The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over one and a half century and its contribution goes

to a French
mathematician and physicist, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier. You may be aware that any flow whether it is electricity flow, fluid flow, or
heat flow needs a driving force. The flow is proportional to the driving force and for various kinds of flows the driving force is shown
in the table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Various flows and their driving forces

Thus the heat flow per unit area per unit time (heat flux,

) can be represented by the following relation,

where, proportionality constant k is the thermal conductivity of the material, T is the temperature and x is the distance in the
direction of heat flow. This is known as Fouriers law of conduction.
The term steady-state conduction is defined as the condition which prevails in a heat conducting body when temperatures at fixed
points do not change with time. The term one-dimensional is applied to a heat conduction problem when only one coordinate is
required to describe the distribution of temperature within the body. Such a situation hardly exists in real engineering problems.
However, by considering one-dimensional assumption the real problem is solved fairly upto the accuracy of practical engineering
interest.
2.1
Steady-state
conduction
through
constant
A simple case of steady-state, one-dimensional heat conduction can be considered through a flat wall as shown in the fig.2.1.

area

Fig.2.1: Steady-state conduction through a slab (constant area)

The flat wall of thickness dx is separated by two regions, the one region is at high temperature (T1 ) and the other one is at
temperature T2 . The wall is very large in comparison of the thickness so that the heat losses from the edges are negligible. Consider
there is no generation or accumulation of the heat in the wall and the external surfaces of the wall are at isothermal
temperatures T1 andT2 . The area of the surface through which the heat transfer takes place is A. Then the eq.2.2 can be written as,

The negative sign shows that the heat flux is from the higher temperature surface to the lower temperature surface and is the rate
of heat transfer through the wall.
Now if we consider a plane wall made up of three different layers of materials having different thermal conductivities and
thicknesses of the layers, the analysis of the conduction can be done as follows.
Consider the area (A) of the heat conduction (fig.2.2) is constant and at steady state the rate of heat transfer from layer-1 will be
equal to the rate of heat transfer from layer-2. Similarly, the rate of heat transfer through layer-2 will be equal to the rate of heat
transfer through layer-3. If we know the surface temperatures of the wall are maintained at T1 and T2 as shown in the fig.2.2, the
temperature of the interface of layer1 and layer 2 is assumed to be at T' and the interface of layer-2 and layer-3 as T".

Fig.2.2: Heat conduction through three different layers

The rate of heat transfer through layer-1 to layer-2 will be,

and,
The rate of heat transfer through layer 2 to layer 3 will be,

and,
The rate of heat transfer through layer 3 to the other side of the wall,

On adding the above three equations,

Where, R represents the thermal resistance of the layers. The above relation can be written analogous to the electrical circuit as,

Fig 2.3: Equivalent electrical circuit of the fig.2.2

The wall is composed of 3-different layers in series and thus the total thermal resistance was represented by R (= R 1 + R2 + R3 ). The
discussed concept can be understood by the illustrations shown below.
The unit of the various parameters used above is summarized as follows,

2.3
Steady-state
heat
conduction
through
a
variable
area
It was observed in the previous discussion that for the given plane wall the area for heat transfer was constant along the heat flow
direction. The plane solid wall was one of the geometries but if we take some other geometry (tapered plane, cylindrical body,
spherical body etc.) in which the area changes in the direction of heat flow. Now we will consider geometrical configuration which
will be mathematically simple and also of great engineering importance like hollow cylinder and hollow sphere. In these cases the
heat transfer area varies in the radial direction of heat conduction. We will take up both the cases one by one in the following
sections.
2.3.1
Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder as shown in the fig.2.9a. The inner and outer radius is represented by riand ro , whereas Ti and To (Ti > To )
represent the uniform temperature of the inner and outer wall, respectively.

Fig. 2.9. (a) Hollow cylinder, (b) equivalent electrical circuit

Consider a very thin hollow cylinder of thicknessdr in the main geometry (fig.2.9a) at a radial distance r. If dr is small enough with
respect to r, then the area of the inner and outer surface of the thin cylinder may be considered to be of same area. In other words,
for very small dr with respect to r, the lines of heat flow may be considered parallel through the differential element in radial outward
direction.
We may ignore the heat flow through the ends if the cylinder is sufficiently large. We may thus eliminate any dependence of the
temperature on the axial coordinate and for one dimensional steady state heat conduction, the rate of heat transfer for the thin
cylinder,

Where dT is the temperature difference between the inner and outer surface of the thin cylinder considered above and k is the
thermal
conductivity
of
the
cylinder.
On rearranging,

To get the heat flow through the thick wall cylinder, the above equation can be integrated between the limits,

On solving,

Where
, and the careful analysis of the above equation shows that the expression is same as for heat
flow through the plane wall of thickness (rori ) except the expression for the area. The ALM is known as log mean area of the cylinder,

whose length is L and radius is rLM (=

). The fig.2.9b shows the equivalent electrical circuit of the fig.2.9b.

Now we have learnt that how to represent the analogous electrical circuit for the cylindrical case. It will provide the building block for
the composite cylinders similar to the plane composite we have learnt earlier. The following fig.2.10a shows a composite cylinder
with 4-layers of solid material of different inner and outer diameter as well as thermal conductivity. The equivalent electrical circuit
is shown below in fig.2.10b.

(a)

(b)
Fig.2.10.(a) Four layer composite hollow cylinder, (a) equivalent electrical circuit
The total heat transfer at steady-state will be,

where R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 are represented in the fig.2.10b.

2.3.2
Sphere
The rate of heat transfer through a hollow sphere can be determined in a similar manner as for cylinder. The students are advised to
derive the following expression shown below.
The final expression for the rate of heat flow is,

3.2.2
Heat
transfer
between
fluids
separated
by
a
cylindrical
wall
In the above section we have seen that how the rate of heat transfer is calculated when the two fluids are separated by a flat wall.
Another commonly encountered shape in the chemical engineering plant is the heat transfer between fluids separated by a
cylindrical wall. Therefore, we will see them to understand the overall heat transfer coefficient in such a system. Consider a double
pipe heat exchanger which consists of two concentric pipes arrange as per the fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.5: Schematic of a co-current double pipe heat exchanger

The purpose of a heat exchanger is to increase the temperature of a cold fluid and decrease that of the hot fluid which is in thermal
contact, in order to achieve heat transfer.
The fig. 3.5 shows that the hot fluid passes through the inner tube and the cold fluid passes through the outer tube of the double
pipe heat exchanger. The inner and the outer radii of the inner pipe are
the outer tube is

. The heat transfer coefficient of the fluid in the inner pipe is

over the inner pipe is

, respectively, whereas the inner radius of

and the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid

are the inner and outer wall temperatures of the inner pipe. The bulk fluid

temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are

, respectively, at steady state condition and assumed to be fairly
constant over the length of the pipe (say L). The construction in fig. 3.6 provides a better understanding.

Fig. 3.6: Cross-section of the double pipe heat exchanger shown in fig. 3.5

The rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid to the inner surface which is at temperature

(3.12)

The rate of heat transfer through the pipe wall is,

(3.13)

(Refer to the section, heat conduction through varying area.)

The rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the inner pipe to the cold fluid is,

The rate of heat transfers will be same, thus

Thus on rearranging above equations,

where,

If we compare the overall heat transfer coefficient shown above with the overall heat transfer coefficient discussed in eq.3.11 (for
flat plate). It can be seen that due to the different inside and outside radii of the pipe, the overall heat transfer coefficient will be
different. Therefore, the overall heat transfer coefficient can be defined either by Ui (overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside
surface area) or Uo (overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area). But it should be noted that the rate of heat
transfer and the driving force remain the same. Therefore, we have

(3.19)

where,

or,

Similarly,

In terms of thermal resistance, we can use eq. 3.19

Warm methanol flowing in the inner pipe of a double pipe heat exchanger is being cooled by the flowing water in the
outer tube of the heat exchanger. The thermal conductivity of the exchanger, inner and outer diameter of the inner
pipe are 45 W/(moC), 26 mm, and 33 mm, respectively. The individual heat transfer coefficients are:

Coefficient (W/(m2oC))
Methanol, hi

1000

Water, ho

1750

Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area of the inner tube.
Solution 3.2
Using following equation,

It is apparent that all the values are known. Thus, on putting the values theUo is 519 W/(m2oC).