')

= A(R)

Proof: L e t Ro be t h e region
removed, Then Ro is contained in
R. Therefore
(Am'

w i t h all of the boundary

R
Rt

and

Rt

is contained in

1(

It Is sufficient to show that A(%) = A ( R ) . k t

B be the boundary, consisting of a f i n i t e number of segments. By
an a p p l i c a t i o n of Theorem 6 , Theorem 7 , and Postulate Al, we find
t h a t A(B) = 0. But R I s the union of the d i s j o i n t s e t s Ro
and B, so
by Theorem 3.

A(R) = A(RJ

+ A(@

= A(R~),

and the proof is complete.

Postulate 19 of the t e x t now follows readily, since the overl a p of the two regions RI and R2 consists of a finite number of
p o i n t s and s e p e n t a , and the area of the overlap is 0. We s t a t e
Postulate 19 as a theorem, but omit the p r o o f .
Theorem 9 ,

Suppose that the polygonal region R 3.3 the union

of t w o polygonal regions R1 and R2, which i n t e r s e c t a t most in
a f i n i t e number of segments and points. Then A(R) = A ( R ~ ) + A ( R ~ ).

Now consider a rectangle R

are aiming at a proof that A(R)
the t e x t .

of base b and altitude a . We

= ab,
t h i s being P o s t u l a t e 20 of

and

Choose am arbitrary p o s i t i v e integer n, and determine

q , also p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s , by the conditions

S t a r t i n g a t K, l a y o f f p segments of l e n g t h 1 a l o n g ray KL
and q segments of length 1 along ray -+
KN. Then L I s on the
+
+
p - t h segment on KL and N is on the q-th segment on KPI.
The rectangular region R is now enclosed between two rectangular
regions S and T, where S has dimensions
and
n
T has dimensions
and
Therefore

u,

2,

I
A(R) 5

A(T)

NOW S c o n ~ i s t sof ( - 1 ) - 1) square regions of side ,;1

1
and T c o n s i s t s o f pq square regions of side .
If the area
of one of these square regions is A,,
then
A@)

= (P

- l)(q

1)A,,

= PW,,
SO

<

(P - l l ( q - l ) ~ , A(R) ( pqAn*
It remains to compute ,A
and then A ( R ) . But a u n l t square,
2
1
whose area is 1, can be s p l i t up i n t o n
squares of aide E,
2
1 = n An,
1

Therefore

(P -

l)h -

1)

-2 (

Now, f r o m the conditions dete&ing

( Pq

1
3%.

and

q.

both l i e in the interval

w i t h end-points
, n
2.9,
s o the a b s o l u t e v a l u e of
n n
their difference is at most equal t o the length of the i n t e r v a l :

The two fixed numbers A I R )

and

ab

q
n

b and
is appmxlmately 5

Since

a
is approximately n,

1
the r i g h t a i d e Is approximately E(a
+ b ) , which is very small If
n is l a r g e . A n application of Theorem I to the fixed non-negative
number

would then yield t h a t this number is

* .

make t h i s argument p r e c i s e , choose

1 < b.
n -

<

Then

and

<

so large that

0,

To
and

implies that

irnpllea that

Therefore

Combining t h i s with our previous inequality, we g e t

f o r a l l sufficiently large p o s i t i v e integers

for all n. By Theorem 1,

is 0, so

A ( R ) = ab.

n,

and t h e r e f o r e

This completes the proof of:

Theorem 10. The area of a rectangle is the product of i t s

base and altitude.
We have now reached o u r goal of' establishing Postulates 17-20
of t h e t e x t from o m system of Postulates A1-Ah.
Thfs may n o t
seem l i k e a great accompli-shment if we are i n t e r e s b e d in polygonal
regions only, but it p e r n i t s t h e e v a l u a t i o n of areas of other reglons without the necessity of making ad hoc e x t e n s i o n s of the
domain of the area function at a l a t e r stage. It provides us w i t h
an excellent example o f the power of deductive reasoning. Finally,
the transition from here t o the i n t e g r a l calculus is a smooth and
natural m e , For example, the calculation of t h e area under the
curve y = x n , f o r a l l i n t e g e r s n (including n = -1) can be
carried out on t h e basis of t h i s development, without any reference
to the d i f s e r e n t l a l calculus.