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INTRODUCTION
Terephthalic acid is an organic compound with formula C6H4(CO2H)2. It is a white solid
which is a commodity chemical, used principally as a precursor to the polyester PET, used to
make clothing and plastic bottles. Several million tonnes of terephthalic acid are produced
yearly.
The acid is produced by the Amoco process, the oxidation of p-xylene by oxygen in air:

Figure 1: Production of terephthalic acid

The production of terephthalic acid uses a cobalt-manganese-bromide catalyst. In this
process, acetic acid is the solvent and oxygen from compressed air is the oxidant. A feed
mixture containing p-xylene, acetic acid, the catalyst system, and compressed air is fed to a
reactor. The oxidation of methyl group takes place in two steps where p-xylene is converted
to p-toluic acid (TA) and the undesirable product 4-carboxyaldehyde along with crude TA. It
is further purified to obtain the TA with the removal of 4-carboxyaldehyde
using crystallization, centrifugation and filtration. This reaction proceeds through a p-toluic
acid intermediate which is then oxidized to terephthalic acid.
A pressure vessel with insulator is used in the the production of the acid. Generally, a
pressure vessel is a storage tank or vessel that has been designed to operate at pressures above
15 psig. Recent inspections of pressure vessels have shown that there are a considerable
number of cracked and damaged vessels in workplaces. Cracked and damaged vessels can
result in leakage or rupture failures. Potential health and safety hazards of leaking vessels
include poisonings, suffocations, fires, and explosion hazards. Rupture failures can be much
more catastrophic and can cause considerable damage to life and property. The safe design,
installation, operation, and maintenance of pressure vessels in accordance with the
appropriate codes and standards are essential to worker safety and health. Pressure vessel

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hazards are addressed in specific standards for the general industry, shipyard employment,
and the construction industry.

Figure 2: A vertical pressure vessel.

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Overall Process Flow Diagram

Figure 3 : Overall Process Flow Diagram

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VESSEL DESIGN
Diameter

=2m

Height

=5m

Operating temperature

= 400 , 204.4

Operating pressure

= 300 psig

10%

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS

New Diameter

= 2.2 m

New Height

= 5.5 m

New Operating temperature = 440 , 224.84

New Operating pressure

= 20.7 bar

Design Stress, S

= 88.9429 N/mm2

Design pressure
Design pressure, taken as 10% above operating gauge pressure,
10
1 N /mm2

( 20.71 ) 1.1=21.67
2.167 N /mm2

Design temperature 224.84

(440 ). From Table 13.2, maximum allowable stress

3
2
= 12.9 10 psi=88.9429 N /mm .

Minimum thickness, t, for cylindrical

t=

Pi D i
2 SE1.2 Pi

Where,
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Pi

= design pressure

Di

= diameter

= design stress (maximum allowable stress)

= joint factor
2

t=

(2.167 N /mm )(2200 mm)

N
2 ( 88.9429 N /mm ) ( 1)1.2(2.167
)
mm2

=27.2 mm

Including corrosion allowance,

t=27.2 mm+2 mm=29.2 mm

In Steel Vessel
Weight of the vessel is calculated by Wv from equation below, which applied for a uniform
thickness vessel and it can be used to get a rough estimate of the weight of this vessel by
using the average thickness in the equation, 29.2 mm.
W v =240C w Dm ( H v + 0.8 Dm ) t
Where,
Wv

= total weight of the vessel

Cw

= a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports, etc.,
which can be taken as 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings

Dm

= mean diameter of vessel

Hv

= height, or length, between tangent lines

W v =240(1.08)(2.2)(5.5+0.8(2.2))(29.2)=120.9 kN

Insulator
The design of the insulator is as below. The volume of the insulator cylinder is calculated to
obtain the weight in kN.

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V cylinder =DH t insulator

(2.2 m)(5.5 m)(50 103 m)

1.9 m3

Winsulator = 130 kg/m3

W i=130

kg
m
kg . m
9.81 2 ( 1.9 m3 ) =2.4 2 =2.4 kN
3
m
s
s

Double Fitting = 2.4 kN X 2

= 4.8 kN
Total Weight = Wv + Wi
=120.9 kN + 4.8 kN
= 125.7 kN
Wind Load
By taking dynamic wind pressure, Pw as 1280 N/m2, corresponding to 160 kph (100 mph), the
tangent line bending moment is given by;
M x=

Fw 2
(Hv)
2

Mean diameter including insulator,

D m=Di + Di ( t+ t ins ) 103 m

2.2+2.2 ( 29.2+50 ) 103 m

2.4 m

Loading (per linear meter),

F w =Pw (Dm )=1280

N
( 2.4 m) =3072 N /m
m2

Bending moment at bottom tangent line,

M x=

3072
N / m ( 5.52 ) =46464 Nm
2

Design of Domed Head

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A hemispherical head thickness, t

t=

Pi D i
4 SE0.4 Pi

t=

2.167 ( 2.2 )
4 ( 88.9429 ) ( 1 )0.4 (2.167 )

0.013 m

0.885 Pi Rc
Comparing with a torispherical head thickness, t= SE0.1 Pi

Where, Rc is the crown radius and taken as diameter, Di = 2.2 m

t=

0.885(2.167)(2.2)
=0.0475 m
(88.9429)(1)0.1(2.167)

Compared to an ellipsoidal head thickness, t

t=

P i Di
2 SE0.2 Pi

t=

2.167 ( 2.2 )
2 ( 88.9429 ) ( 1 )0.2 ( 2.167 )

0.027 m

Hence, an ellipsoidal head is chosen as it is nearest to the wall thickness, 29.2 mm.
Design of flat ends
The design equation used to determine the thickness of flat ends is based on the analysis of
stresses in flat plates. The thickness is calculated by using Equation 13.44 as instructed by the
ASME BPV Code.
t=D e

C Pi
SE

Where C

a design constant, dependent on the edge constraint

De

nominal plate diameter

maximum allowable stress

joint efficiency

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t=De

C Pi
SE

t =2200

( 0.1 ) (2.167)
( 88.9429 ) (1)

t=119.335 mm

0.119 m

The values for the design constant C and the nominal plate diameter D e are given in the
ASME BPV Code for various type of arrangements of flat-end closures. In this study, the
flat-end closures used was flanged-only end. The value of C is 0.1 and De is equal to Di which
is 2200 mm.
Resultant longitudinal stress
Vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be designed to withstand
the worst combinations of loading without failure. A trial thickness must be assumed (based
on that calculated for pressure alone) and the resultant stress from all loads determined to
ensure that the maximum allowable stress intensity is not exceeded at any point. When
combined loads are analyzed, the maximum compressive stress must be considered as well as
the maximum tensile stress. The method of ASME BPV Code Sec. VII D.1 Part UG-23 is
used in this study to calculate maximum allowable stress in compression and maximum
allowable stress in tension.
The main sources of load to consider are pressure, dead weight of the vessel and contents,
wind and external loads imposed by piping and attached equipment.
The total longitudinal stress, Z is calculated by summing up the longitudinal stress, L, dead
weight stress, w and bending stress, b. The dead weight stress should be counted as positive
if tension and negative if compressive.
Z = L + w b
w is compressivet h erefore negative
Z ( upwind )=40.80.59+ 0.41=40.62 N /mm

Z ( downwind )=40.80.590.41=39.8 N /mm 2

As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be Z and b.

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39.8

40.62

81.6

81.6

Upwind side
81.6 40.62 = 40.98 N/mm2
Downwind side
81.6 39.8 = 41.8 N/mm2
The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side which is
equal to 41.8 N/mm2. The downwind side pressure is below the maximum allowable design
stress, S which is 88.9429 N/mm2. Hence, it is acceptable.
Check elastic stability (Buckling)
Critical buckling stress, (Equation 13.72):
c =210 4 (

t
) N /mm2
Do

Where t is wall thickness and Do is the external diameter of reactor.

c =210 4 (

29.2
) N /mm2
2258.4

c =258.59 N /mm

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the reactor is not under pressure:
w + b=0.59+ 0.41=1
This is below the critical buckling stress. Therefore, the design is satisfactory.
Vessel supports
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The method used to support a reactor will depend on the size, shape and weight of the vessel,
the design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangements; and the internal
and external fittings and attachments. In this study, skirt supports are used as the vessel is in
vertical position. The skirt supports are designed to carry the weight of the vessel and
contents and any superimposed loads such as wind loads. The skirt support designs are
checked to ensure the resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum allowable
design stress.
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. Skirt
supports do not imposed any concentrated loads on the vessel shell and suitable to be used
with vertical columns subject to wind loading.
Skirt design

Height of the skirt

Young Modulus for Stainless Steel 301, SS 304

( 574 ( 2.2) 5.5) 75 9.81

2

Approximate weig h t=

= 90
=3m
= 203 000 N/mm2
= 88.94 N/mm2
= 2.2 m

153825.45 N

153.82 kN

Weight of vessel = 125.7 kN

Total=125.7+153.82

279.52 kN

Wind load = 3072 N/m = 3.072 kN/m

The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead weight loads and bending
moment imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure. The thickness of
the skirt is assumed to be equal to the thickness of the vessel.
Bending moment for skirt, (Equation 13.75),
M s=

W x2
2

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Where W is the load per unit length (N/m) and x is the distance measured between from the
free end.
M s=

3.072
2
8.5 =110.976 kN
2

Bending stress in the skirt, bs (Equation 13.38):

4 Ms
(D s+t sk )t sk D s

bs =

where Ms is the maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the base of the skirt (due
to wind, seismic and eccentric loads), Wv is the total weight of the vessel and contents, Ds is
the inside diameter of the skirt at the base and tsk is the skirt thickness.

4 110.976 10 3 103
bs =
( 2200+29.2 ) 2200 29.2

0.987 N /mm2

Dead weight stress in the skirt, ws (Equation 13.85):

ws =

Wv
(D s +t sk ) t sk

ws ( operating )=

ws (test )=

2795.20
=1.367 N /mm2
( 2200+29.2 ) 29.2

125700
=0.615 N /mm2
( 2200+ 29.2 ) 29.2

Longitudinal stress, L(Equation 13.62):

L=

P Di
4t

L =2.2

L =2.2

N
1
1
1000 mm
2.2m

=41.4 N /mm
2
4 29.2 mm
1m
mm

N
1
1
1000 mm
2.2m

=82.9 N /mm
2
2 29.2 mm
1m
mm

Resultant stress in the skirt (Equation 13.82 and 13.83)

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maximum s ( compressive )= bs + ws
max imum s (tensile )= bs ws

0.987+1.367

0.9870.615

2.354 N /mm
2

0.372 N /mm

The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead weight
loading the following design criteria are not exceeded.
Assume Eskirt = 1, from Equation 13.86 and 13.87, where S s is the maximum allowable design
stress for the skirt material, E is the welded joint efficiency and sis the base angle of a
conical skirt.
s ( tensile ) <S s E sin s

0.372< ( 88.9429 ) ( 1 ) sin 90

s ( compressive ) <0.125 EY (

2.354<336.79

t sk
) sin s
Ds

0.372<88.9429

2.354< 0.125 ( 203000 )

Acceptable

29.2
( 2200
) sin 90

Acceptable

Both criteria are acceptable, with the adding value of 2 mm and the CA give thickness of 31.2
mm.

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CONCLUSION
The objective of this study is to design a pressure vessel for the production of
terephthalic acid. In order to design a vessel, there are some criteria that must be taken into
account. The criteria are vessel function, process materials and services, operating and design
temperature and pressure, materials of construction, vessel dimensions, types of vessel heads
to be used, and specification of internal fittings.
Based on the research and calculations made, the height of the vessel is 5.5 m with
diameter of 2.2 m, the operating temperature and design stress is 440F (224.84C) and
88.9429 N/mm2, respectively. The weight of the vessel including insulator is 125.7 kN. Type
of heads chosen is ellipsoidal head as it is nearest to the wall thickness, 29.2 mm. The
flanged-only end is used as the flat-end closures with value of C and D e is 0.1 and 2200 mm,
respectively. In a conclusion, it is found that the design is satisfactory as the parameters are
within the allowable values. The parameters are compared with the standards by the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (the ASME BPV Code).

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REFERENCES

1. Pullarcot, S. (2002). Practical guide to pressure vessel manufacturing. New York:

Marcel Dekker.
2. Ellis, B., & Smith, R. (2009). Polymers: A property database. Boca Raton: CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis Group.
3. TEREPHTHALIC ACID | C6H4(COOH)2 - PubChem. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/terephthalic_acid#section=Top

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APPENDICES

Figure 4: Front View of the Vessel

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Figure 5: Top View of the Vessel

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