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History of Denmark
History of
Scandinavia
Stone Age
Bronze Age
Barbarian Invasions
Viking Age
Christianization
Kalmar Union
Monetary Union
Defence Union
Nordic Council
The history of Denmark dates back about 12,000 years, to the end of the last ice age, with the earliest evidence of
human inhabitation. The Danes were first documented in written sources around 500 AD, including in the writings of
Jordanes and Procopius. With the Christianization of the Danes c. 960 AD, it is clear that there existed a kingship in
Scandinavia which controlled roughly the current Danish territory. Queen Margrethe II can trace her lineage back to
the Viking kings Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth from this time, making the Monarchy of Denmark the oldest in
Europe.[1]
Denmark's history has particularly been influenced by its geographical location between the North and Baltic seas.
This meant that it was between Sweden and Germany and thus at the center of the mutual struggle for control of the
Baltic Sea (dominium maris baltici). Denmark was long in disputes with Sweden over control of Sknelandene
(Scanian War) and Norway, and in disputes with the Hanseatic League over the duchies of Schleswig (a Danish fief)
and Holstein (a German fief).
Eventually Denmark lost the conflicts and ended up ceding first Sknelandene to Sweden and later
Schleswig-Holstein to the German Empire. After the eventual cession of Norway in 1814, Denmark retained control
of the old Norwegian colonies of the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Iceland. During the 20th century Iceland gained
independence, Greenland and the Faroese became integral parts of the Kingdom of Denmark and North Schleswig
reunited with Denmark in 1920 after a referendum. During World War II Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany
and liberated in 1945, after which it joined the United Nations.
History of Denmark
Prehistoric Denmark
Stone and Bronze Age
The Weichsel glaciation covered all of Denmark, except the western coasts of Jutland. It ended around 13,000 years
ago allowing humans to move back into the previously ice-covered territories and establish permanent habitation.
During the first post-glacial millennia the landscape gradually changed from tundra to light forest and a varied fauna
including now extinct Megafauna appeared. Early pre-historic cultures uncovered in modern Denmark include the
Maglemosian Culture (9500-6000 BCE); the Kongemose culture (6000-5200 BCE); the Erteblle culture
(5300-3950 BCE); and the Funnelbeaker culture (4100-2800 BCE).
The first inhabitants of this early post-glacial landscape in the so-called Boreal period, were very small and scattered
populations living from hunting of reindeer and other land mammals and gathering whatever fruits the climate was
able to offer. Around 8300 BC the temperature rose drastically, now with summer temperatures around 15 degrees,
and the landscape changed into dense forests of aspen, birch and pine and the reindeer moved north, while aurochs
and elk arrived from the south. With a continuing rise in temperature the oak, elm and hazel arrived in Denmark
around 7000 BC. Now boar, red deer, and roe also began to abound.[2]
A burial from Bgebakken at Vedbk dates to ca. 6000 BC and contains 22 persons - including four newborns and
one toddler. Eight of the 22 had died before reaching 20 years of age - testifying to the hardness of hunter-gatherer
life in the cold north.[3] Based on estimates of the amount of game animals scholars estimate the population of
Denmark to have been between 3,300-8,000 persons in the time around 7000 BC.[4] It is believed that the early
hunter-gatherers lived nomadically, exploiting different environments at different times of the year, gradually
shifting to the use of semi permanent base camps.[5]
With the rising temperatures sea levels also rose, so
that in the Atlantic period Denmark, which had been a
contiguous landmass around 11000 BC, by 4500 BC
was a series of islands. Humans then shifted to a
seafood based diet, which allowed the population to
increase.
Agricultural settlers made inroads around 3000 BC.
The Nordic Bronze Age period in Denmark featured a
culture which buried its dead, with their worldly goods,
beneath burial mounds. Many dolmens and rock tombs
(especially passage graves) date from this period. The
many finds of bronze from this era include beautiful
religious artifacts and musical instruments, and provide
the earliest evidence of social classes and stratification.
History of Denmark
During the Pre-Roman Iron Age (from the 4th to the 1st century BC), the climate in Denmark and southern
Scandinavia became cooler and wetter, limiting agriculture and setting the stage for local groups to migrate
southward into Germania. At around this time people began to extract iron from the ore in peat-bogs. Evidence of
strong Celtic cultural influence dates from this period in Denmark and in much of northwest Europe, and survives in
some of the older place-names.
The Roman provinces, whose frontiers stopped short of Denmark, nevertheless maintained trade-routes and relations
with Danish or proto-Danish peoples, as attested by finds of Roman coins. The earliest-known runic inscription dates
back to ca. 200 literacy as well probably came from the south. Depletion of cultivated land in the last century BC
seems to have contributed to increasing migrations in northern Europe and increasing conflict between Teutonic
tribes and Roman settlements in Gaul. Roman artifacts are especially common in finds from the 1st century. It seems
clear that some part of the Danish warrior-aristocracy served in the Roman army.[6]
Occasionally during this time, killings occurred and bodies were thrown into bogs. In recent times[7] some of these
bog bodies have emerged very well preserved, providing valuable information about the people who lived in
Denmark during this period.
Middle Ages
Earliest literary sources
In his description of Scandza (from the 6th century
work, Getica), the ancient writer Jordanes says that the
Dani were of the same stock as the Suetidi (Swedes,
Suithiod?) and expelled the Heruli and took their
lands.[8]
The Old English poems Widsith and Beowulf, as well as
works by later Scandinavian writers notably by
Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1200) provide some of the
earliest references to Danes.
Viking Age
The Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.
History of Denmark
In the early 9th century, Charlemagne's Christian empire had expanded to the southern border of the Danes, and
Frankish sources (e.g. Notker of St Gall) provide the earliest historical evidence of the Danes. These report a King
Gudfred, who appeared in present day Holstein with a navy in 804 where diplomacy took place with the Franks; In
808, King Gudfred attacked the Obotrite and conquered the city of Reric whose population was displaced or
abducted to Hedeby. In 809, King Godfred and emissaries of Charlemagne failed to negotiate peace, despite the
sister of Godfred being a concubine of Charlemagne, and the next year King Godfred attacked the Frisians with 200
ships.
Viking raids along the coast of France and
the Netherlands were large-scale. Paris was
besieged and the Loire Valley devastated
during the 10th century. One group of Danes
were granted permission to settle in
northwestern France under the condition
that they defend the place from future
attacks. As a result, the region became
known as "Normandy" and it was the
descendants of these settlers who conquered
England in 1066.
In addition, the Danes and Norwegians
moved west into the Atlantic Ocean, settling
on Iceland, Greenland, and the Shetland
Isles. Brief Vikings expeditions to North
America around 1000 did not result in any
settlements and they were soon driven off
by natives. Other Viking raids into Germany
and the Mediterranean were short-lived and
had no lasting effect.
The oldest parts of the defensive works of Danevirke near Hedeby at least date from the summer of 755 and were
expanded with large works in the 10th century. The size and amount of troops needed to man it indicates a quite
powerful ruler in the area, which might be consistent with the kings of the Frankish sources. In 815 AD, Emperor
History of Denmark
Louis the Pious attacked Jutland apparently in support of a contender to the throne, perhaps Harald Klak, but was
turned back by the sons of Godfred, who most likely were the sons of the above mentioned Godfred. At the same
time St. Ansgar travelled to Hedeby and started the Catholic Christianisation of Scandinavia.
The Danes were united and officially Christianized in 965 AD by Harald Bluetooth (see below), the story of which is
recorded on the Jelling stones. The extent of Harald's Danish Kingdom is unknown, although it is reasonable to
believe that it stretched from the defensive line of Dannevirke, including the Viking city of Hedeby, across Jutland,
the Danish isles and into southern present day Sweden; Scania and perhaps Halland and Blekinge. Furthermore, the
Jelling stones attest that Harald had also "won" Norway.[9]
In retaliation for the St. Brice's Day massacre of Danes in England, the son of Harald, Sweyn Forkbeard mounted a
series of wars of conquest against England. By 1014, England had completely submitted to the Danes. However,
distance and a lack of common interests prevented a lasting union, and Harald's son Cnut the Great barely
maintained the link between the two countries, which completely broke up during the reign of his son Hardecanute.
A final attempt by the Norwegians to reconquer England failed, but did pave the way for William the Conqueror's
takeover in 1066.[9]
Following the death of Canute the Great, Denmark and England were left divided and despite some attempts (see
below) were never reunited.
Canute thanked the Norwegians for their patience and then went from assembly to assembly (Danish:landsting)
outlawing any sailor, captain or soldier who refused to pay a fine which amounted to more than a years harvest for
most farmers. Canute and his housecarls fled south with a growing army of rebels on his heels. Canute fled to the
royal property outside the town of Odense on Funen with his two brothers. After several attempts to break in and
then bloody hand to hand fighting in the church, Benedict was cut down and Canute struck in the head by a large
stone and then speared from the front. He died at the base of the main altar 10 July 1086, where he was buried by the
Benedictines. When Queen Edele came to take Canute's body to Flanders, a light allegedly shone around the church
and it was taken as a sign that Canute should remain where he was.[citation needed]
The death of St. Canute marks the end of the Viking Age. Never again would massive flotillas of Scandinavians
meet each year to ravage the rest of Christian Europe.
Often regarded as Denmark's "birth certificate", the large Jelling Stone announces the unification and Christinization of Denmark by Harald
Bluetooth c. 980
History of Denmark
England broke away from Danish control in 1035 and Denmark fell into disarray for some time. Sweyn Estridsen's
son, Canute IV, raided England for the last time in 1085. He planned another invasion to take the throne of England
from an aging William I. He called up a fleet of 1,000 Danish ships, 60 Norwegian long boats, with plans to meet
with another 600 ships under Duke Robert of Flanders in the summer of 1086.
Canute, however, was beginning to realise that the imposition of the tithe on Danish peasants and nobles to fund the
expansion of monasteries and churches and a new head tax (Danish:nefgjald) had brought his people to the verge of
rebellion. Canute took weeks to arrive at Struer where the fleet had assembled, but he found only the Norwegians
still there. Canute's nephew Sweyn Estridson (102074) re-established strong royal Danish authority and built a
good relationship with Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen at that time the Archbishop of all of
Scandinavia.
In the early 12th century Denmark became the seat of an independent church province of Scandinavia. Not long after
that, Sweden and Norway established their own archbishoprics, free of Danish control. The mid-12th century proved
a difficult time for the kingdom of Denmark. Violent civil wars rocked the land. Eventually, Valdemar the Great
(113182), gained control of the kingdom, stabilizing it and reorganizing the administration. King Valdemar and
Absalon (ca 11281201), the bishop of Roskilde, rebuilt the country.
During Valdemar's reign construction began of a castle in the village of Havn, leading eventually to the foundation
of Copenhagen, the modern capital of Denmark. Valdemar and Absalon built Denmark into a major power in the
Baltic Sea, a power which later competed with the Hanseatic League, the counts of Holstein, and the Teutonic
Knights for trade, territory, and influence throughout the Baltic. In 1168, Valdemar and Absalon gained a foothold
on the southern shore of the Baltic, when they subdued the Principality of Rgen.
In the 1180s, Mecklenburg and the Duchy of Pomerania came under Danish control, too. In the new southern
provinces, the Danes promoted Christianity (mission of the Rani, monasteries like Eldena Abbey) and settlement
History of Denmark
(Danish participation in the Ostsiedlung). The Danes lost most of their southern gains after the Battle of Bornhved
(1227), but the Rugian principality stayed with Denmark until 1325.
In 1202, Valdemar II became king and launched various "crusades" to claim territories, notably modern Estonia.
Legend has it that the Danish flag, the Dannebrog fell from the sky during the Battle of Lyndanisse in Estonia in
1219. A series of Danish defeats culminating in the Battle of Bornhved on 22 July 1227 cemented the loss of
Denmark's north German territories. Valdemar himself was saved only by the courageous actions of a German knight
who carried Valdemar to safety on his horse.
From that time on Valdemar focused his efforts on domestic affairs. One of the changes he instituted was the feudal
system where he gave properties to men with the understanding that they owed him service. This increased the
power of the noble families (Danish: hjadelen) and gave rise to the lesser nobles (Danish: lavadelen) who
controlled most of Denmark. Free peasants lost the traditional rights and privileges they had enjoyed since Viking
times.[3]
The king of Denmark had difficulty maintaining control of the kingdom in the face of opposition from the nobility
and from the Church. An extended period of strained relations between the crown and the Popes of Rome took place,
known as the "archiepiscopal conflicts".
By the late 13th century, royal power had waned, and the nobility forced the king to grant a charter, considered
Denmark's first constitution. Following the Battle of Bornhved in 1227, a weakened Denmark provided windows of
opportunity to both the Hanseatic League and the Counts of Holstein. The Holstein Counts gained control of large
portions of Denmark because the king would grant them fiefs in exchange for money to finance royal operations.
Valdemar spent the remainder of his life putting together a code of laws for Jutland, Zealand and Skne. These codes
were used as Denmark's legal code until 1683. This was a significant change from the local law making at the
regional assemblies (Danish: landting) had been the long-standing tradition. Several methods of determining guilt or
innocence were outlawed including trial by ordeal and trial by combat. The Code of Jutland (Danish: Jyske Lov) was
approved at meeting of the nobility at Vordingborg in 1241 just prior to Valdemar's death. Because of his position as
"the king of Dannebrog" and as a legislator, Valdemar enjoys a central position in Danish history. To posterity the
civil wars and dissolution that followed his death made him appear to be the last king of a golden age.
The Middle Ages saw a period of close cooperation between the Crown and the Roman Catholic Church. Thousands
of church buildings sprang up throughout the country during this time. The economy expanded during the 12th
century, based mostly on the lucrative herring-trade, but the 13th century turned into a period of difficulty and saw
the temporary collapse of royal authority.
History of Denmark
History of Denmark
The Reformation
The Reformation, which originated in the German lands in the
early 16th century from the ideas of Martin Luther (14831546),
had a considerable impact on Denmark. The Danish Reformation
started in the mid-1520s. Some Danes wanted access to the Bible
in their own language. In 1524 Hans Mikkelsen and Christiern
Pedersen translated the New Testament into Danish; it became an
instant best-seller.[]
Those who had traveled to Wittenberg in Saxony and come under
the influence of the teachings of Luther and his associates included
Hans Tausen, a Danish monk in the Order of St John Hospitallers.
On Good Friday in 1525, Tausen used the pulpit at Antvorskov
Abbey Church to proclaim Luther's reforms. His scandalized
superiors ordered him out of Zealand and held him in the priory at
Viborg under close confinement until he should come to his
senses.[]
Townspeople came to see the troublesome monk, and Tausen
Hans Tausen was one of the first Lutheran preachers,
preached to them from the window of his cell. Within days
and later a bishop, in Denmark.
Tausen's ideas swept through the town. The then radical ideas of
Luther found a receptive audience. Tausen's preaching converted
ordinary people, merchants, nobles, and monks and even the Prior grew to appreciate Tausen and ordered his release.
Tausen preached openly: much to the consternation of Bishop Jn Friis, who lost his ability to do anything about the
Lutherans and retreated to Hald Castle.[]
After preaching in the open air, Tausen gained the use of a small chapel, which soon proved too small for the crowds
who attended services in Danish. His followers broke open a Franciscan Abbey so they could listen to Tausen, who
packed the church daily for services. The town leaders protected Tausen from the Bishop of Viborg.[] Viborg became
the center for the Danish Reformation for a time. Lutheranism spread quickly to Aarhus and Aalborg.
History of Denmark
Within months King Frederick appointed Tausen as one of his personal chaplains (October 1526) in order to protect
him from Catholics. Tausen's version of Luther's ideas spread throughout Denmark. Copenhagen became a hotbed of
reformist activity and Tausen moved there to continue his work. His reputation preceded him and the excitement of
hearing the liturgy in Danish brought thousands of people out to hear him. With the kings' permission, churches in
Copenhagen opened their doors to the Lutherans and held services for Catholics and for Lutherans at different times
of the day.
At Our Lady Church, the main church of Copenhagen, Bishop Ronnow refused to admit the "heretics". In December
1531 a mob stormed the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen, encouraged by Copenhagen's fiery mayor, Ambrosius
Bogbinder. They tore down statues and side-altars and destroyed artwork and reliquaries. Frederick I's policy of
toleration insisted that the two competing groups share churches and pulpits peacefully, but this satisfied neither
Lutherans nor Catholics.
Luther's ideas spread rapidly as a consequence of a powerful combination of popular enthusiasm for church reform
and a royal eagerness to secure greater wealth through the seizure of church lands and property. In Denmark the
reformation increased the crown's revenues by 300%.
Dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church
Dissatisfaction with the established Catholic Church had already been widespread in Denmark. Many people viewed
the tithes and fees a constant source of irritation for farmers and merchants as unjust. This became apparent
once word got out that King Frederick and his son, Duke Christian had no sympathy with Franciscans who
persistently made the rounds of the parishes to collect food, money, and clothing in addition to the tithes. Between
1527 and 1536 many towns petitioned the king to close the Franciscan houses.[11]
Frederick obliged by sending letters authorizing the closure of the monasteries, often offering a small sum of money
to help the brothers on their way. With the royal letter in hand, mobs forcibly closed Franciscan abbeys all over
Denmark. They beat up monks, two of whom died.[11] The closure of Franciscan houses occurred systematically in
Copenhagen, Viborg, Aalborg, Randers, Malmo and ten other cities; in all, 28 monasteries or houses closed. People
literally hounded Franciscan monks out of the towns.[11]
No other order faced such harsh treatment. Considering how strongly many people felt about removing all traces of
Catholic traditions from Danish churches, surprisingly little violence took place. Luther's teaching had become so
overwhelmingly popular that Danes systematically cleared churches of statues, paintings, wall-hangings, reliquaries
and other Catholic elements without interference. The only exceptions came in individual churches where the local
churchmen refused to permit reform.
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History of Denmark
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History of Denmark
everywhere in Scandinavia had sealed its fate by supporting hopeless causes: Christian II and the emperor Charles V
in Denmark, Norwegian independence in that country, and in Sweden the Kalmar Union. Geographical distance also
prevented them from receiving anything more than a sympathetic ear from Rome.
The 17th century saw a period of strict Lutheran orthodoxy in Denmark, with harsh punishments visited on
suspected followers of either Calvinism or Huldrych Zwingli. Lutheran authorities treated Catholics harshly in the
fear that they might undermine the king, government, and national church. In a delayed result of the Reformation,
Denmark became involved in the Thirty Years' War (16181648) on the Protestant side. As a result Denmark lost its
position as a major power.
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History of Denmark
13
But the Second Northern War was not yet over. Three months after the peace treaty was signed, Charles X Gustav of
Sweden held a council of war where he decided to simply wipe Denmark from the map and unite all of Scandinavia
under his rule. Once again the Swedish army arrived outside Copenhagen. However, this time the Danes did not
panic nor surrender, instead they decided to fight and prepared to defend Copenhagen.
Frederick III of Denmark had stayed in his capital and now encouraged the citizens of Copenhagen to resist the
Swedes, by saying he would die in his nest. Furthermore, this unprovoked declaration of war by Sweden finally
triggered the alliance that DenmarkNorway had with the Netherlands. A powerful Dutch fleet was sent to
Copenhagen with vital supplies and reinforcements, which saved the city from being captured during the Swedish
attack. Furthermore, Brandenburg-Prussia, the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth and the Habsburg monarchy had
gathered large forces to aid DenmarkNorway and fighting continued into 1659.
Charles X Gustav of Sweden suddenly died of an illness in early 1660, while planning an invasion of Norway.
Following his death, Sweden made peace in the Treaty of Copenhagen, returning only Trndelag to Norway and
Bornholm to Denmark, but keeping both Bahusia and Terra Scania, mainly because the Netherlands and other
European powers didn't want both sides of the Sound controlled by the Danish King again. Thus establishing the
boundaries between Norway, Denmark, and Sweden that still exist today.
Absolutism
As a result of the disaster in the war against Sweden, King Frederick III (reigned 16481670) succeeded in
convincing the nobles to give up some of their powers and their exemption from taxes, leading to the era of
absolutism in Denmark. The country's main objective in the following decades was the recovery of its lost provinces
from Sweden. In the 1670s DenmarkNorway had regained enough strength to start a war with Sweden to recover its
lost provinces. However, in spite of Denmark's outside support, naval dominance and initial support from the
population of the former eastern provinces, the war ended in a bitter stalemate.
History of Denmark
Great Northern War (17001721)
A renewed attack during the Third Northern War (17001721) first resulted in the unfavourable Peace of Travendal,
but after Denmark's re-entrance in the war and Sweden's ultimate defeat by a large alliance, meant that Sweden no
longer was a threat to Denmark. However, the great powers opposed any Danish territorial gains, which meant the
Treaty of Frederiksborg did not return the former eastern provinces to Denmark. Furthermore, Denmark was even
forced to return Swedish Pomerania held by Danish forces since 1715 to Sweden. Denmark now had no hope of
recovering its lost provinces from Sweden. As noted earlier, the rest of Europe was simply against the Sound being
controlled by a single nation again.
For most of the 18th century, Denmark was at peace. The only time when war threatened was in 1762 when the
Duke of Gottorp became Tsar Peter III of Russia and declared war on Denmark. But he was soon deposed, and the
threat ended.
With the suspension of the Danish diet, that body disappeared for a couple of centuries. During this time power
became increasingly centralized in Copenhagen. Frederick's government reorganized itself in a much more
hierarchical manner, built around the king as a focal point of administration. Crown officials dominated the
administration, as well as a new group of bureaucrats, much to the dismay of the traditional aristocracy, who saw
their own influence curtailed even further. The absolutist kings of Denmark were quite weak compared to their
Swedish counterparts, and non-noble landlords became the real rulers of the country. They used their influence to
pass laws that favored themselves.
The administration and laws underwent "modernization" during this period. In 1683 the Danske lov 1683 (Danish
Code) standardized and collected all the old provincial laws. Other initiatives included the standardization of all
weights and measures throughout the kingdom, and an agricultural survey and registry. This survey allowed the
government to begin taxing landowners directly, moving it beyond dependence on revenue from crown lands.
The population of Denmark rose steadily through this period, from 600,000 in 1660 (after the loss of territory to
Sweden) to 700,000 in 1720. By 1807 it had risen to 978,000.
Changes in the agricultural economy
Attempts to diversify the economy away from agriculture failed. During this period little industry existed, except for
a very small amount in Copenhagen (population: 30,000). In the late 17th century a small amount of industry did
develop, catering to the military. Denmark suffered in part because of its lack of natural resources. It had nothing
much to export except agricultural products. The Netherlands bought the largest share of Denmark's exports. The
landlords, only about 300 in number, nevertheless owned 90% of the land in the country.
Rural administration remained primarily the preserve of the large landholders and of a few law-enforcement
officials. In 1733, low crop prices caused the introduction of adscription, an effort by the landlords to obtain cheap
labor. The effect of this was to turn the previously free Danish peasantry into serfs. The adscription system tied rural
laborers to their place of birth and required them to rent farms on the estates.
As rent, peasants were required to work the landlords' plots and could not negotiate contracts or demand payment for
improvements made to the farm. Peasants who refused to rent a farm were subject to six years of military service.
Danish agriculture was very inefficient and unproductive as a result, since the peasants had no motivation to perform
anything more than the absolute minimum of work. Attempts to sell Danish grain in Norway failed because of its
low quality compared to grain from the Baltic.
In the late 18th century, extensive agricultural reforms took place, involving the abolition of the old open-field
system and the amalgamation of many smaller farms into larger ones. With the abolition of the adscription system,
the military could now only obtain manpower through conscription. These reforms were possible because
agricultural prices steadily rose in the second half of the century.
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History of Denmark
Throughout the 18th century the Danish economy did very well, largely on the basis of expanded agricultural output
to meet growing demand across Europe. Danish merchant ships also traded around Europe and the North Atlantic,
venturing to new Danish colonies in the Caribbean and North Atlantic.
The Enlightenment and Danish nationalism
New propriety and Enlightenment ideas became popular among the middle classes of Denmark, arousing increased
interest in personal liberty. In the last 15 years of the 18th century the authorities relaxed the censorship which had
existed since the beginning of the 17th century. At the same time, a sense of Danish nationalism began to develop.
Hostility increased against Germans and Norwegians present at the royal court. Pride in the Danish language and
culture increased, and eventually a law banned "foreigners" from holding posts in the government. Antagonism
between Germans and Danes increased from the mid-18th century on.
In the 1770s, during the reign of the mentally unstable Christian VII (17661808), the queen's lover, a German
doctor named Johann Friedrich Struensee, became the real ruler of the country. Filled with the ideas of the
Enlightenment, he attempted a number of radical reforms including freedom of the press and religion. But it was
short-lived. The landlords feared that the reforms were a threat to their power, while the commoners believed that
religious freedom was an invitation to atheism.
In 1772, Struensee was arrested, tried, and convicted of crimes against the majesty, his right hand was cut off
following his beheading, his remains were quartered and put on display on top of spikes on the commons west of
Copenhagen. The next 12 years were a period of unmitigated reaction until a group of reformers gained power in
1784.
Denmark became the model of enlightened despotism, partially influenced by the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Between 1784 and 1815, the abolition of serfdom made the majority of the peasants into landowners. The
government also introduced free trade and universal education.
Colonial ventures
Denmark maintained a number of colonies
outside Scandinavia, starting in the 17th
century and lasting until the 20th century.
Denmark also controlled traditional colonies
in Greenland and Iceland in the north
Atlantic held through the union with
Norway. Christian IV (reigned 15881648)
first initiated the policy of expanding
Denmark's overseas trade, as part of the
Map showing DenmarkNorway's colonial possessions c. 1800
mercantilist trend then popular in European
governing circles. Denmark established its
own first colony at Tranquebar, or Trankebar, on India's south coast, in 1620.
In the Caribbean Denmark started a colony on St Thomas in 1671, St John in 1718, and purchased Saint Croix from
France in 1733. Denmark maintained its Indian colony, Tranquebar, as well as several other smaller colonies there,
for about two hundred years. The Danish East India Company operated out of Tranquebar.
During its heyday, the Danish company and the Swedish East India Company imported more tea than the British
East India Company and smuggled 90% of it into Britain, where it sold at a huge profit. Both of the
Scandinavia-based East India Companies folded during the course of the Napoleonic Wars. Danes also maintained
other colonies, forts, and bases in West Africa, primarily for the purpose of slave-trading.
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History of Denmark
16
History of Denmark
17
Another significant result of the revolution was the Abolition of Slavery in the Danish West Indies, the Danish
colony in the Caribbean, which at an earlier parts of its history witnessed the biggest slave auctions in the world. In
1845 Denmark's other tropical colony, Tranquebar in India, had already in 1845 been sold to Britain.
The Danish king's realm still consisted of the islands, the northern half of the Jutland peninsula, and the Duchy of
Schleswig in real union with the Duchy of Holstein
The islands and Jutland together constituted the kingdom, whereas the
monarch held the duchies in personal union with the kingdom. The
duchy of Schleswig constituted a Danish fief, while the Duchy of
Holstein remained a part of the German Confederation.
Since the early 18th century, and even more so from the early 19th
century, the Danes had become used to viewing the duchies and the
kingdom as increasingly unified in one state. This view, however,
clashed with that of the German majority in the duchies, also enthused
Danish Infantry regiment in a fight with regiment
by liberal and national trends, which lead to a movement known as
"Martini". Contemporary illustration of the 1864
Schleswig-Holsteinism.
Schleswig-Holsteinists
aimed
for
Second Schleswig War.
independence from Denmark. The First Schleswig War (18481851)
broke out after constitutional change in 1849 and ended with the status quo only thanks to the intervention of Britain
and other Great Powers.
Much debate took place in Denmark as to how to deal with the question of Schleswig-Holstein. National-Liberals
demanded permanent ties between Schleswig and Denmark, but stated that Holstein could do as it pleased. However,
international events overtook domestic Danish politics, and Denmark faced war against both Prussia and Austria in
what became known as the Second Schleswig War (1864). The war lasted from February to October 1864. Denmark
was easily beaten by Prussia and Austria, and obliged to relinquish Schleswig-Holstein.
The war caused Denmark as a nation severe trauma, forcing it to reconsider its place in the world. The loss of
Schleswig-Holstein came as the latest in the long series of defeats and territorial loss that had begun in the 17th
century. The Danish state had now lost some of the richest areas of the kingdom: Skne to Sweden and Schleswig to
Germany, so the nation focused on developing the poorer areas of the country. Extensive agricultural improvements
took place in Jutland, and a new form of nationalism, which emphasized the "small" people, the decency of rural
Denmark, and the shunning of wider aspirations, developed.
Industrialization came to Denmark in the second half of the 19th century. The nation's first railroads were
constructed in the 1850s, and improved communications and overseas trade allowed industry to develop in spite of
Denmark's lack of natural resources. Trade unions developed starting in the 1870s. There was a considerable
History of Denmark
migration of people from the countryside to the cities, and Danish agriculture became centered around the export of
dairy and meat products.
The two concepts of internationalism and nationalism have become very much part of the history of the Danish
Labour movement.
The Labour movement gathered momentum when social issues became associated with internationalism. Socialist
theory and organisational contact with the First International, which linked labour movements in various countries,
paved the way. Louis Pio emerged as the driving force. In 1871, following the bloody defeat of the Paris Commune,
he started publishing socialist journalism. He campaigned strongly for an independent organisation of the workers
under their own management, and organised a Danish branch of the First International. This became the foundation
stone for the Social Democratic Party under the name of Den Internationale Arbejderforening for Danmark (The
International Labour Association for Denmark). As a combination of union and political party, it adroitly brought
together national and international elements.
Pio saw internationalism as vital for the success of the workers' struggle: without internationalism, no progress. He
pointed out that the middle classes cooperated across national frontiers and used nationalistic rhetoric as a weapon
against the workers and their liberation.
The Danish section started organising strikes and demonstrations for higher wages and social reforms. Moderate
demands, but enough to provoke the employers and the forces of law and order. Things came to a head in the Battle
of Flleden on 5 May 1872. The authorities arrested the three leaders, Louis Pio, Poul Geleff and Harald Brix,
charged them and convicted them of high treason. The three left Denmark for the United States to set up the
ill-starred and short-lived socialist colony near Hays City, in Ellis County, Kansas.
Back in Denmark, the emerging political situation made possible by the new Danish door of independence alarmed
many of the existing elites, since it inevitably empowered the peasantry. Simple men with little education replaced
professors and professionals in positions of power. The peasants, in coalition with liberal and radical elements from
the cities, eventually won a majority of seats in the Folketing. Even though constitutional changes had taken place to
boost the power of the Landsting, the Left Venstre Party demanded to form the government, but the king, still the
head of the executive branch, refused. However in 1901, king Christian IX gave in and asked Johan Henrik
Deuntzer, a member of Venstre, to form a government, the Cabinet of Deuntzer. This began a tradition of
parliamentary government, and with the exception of the Easter Crisis of 1920, no government since 1901 has ruled
against a parliamentary majority in the Folketing.
18
History of Denmark
19
Monetary union
The Scandinavian Monetary Union, a monetary union formed by
Sweden and Denmark on May 5, 1873, fixed both their currencies
against gold at par to each other. Norway, governed in union with
Sweden, entered the monetary union two years later in 1875 by
pegging its currency to gold at the same level as Denmark and Sweden
(.403grams).[13] The monetary union proved one of the few tangible
results of the Scandinavist political movement of the 19th century.
The union provided fixed exchange-rates and stability in monetary
terms, but the member-countries continued to issue their own separate
currencies. In an outcome not initially foreseen, the perceived security
led to a situation where the formally separate currencies circulated on a
basis of "as good as" the legal tender virtually throughout the entire
area.
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought an end to the monetary
union. Sweden abandoned the tie to gold on August 2, 1914, and
without a fixed exchange rate the free circulation came to an end.
1901-1939
In the early decades of the 20th century the new Radical Party and the older Venstre Party shared government.
During this time women gained the right to vote (1915), and the United States of America purchased some of
Denmark's colonial holdings: the three islands of St. John, St. Croix, and St. Thomas in the West Indies. The period
also saw Denmark inaugurating important social and labour-market reforms, laying the basis for the present[7]
welfare state.
Denmark remained neutral during World War I, but the conflict affected the country to a considerable extent. As its
economy was heavily based on exports, the unrestricted German submarine warfare was a serious problem. Denmark
had no choice but to sell many of its exports to Germany instead of overseas nations. Widespread profiteering took
place, but commerce also suffered great disruption because of the conflict and because of the ensuing financial
instability in Europe. Rationing was instituted, and there were food and fuel shortages. Following the defeat of
Germany in the war (1918), the Treaty of Versailles (1919) mandated the Schleswig Plebiscites, which resulted in
the return of Northern Schleswig (now[7] South Jutland) to Denmark. The king and parts of the opposition grumbled
that Prime Minister Carl Theodor Zahle (in office 1909-1910 and 19131920) did not use Germany's defeat to take
back a bigger portion of the province, which Denmark had lost in the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The king and
the opposition wanted to take over the city of Flensburg, while the cabinet insisted on only claiming areas where a
majority of Danes lived, which led to a plebiscite in the affected areas over whether they wanted to become a part of
Denmark or remain within Germany. Believing that he had the support of the people, King Christian X used his
reserve power to dismiss Zahle's cabinet, sparking the Easter Crisis of 1920. As a result of the Easter Crisis, the king
promised to no longer interfere in politics. Although the Danish Constitution remained un-amended, Danish
monarchs have stayed out of politics since then. The end of the war also prompted the Danish government to finish
negotiating with Iceland, resulting in Iceland becoming a sovereign Kingdom on December 1, 1918 while retaining
the Danish monarch as Head of State.
History of Denmark
20
In the 1924 Folketing election the Social Democrats, under the charismatic Thorvald Stauning, became Denmark's
largest parliamentary political party, a position they maintained until 2001. Since the opposition still held a majority
of the seats in the Landsting, Stauning had to co-operate with some of the right-wing parties, making the Social
Democrats a more mainstream party. He succeeded in brokering an important deal in the 1930s which brought an
end to the Great Depression in Denmark, and also laid the foundation for a welfare state.
World War II
Denmark declared its neutrality at the beginning of World War II and
signed a non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. Nevertheless,
Germany (so as to secure communications for its invasion of Norway)
occupied Denmark on April 9, 1940, meeting limited resistance.
British forces, however, occupied the Faroe Islands (12 April 1940)
and invaded Iceland (10 May 1940) in pre-emptive moves to prevent
German occupation. Following a plebiscite, Iceland declared its
independence on June 17, 1944 and became a republic, dissolving its
union with Denmark.
The Nazi occupation of Denmark unfolded in a unique manner. The
conditions of occupation started off very leniently (although the
authorities banned Danmarks Kommunistiske Parti (the Communist
party) when the Wehrmacht invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941),
and Denmark retained its own government. The new coalition
government tried to protect the population from Nazi rule through
compromise. The Germans allowed the Folketing to remain in session,
the police remained under Danish control, and the German authorities
During the German occupation, King Christian X
became a powerful symbol of national
stayed one step removed from the population. However, the Nazi
sovereignty. This image dates from the King's
demands eventually became intolerable for the Danish government, so
birthday, 26 September 1940. Note the lack of a
in 1943 it resigned and Germany assumed full control of Denmark.
guard
After that point, an armed resistance movement grew against the
occupying forces. Toward the end of the war, Denmark grew
increasingly difficult for Germany to control, but the country remained under occupation until near the end of the
war. On 4 May 1945 German forces in Denmark, North West Germany, and the Netherlands surrendered to the
Allies. On 5 May 1945 British troops liberated Copenhagen. Three days later the war ended.
Denmark succeeded in smuggling most of its Jewish population to Sweden in 1943 when the Nazis threatened
deportation; see Rescue of the Danish Jews.
Post-war
In 1948 Denmark granted home rule to the Faroe Islands. 1953 saw further political reform in Denmark, abolishing
the Landsting (the elected upper house), colonial status for Greenland and allowing female rights of succession to the
throne with the signing of a new constitution.
After the war, with the perceived threat posed by the USSR and the lessons of World War II still fresh in Danish
minds, the country abandoned its policy of neutrality. Denmark became a charter-member of the United Nations in
1945 and one of the original members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in 1949 (though Denmark had
originally tried to form an alliance only with Norway and Sweden). A Nordic Council later emerged with the aim of
co-ordinating Nordic policy. Later, in a referendum in 1972, Danes voted in favour of joining the European
Community, the predecessor of the European Union, and Denmark became a member on 1 January 1973. Since then,
History of Denmark
Denmark has proven a hesitant member of the European community, opting out of many proposals, including the
Euro which it rejected in a referendum in 2000. During recent years, however, traditionally eurosceptical attitudes
have mellowed.[citation needed]
Footnotes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / madmonaco. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 06/ oldest-monarchy. html http:/ / www. royalinsight. net/ content/ danish-monarchy-overview
Jensen 2003:12-18
Jensen 2003:24
Jensen 2003:32
Jensen 2003:34
Birger Storgaard, Cosmopolitan aristocrats, pp. 106-125 in: The Spoils of Victory - The North in the shadow of the Roman Empire,
Nationalmuseet, 2003. ISBN 87-7602-006-1.
[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=History_of_Denmark& action=edit
[9] Staff. Saint Brices Day massacre (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-516876/ Saint-Brices-Day-massacre), Encyclopdia Britannica.
Retrieved 26 December 2007.
[10] Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. Francis J. Tschan (New York, 2002), pp. 7778.
[11] Krnike om Grbrodrenes Udjagelse
[13] From silver standard to gold standard (http:/ / www. nationalbanken. dk/ dnuk/ hist. nsf/ side/ From_silver_standard_to_gold_standard),
retrieved 2008-08-05
Further reading
In English
Derry, T. K. A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1979. ISBN 0-8166-3799-7.
Lauring, Palle. A History of Denmark. 3rd ed. Copenhagen: Hst, 1995. ISBN 87-14-29306-4.
Jespersen, Knud J. V. A History of Denmark (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2004) excerpt and text search (http://
www.amazon.com/History-Denmark-Palgrave-Essential-Histories/dp/0333659171/)
Political history
Barton, H. A. Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era, 1760-1815 (Minneapolis, 1986)
Brincker, Benedikte. "When did the Danish nation emerge? A review of Danish historians' attempts to date the
Danish nation," National Identities, December 2009, Vol. 11 Issue 4, pp 353365
Campbell, John L., John A. Hall, and Ove Kaj Pedersen, eds. National Identity and the Varieties of Capitalism:
The Danish Experience (Studies in Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict) (2006)
Etting, Vivian. Queen Margrete I, 1353-1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union (Brill, 2004) online edition
(http://www.questia.com/read/114102227)
Jespersen, Leon. "Court and Nobility in Early Modern Denmark," Scandinavian Journal of History, September
2002, Vol. 27 Issue 3, pp 129142, covers 1588 to 1650
Munck, Thomas. "Absolute Monarchy in Later 18th-century Denmark: Centralized Reform, Public Expectations,
and the Copenhagen Press" Historical Journal, March 1998, Vol. 41 Issue 1, pp 20124 in JSTOR (http://www.
jstor.org/stable/2640150)
Munck, Thomas. The peasantry and the early absolute monarchy in Denmark, 1660-1708 (Copenhagen, 1979)
Culture and religion
Kirmmse, Bruce. Kierkegaard in Golden Age Denmark (Indiana University Press, 1990)
Michelson, William. "From Religious Movement to Economic Change: The Grundtvigian Case in Denmark,"
Journal of Social History, Summer 1969, Vol. 2 Issue 4, pp 283301
Rossel, Sven H. A History of Danish Literature (University of Nebraska Press, 1992) 714pp online edition (http:/
/www.questia.com/read/39170090)
21
History of Denmark
Schwarz, Martin. Church History of Denmark (Ashgate, 2002). 333 pp.ISBN 0-7546-0307-5
Economic and social history
Abildgren, Kim. "Consumer prices in Denmark 1502-2007," Scandinavian Economic History Review, 2010, Vol.
58 Issue 1, pp 224
Hornby, Ove. "Proto-Industrialisation Before Industrialisation? The Danish Case," Scandinavian Economic
History Review, April 1982, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pp 333, covers 1750 to 1850
Johansen, Hans Chr. Danish Population History, 1600-1939 (Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark,
2002) 246 pp.ISBN 978-87-7838-725-7 online review (http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=8582)
Johansen, Hans Chr. "Trends in Modern and Early Modern Social History Writing in Denmark after 1970," Social
History, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Oct., 1983), pp.375381
Christiansen, Palle Ove. "Culture and Contrasts in a Northern European Village: Lifestyles among Manorial
Peasants in 18th-Century Denmark, Journal of Social History Volume: 29#2 (1995) pp 275+.
Kjzergaard, T. The Danish Revolution: an ecohistorical interpretation (Cambridge, 1995), on farming
Topp, Niels-Henrik. "Unemployment and Economic Policy in Denmark in the 1930s," Scandinavian Economic
History Review, April 2008, Vol. 56 Issue 1, pp 7190
Relations with Germany
Barfod, Jrgen H.: The Holocaust Failed in Denmark. Kopenhagen 1985.
Berdichevsky, Norman. The Danish-German Border Dispute, 18152001: aspects of cultural and demographic
politics. (2002) ISBN 1-930901-34-8
Buckser, Andrew: After the Rescue: Jewish identity and community in contemporary Denmark. ORT 2003.
Lund, Joachim. "Denmark and the European New Order, 1940-1942," Contemporary European History,
August 2004, Vol. 13 Issue 3, pp 305321
In German
Robert Bohn: Dnische Geschichte. Mnchen: Beck, 2001. (Beck'sche Reihe; 2162). ISBN 3-406-44762-7
Steen Bo Frandsen: Dnemark der kleine Nachbar im Norden. Aspekte der deutsch-dnischen Beziehungen im
19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Darmstadt 1994. ISBN 3-534-11712-3
Eva Heinzelmann / Stefanie Robl / Thomas Riis (Hrsg.): Der dnische Gesamtstaat, Verlag Ludwig, Kiel 2006,
ISBN 978-3-937719-01-6.
Lars Hermanson: Slkt, vnner och makt: en studie av elitens politiska kultur i 1100-talets Danmark, Gteborg
2000. (= Avhandlingar frn Historiska institutionen i Gteborg; 24), Zusammenfassung in englischer Sprache
(Zugl.: Gteborg, Univ., Diss., 2000), ISBN 91-88614-30-1
Erich Hoffmann: Der heutige Stand der Erforschung der Geschichte Skandinaviens in der Vlkerwanderungszeit
im Rahmen der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung. In: Der historische Horizont der GtterbildAmulette aus
der bergangsepoche von der Sptantike zum Frhmittelalter. Gttingen 1992. S. 143182.
Jrgen Khl / Robert Bohn: Ein europisches Modell? Nationale Minderheiten im deutsch-dnischen Grenzland
19452005. Bielefeld 2005. ISBN 3-89534-541-5
Arndt Ruprecht: Die ausgehende Wikingerzeit im Lichte der Runeninschriften. Gttingen 1958.
Therkel Strde: "Dnemark: Die schwierige Erinnerung an Kollaboration und Widerstand." In: Mythen der
Nationen: 1945 Arena der Erinnerungen. / hrsg. von Monika Flacke. Mainz 2004. ISBN 3-8053-3298-X
S. 123144
Hans-Martin Ottmer: Weserbung. Der deutsche Angriff auf Dnemark und Norwegen im April 1940. Mnchen
1994. ISBN 3-486-56092-1
Jrg-Peter Findeisen: Dnemark. Von den Anfngen bis zur Gegenwart. Regensburg 1999.
22
History of Denmark
External links
Historical Atlas of Denmark (http://home.student.uu.se/o/orma1967/Kartor/Danmark/denmark.htm) [Bad
link as of 2008-05-01.]
History of Denmark: Primary Documents (http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/
History_of_Denmark:_Primary_Documents)
Review of Danish History (http://www3.sympatico.ca/colin.swift/history.htm)
Sources on Danish history (http://danhist.pbwiki.com/sources)
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License
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