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4th June 2016

IGCSE HISTORY
B5 CONFLICT CRISIS AND CHANGE : CHINA C1911-C1989
1. CHINA 1911 - 1934
A. The Causes, Events and Results of the 1911 Revolution
i.

Causes

Decay of Qing Imperialism


The Emperors of the Qing Dynasty was weak and corrupt. Troop
morale was low. Because of that, they lost to foreign powers easily.
People lost confidence in the Manchu rule. The role of Cixi played
a significant role in the decay of Qing Imperialism. The Empress
Dowager was deeply unpopular and opposed reforms like the SelfStrengthening Movement and the Hundred Days Reform. Political
Decentralisation was also part of the reason for the decay of Qing
Imperialism as provinces of China were weakly governed by Beijing.

Education
Many Chinese students went abroad to obtain their education in
places such as Britain, Japan, America due to the Hundred Days
Reform. They returned heavily influenced by westernised
knowledge, policies and ideas. Some of these scholars were
angered by how backward and underdeveloped China was as a
country compared to Western societies. These scholars pushed for
modernisation in China which led to the growth of Nationalist
movement.

Growth of Nationalist Movement


Dr Sun Yatsen, a Methodist scholar who had studied abroad
returned to China disgusted to see how little progress had been
made to develop China. In 1894, he led the Revive China
Movement, campaigning for modernisation and reestablishment of national power in China. In 1903, he released
the Three Peoples Principles of Nationalism, Democracy and
Peoples Livelihood. Revolutionaries supported this by giving Dr Sun
the ability to form Tongmenhui, a revolutionary political group in
1905. This group gained popularity and seriously threatened

the political stability of China. It was considered a dangerous


political movement as it paved the way for much local political
violence and attack. They supported the Anti-Qing revolution and
later joined the Sichuan uprising in 1911, which led to the 1911
revolution. Dr Sun himself organised 8 uprisings in 1911.

Economic Problems
China faces a railway problem as protests broke out when
government tried to nationalise regional railways in an attempt
to gain revenue and control local authorities. This was strongly
opposed by provincial authorities especially in Sichuan (this added
on to discontent which became a contributing factor to the Sichuan
Uprising) because members of gentry, landowners, and merchants
had all invested money in railway construction. Railway
Protection Societies were formed which the government tried to
suppress with force. This intensified anti-Qing feelings and led
to a series of violent revolts across the country.
During 1839-1860, China had fought two Opium Wars fuelled by
Britains desire to sell Indian Opium in China for huge profits. China
was badly beaten and forced into unequal treaties, in which
China was forced to accept missionaries, allow foreign concessions
in China, and give ports to foreign powers. In these concessions,
foreigners had their own infrastructure, police and courts to keep
power over the Chinese. Many employed Chinese workers, causing
socioeconomic disruptions in China as villagers moved into cities,
leading to overcrowding, shortages and poor living conditions.
These treaties gave foreign forces huge power from within
China, opening trade routes and the ability to live without Chinese
interference. These unfair terms of these treaties along with
humiliation of defeat and forced submission to foreign powers
fuelled resentment in Chinese people.

ii.

Events

An uprising in Wuchang was planned by the revolutionaries for 16th


October 1911.

However, there was a bomb explosion in the revolutionaries


headquarter in Hankou on 9th October which served as an
immediate trigger and cause to the 1911 Revolution. Police found
the membership list of revolutionaries. The 300 soldiers were on the
list decided to revolt.

iii.

The military governor of Hankou fled and therefore, there were no


resistance. As a result, the Wuchang Uprising was brought
forward to 10th October. The uprising was spontaneous and
disorganised. Despite this, the entire city of Wuchang was
captured within a day. Other cities began to join the revolt, in
support of the revolutionaries and Dr Suns modern political ideas.
Within a month, 20 cities had collapsed and all of Southern
China fell into revolutionaries.
Effects
The Presidency of Yuan Shikai
November 1912, Sun, Song and Huang set up the KMT
(Kuomintang, Peoples National Party). Elections were held in
February 1913, KMT won the majority amount of seats in parliament
by 43% of the votes. December 1913, KMT won 269 out of 569
seats in the House of Representatives. Yuan Shikai was not keen
on sharing power with parliament dominated by Dr Suns party.
Real democracy could not be established. Yuan Shikai ignored the
constitution and even tried to become a dictator to restore the
Monarchy. 12 out of 18 provinces were under his control. Military
governors in these provinces made sure that they stayed loyal to
Yuan. Yuan orders a bloody repression and negotiates foreign
loans, supporting European powers which wanted a strong
government in China to protect their trading interests there.
When Yuan agreed to go to war with Japan (it was either give
control to Japan or go to war), he quickly lost popularity. On
Christmas Day 1915, the army in Yunan rebelled against him. Other
army garrisons joined the revolt. Faced with the opposition of the
army which had brought him to power in the first place, Yuan
dropped his plans to become emperor.

End of Dynasty
The revolution ended the Qing Dynastys 2000 years of imperial
rule in China. The Republic was a new for of government and a
milestone for Chinese history.

Lack of Social improvement


Little attention was paid to Chinas economic and social reforms.
Therefore, China still remained weak as a country. In addition, Japan
seized German territories in Shandong and economic privileges of
WW1. People were naturally outraged by the 21 Demands
presented by the Japanese government in January 1915. The
Japanese demanded control of Chinas factories, railways, and
ports, and threatening wars if the demands were refused.

Increased Foreign Aggression


Although the new Republic was recognised by most of the world,
many foreign powers like Japan still forced China to sign the
unequal treaties like the Twenty One Demands in January 1915.
China was still weak internationally.

B. China under the Warlords


i.

Causes
Yuan Shikais presidency
In 1913, Yuan Shikai took over Chinese government. He
dissolved National and Provincial assemblies, House of
Representatives and Senate. They were replaced with Council
of State. Yuan organised the provincial governments with each
province supported by a Military Governor and Civil authority
which gives each governor control of their own army. This
decentralised power even further. He had himself elected as
President and banned the KMT. By 1914, he was dictator of
China. By 1915, he proclaimed himself as emperor of China. Many
of his military supporters abandoned him and southern
provinces declared independence and began to rebel. Yuans
death in 1916 led to infighting amongst cliques in the
government. As a result, government lost control of China to
warlords in provinces.

ii.

Power struggle
Warlords were only interested in power and wealth and not the
peoples wellbeing which led to the implementations of warlord
policies. Warlords imposed high taxes to squeeze cash from
peasants across China, enlisted peasants into their armies and
governed with great severity. The economy collapsed as
warlords simply printed more money to pay for their army which
led to severe inflation. The competition between the warlords
intensified as competing groups of warlords began fighting
throughout China. Loyalties shifted constantly. The general division
between North and South of China was made worse as it caused
further divisions within these regions. Warlord rule was not
uniform. The Christian warlord banned foot binding, opium,
brothels and wore simple uniform. Zhang Zong Chang (the dogmeat
general) of Shandong province was opposite, he kept numerous
concubines and has a brutal army of troops. Zhang Zuolin of
Manchuria was the most powerful warlord as his area of rule was
almost the size of Western Europe.
Events

Harsh weather conditions


There were severe droughts in Northern China in 1918. Famines
occurred throughout the years of 1920-1921. Flooding occurred in
1923-1925. This brought misery to millions and weakened the
control of the Warlords.

Sun Yatsens death


Dr Sun died from liver cancer. He was replaced by Chiang Kaishek.

Power struggle (covered under causes)


Due to the power struggle of warlords, warlord policies were
introduced, there was competition between the warlords, and
the difference in ruling of individual warlords.

Independent Military Government set up


An Independent Military Government was set up in 1917 by Dr
Sun based on the 1911 constitution. Dr Sun was elected president
supported by other Southern provinces who declared independence
from Beijing. Northern provinces supporting the central government
tried and failed to capture the Southern provinces.

iii.

Effects

Influence of the USSR


The anarchy period of the warlord period convinced Dr Sun that he
needed an army if he was to defeat them. This led to Dr Sun
appealing to the USSR for help. The USSR established the
Whampoa Military Academy in Guangzhou. This supplied arms to
the KMT from 1923 onwards. The USSR encouraged the CCP and
KMT to cooperate and form a United Front. The Warlord period
ended with the Northern March which lasted from 1926 to 1928.
(further elaborated in the Northern March specification point).

Civil War
Conditions in China were worst when warlords fought each other to
get control of each others provinces. The power struggle and
competition between the warlords led to large civil wars took place.
In these wars, both sides fought ferociously. 300,000 soldiers were
involved. 700 Yunan men stripped entirely naked. Armed with
knives and revolvers, Warlords rushed in Sichuan camp with 16,000
men and began a murderous rampage. The attack was a success.
Panic seized regiment after regiment and the whole force fled
eventually. 10 of the warlords were captured, naked and kept in
streets under cold weather, drenching in rain before being
murdered. 2 were killed and cut up in streets which their hearts and
livers were later sold in a cookshop.

C. The May the Fourth Movement


i.

Causes

Political change
New Culture Movement
There was a new intelligentsia of 5 million by 1919, educated in
western-type schools as a result of the Hundred Days Reforms in
1898. Elite who attended school abroad were concentrated in
coastal cities, as a result there was urban population growth in
those cities, Shanghai. This was the emergence of a
bourgeoisie political force. They attacked on Confucianism and
perceived the West as a solution to Chinas problems. This
movement sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese
culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic to address
Chinas problems. Led by scholars like Chen Duxiu, the movement
created a desire for change across China. This then gave way to
the Intellectual Revolution.

- New Youth Magazine


This magazine was founded by Chen Duxiu in 1915. It was the focal
point for all out assault on Confucianism, regarded as a
fundamental cause of Chinas weaknesses. Social Darwinism was
regarded as old and rotten should be replaced with the fresh
and the living. This supports the idea that the youth is strong
and the old is weak. It instils the idea that society is sick, Chinese
society is sick and should die, thus, giving way for a New
Society to be born. The First edition of the magazine was entitled,
The Way of Confucius and Modern Life, it denounced restrictions
on Womens and their rights, advocates that Confucius lived in
a feudal age, and essays attacking Confucianism were
published.
- Language and Literature Reforms
Classical Chinese (Wen Yuan) was replaced by vernacular (baihua).
From 1910, there was an outpouring of urban popular fiction.
They plan to overthrow the painted, powdered literature of the
aristocratic few, and create the plain, simple literature of the
people. This was led by scholars like Chen Duxiu, Lu Xun, Ding Ling
and many more. These scholars sacrificed their dreams in the
hopes of reviving China. For example, Lu Xun abandoned a medical
career to awaken the Chinese people. Ding Ling rejected an
arranged marriage to one of Chinas wealthiest men to show that
she opposed the traditional Chinese family practises.

Treaty of Versailles
In 1917, China had joined WW1 on the Allied side, with the
condition that all German spheres of influence in China, like
Shandong province, be returned to China. American advocacy of
self-determination at the Versailles was attractive to Chinese
intellectuals, so the failure to award China the Shandong
province was seen as a betrayal. As a result, China declared war
on Germany in 1917. They did not send troops to Germany but they
sent 140,000 workers to work on the Western Front while 40,000 of
them worked for the French and 100,000 of them worked for the
British. Their jobs were to carry trunks and risk their lives on the
trenches. They were known as Chinese Labour Corps also known
as Chinas forgotten army. They were treated by the French and
British poorly as they were racist. 10,000 died from shelling, poor
treatment and the Spanish influenza in 1918.

ii.

iii.

Events
The May Fourth Movement was the name given to an explosion of
yearning for change and national rebirth. In 1919, news
reached Chinese people in China that the Allies at the Versailles
Palace in Paris were planning to allow Japan to keep the
German spheres of influence in Shandong province. Students
at Beijing University began an explosive protest. On Sunday, 4th
May, 3000 students assembled in Tiananmen Square. They
demanded their government assert itself against the Japanese.
They wrecked the house of the government minister responsible for
the treaty. A city-wide student union was established devoted to
change which is what is known as the May 4th Movement. This
was replicated across China in cities like Shanghai, Wuhan and
Tianjin.
Effects

Protests
String of protests soon spread across China against Western
powers. Campaigns were held to boycott Japanese goods. Shanghai
was paralysed with a general strike. This marked the beginning of
patriotism in China. The rising tide of protests prevented Chinese
delegation from accepting the terms of the treaty and China
refused to sign however, Japan still had control of Shandong.

Cultural Turning Point


The movement proved that Chinas social classes could successfully
collaborate given proper motivation and leadership. Traditional
Chinese values began to be questioned and people became
more willing to support change from the warlords.

Intellectual Turning Point


This movement encouraged many people to become more political
and also showed that Western-style democracy was the wrong path
to take as it hypocritically ignored Chinas pleas for fairness.

Marxism
This encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new
ideologies (Marxism.) This led to the foundation of the
Chinese Communist Party, CCP in 1921. They focused on the
urban working class and organised strikes. Chinese Seamans Union
strike in Hong Kong spread to Guangzhou and Shanghai in 1922 and

organised peasant unions against the landlords. By the end of 1922,


the Guangdong peasant association had 130,000 members.
D. Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang.
i.

ii.

iii.

Early stages of KMT (1894-1913)


The KMT began life as the Revive China Society, founded in
1894 by Dr Sun, a proponent of Chinese nationalism and
democracy. In 1905, Dr Sun joined forces with the other anti-Qing
groups to form Tongmenhui (Revolutionary Alliance) who planned
and supported the 1911 Revolution. In August 1912, the KMT was
formed with Sun elected as Party Chairman. It was based on
Three Peoples Principles; Nationalism, Democracy and Peoples
Livelihood. The KMT won an overwhelming majority in elections
to the National Assembly in November 1912. February 1913, KMT
won the majority amount of seats in parliament by 43% of the
votes. December 1913, KMT won 269 out of 569 seats in the
House of Representatives. Yuan Shikai was not keen on sharing
power with a parliament dominated by Dr Suns political party. Yuan
orders a bloody repression and banned the KMT in November
1913. Dr Sun was forced to flee to Japan.
Re-establishment of the KMT (1919-1925)
In Shanghai 1919, the KMT was reformed. Its headquarters
were re-established in Guangdong Province in 1920. In 1923, the
KMT accepted aid from the USSR after being denied recognition
by Western Powers. Soviet Comintern advisers like Mikhail
Borodin arrived with aid and weapons, reforming the KMT along
the lines of a Leninist structure. Some elements within the KMT
were landlords or from the business classes, so the KMT remained
wary of the growing CCP. The CCP was instructed by a Comintern to
unite with KMT to establish a United Front to fight warlords and
unite China. At the KMTs first party congress in 1924, Dr Suns
political theory was adopted which included the Three
Peoples Principles; Nationalism, Democracy and Peoples
Livelihood.
Victory
Dr Sun died in 1925 and was replaced with Chiang Kai-shek who
was the superintendent of the Whampoa Military Academy in
Canton and had near complete control of the military. Chiang
launched the Northern Expedition in 1926 to defeat the warlords
of Northern China and unite the country. In 1927, a split emerged in

the KMT and Chiang responded to the power struggle with the
Shanghai Massacre.

10

E. Mao Zedong and the Emergence of the Chinese Communist Party.


i.

ii.

11

Early Stages of CCP (1921-1927)


The CCP had its origins from the May 4th Movement which
encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new ideologies
like Marxism/Leninism. The Party was co-founded by Li Dazhao
and Chen Duxiu on 23rd July 1921. Chen was elected as Party
Leader and the party was declared to be part of the comintern.
The comintern provided $5000 USD per year for support. They
supported the CCP financially as they shared diplomatic relations
due to similarities in interest such as Communism. Under the
pressure from the USSR, the CCP joined forces with the KMT to form
the First United Front against the warlords. Mao Zedong was the
first delegate at the first Party Conference but did not get on with
the CCP leadership of Chen Duxiu, disliking their intellectualism
and focus on cities rather than peasants. In 1925, Mao was
excluded from the CCP Central Committee and was attracted to the
Rural Communism of Peng Pai.
Civil War & WW2 (1927-1949)
In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the Communists massacring
over 5000 in Shanghai. By July 1927, the KMT had expelled all
communists from the Party and the CCP was forced to flee to the
province of Kiangsi. The CCP reacted by creating the Red Army,
and by reorganising the Party according to democratic centralism
forming a Politburo. In October 1934, surrounded by KMT troops,
the CCP was forced to flee on what became known as The Long
March. At the end of October 1935, Mao Zedong had taken
leadership of the Party. In December 1936, at the Xian Incident,
Chiang was forced to agree to a Second United Front with the
CCP against the Japanese, who in July 1937 had begun their
invasion of mainland China. By the end of the war in August 1945,
the CCP controlled over 95 million people. Both the CCP and KMT
raced to accept the surrender of Japanese held areas. By early
1946, civil war had broken out again. The CCP had only 900,000
soldiers while KMT had 2.7 million troops. By September 1949, most
of China was under CCP control. Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan.

iii.

Ruling Party (1949-Present)


The Peoples Republic of China was declared by Mao on 1st
October 1949. The ideology of the Peoples Republic of China was
founded on a Sinification of Marxist-Leninist principles and was
officially known as Mao Zedong Thought or Maoism. During
the 1960s, the CCP broke relations with the USSR and began a
second Cultural Revolution in 1966 against alleged class
enemies. Mao died on September 9, 1979, resulting in a power
struggle between Hua Guofeng, Deng Xiaoping and the Gang
of Four. Deng became leader of the CCP and instigated a reform
and process of Socialism with Chinese characteristics. This
meant that China would be communist in politics but capitalist
in economics.

F. The Northern March and Shanghai Massacre


i.

The Northern March (1926-1928)


Causes
Death of Dr Sun
After the death of Dr Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became
leader of the KMT and was eager to destroy the warlords and
reunite China.
The emergence of NRA
The Whampoa Military Academy in Canton produced a National
Revolutionary Army (NRA) which was superior to many warlords.
The NRA was 100,000 strong and equipped with latest Russian and
German weapons. Chiang personally relied on the Russian Military
advisor, Galen. The NRA was supported by the Communist
Farmers Movement Training Institute in which Mao worked
on. Propaganda from this institute persuaded many peasants to
serve as guides and labourers for the NRA against their warlords.
The declared political objectives of the NRA were to protect the
welfare of the people. We must overthrow all warlords and
wipe out reactionary power so that we may implement Three
principles and complete National Revolution.

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Events
The Northern Expedition was a combined military operation by the
United Front (KMT & CCP) against the rule of the warlords in
Beijing as well as local warlords. It started in July 1926 and targeted

the three most notorious and powerful warlords; Zhang Zhoulin of


Manchuria, Wu Peifu in Central Plain region and Sun Chuanfang
on the East Coast. By 10th October 1926, Wuhan had been
captured. The NRA had grown to 250,000. By 1927, Nanjing and
Shanghai had been captured. This was achieved by a combination
of NRA military success, communist propaganda and bribing many
warlords. The United Front ended on 12th April 1927. Chiang Kaishek arranged the massacre of over 5000 communists with the
help of the triad Green Gang in Shanghai. The KMT and NRA
pressed on along and by June 1928, Beijing had been captured and
Chiang set up a new capital of unified China at Nanjing. It was
recognised by foreign powers.

Effects
CCP Fleeing
The Communists were left with little alternative to armed struggle
against the KMT. After the Shanghai Massacre, they were forced to
flee the Kiangsi Province, setting up a Soviet which they were
eventually forced to abandon in 1934.
Warlord problem not fully resolved
Many warlords simply formed an alliance with KMT to avoid being
destroyed. There was little resistance as warlords simply
surrendered to the approaching KMT troops because their armies
mutinied and joined the KMT. They continued the infighting
amongst themselves and treated peasants badly. This led to
continual resentment of Chiangs new government.
Stability of Chiang Kai-sheks position
Chiang Kai-sheks position was strengthened. He ruled as dictator,
similar to Hitler in Germany. He was the chairman of the military
committee and commander in chief, prime minister and head of the
KMT party.
Army support
Chiangs new regime was supported by the army and enforced
control through a secret police called the Military Bureau of
Statistics. Most social support came from rich, commercial elites in
the cities and richer peasants and gentry in the countryside.

13

ii.

Shanghai Massacre : 12th April 1927

Causes
The CCP Problem
In 1923, Dr Sun concluded an alliance with the USSR after being
denied recognition by Western Powers. Cominerns like Borodin
arrived with and weapons. This gave KMT financial and military
support but in return, the KMT had to cooperate with the CCP to
form a United Front. Dr Sun agreed to let individual Communists
to join the KMT as long as they remained loyal. Covert Communist
activities soon attracted opposition amongst many right-wing KMT
members.
The KMT Split
Since the death of Sun in 1925, the KMT was divided between the
NRA and Chiang Kai-shek on the right, while KMT leader Wang
Jingwei, Communists and Soviet Agents on the left-wing. Chiang
was concerned to protect the business interest of many KMT
supporters.
Attack on Foreign Concessions
Between January March 1927, the left-wing of the KMT and CCP
forces began attacking western interests in Hankou and Nanjing.
Chiang Kai-shek needed the support of Western Powers in order to
take Shanghai. By April, Chiang and the right-wing of the KMT
became determined to purge the party of communist influence.
Events
The massacre occurred on 12th April 1927 and was the violent
suppression of Communist Party organisations in Shanghai by the
KMT. After capturing Shanghai, the CCP began inciting huge
protests and strikes, demanding the return of international
settlements. Chiang immediately made arrangements with
representatives of the commercial classes and Shanghai underworld
to purge the CCP. On the morning of 12th April, heavily armed
members of the triad Green Gang moved through international
settlement to attack the CCP union strongholds in the working-class
districts. Green Gang met with the leader of CCP workers union to
persuade him to change sides but he refused. As a result, he was
beaten to a pulp and buried alive. Green Gang aided by troops,
rounded up Communists and either beheaded them or shot them
down. Some were thrown alive into the fires of locomotives at the
South Railway Station. Police put the death toll at 400 although it
14

was estimated between 5,000 10,000 deaths. CCP leader, Zhou


Enlai escaped.
Effects
Power Struggle
The KMT left wing government in Wuhan expelled Chiang from the
party on the 17th April. However, he simply declared a rival KMT
government in Nanjing. Chiangs financial links with commercial
interests in Shanghai enabled him to gain more influence, resulting
in the Wuhan Nationalist Government collapsing. Wang Jingwei fled
to Europe.
End of KMT/USSR cooperation
Stalin recalled all Soviet advisors to KMT including Galen and
Borodin. Stalin switched his support to the CCP, inciting the
Autumn Harvest Uprising in Nanchang in August 1927 and later
in Canton but both end up complete failures. Over 300,000 people
died in the ensuing anti-Communist suppression.
CCP Forced to Flee
The CCP were forced to flee from the Urban areas of China, with
many communists like Mao setting up in Jiangxi and Hunan
provinces. Alliance between the CCP and KMT broke down due to
the massacre in 1927 led to communist fleeing to provinces the
KMT did not control such as the Jiangxi province. In Jiangxi, the CCP
set up the Jiangxi Soviet. CCP proposed Land Laws and reduced
taxes, set up schools, modernised the living conditions in the
countryside. This transformed CCPs base of support from the urban
proletariat to the rural peasantry. The Communist Red Army also
played a part in winning the support of the peasants as it had rules
of discipline such as be courteous and polite to people, return all
borrowed articles, replace all damaged articles, be honest in
transactions and to be sanitary. Old CCP leaders like Chen Duxiu
were discredited and lost their leadership roles to Zhu De as leader
of armed forces and Mao Zedong as the political leader.

15

2. THE TRIUMPH OF MAO AND THE CCP, 1934-1949


A. The events and importance of the Long March 1934-5.
i.

Causes

Growth of Jiangxi Base Area


After the Shanghai massacre, many Communists regrouped in rural
areas such as Jiangxi. In Jiangxi, the CCP set up the Jiangxi
Soviet. Communists like Zhu De and Mao Zedong led the Red
Army/PLA units in these areas. Zhou Enlai arrived in 1932 and
ousted Mao from his military positions. In 1933, the rest of the
leadership arrived, along with German Comintern agent Otto Braun.
The CCP at this time were led mainly by Zhou, Braun and Bo Gu.

KMT Extermination Camps


Chiang Kai-shek regarded the Jiangxi Soviet as a greater threat to
his authority than either the warlords or bandits. He organised a 5
massive extermination campaigns between 1930-1934 in order to
cleanse them. Each extermination camp was bigger than the last.
Even though, his army always outnumbered the Communists.
The first four campaigns were complete failures. This was
because Mao Zedong and Zhu De used clever tactics to fight them,
instead of fighting head on battles, they lured the KMT troops deep
into Communist held-territory and then attacked each unit
separately. Mao summed up his tactics of guerrilla warfare with
flour slogans, when the enemy advances, we retreat. When the
enemy halts, we trouble them. When the enemy seeks to avoid
battle, we attack. When the enemy retreats, we pursue. There were
obviously setbacks in Maos tactics. Whenever he lured the GMD
into CCP-held areas, the KMT were able to capture CCP villagers as
they advanced. In four years, 1 million peasants were brutally killed
or starved to death. Many members of CCP criticised Maos tactics,
saying that they were politically wrong and cowardly.
As a result, Chiang Kai-shek launched the fifth campaign against the
Communists in 1933 was finally successful due to the
blockhouse tactics of German General Seeckt. Instead of
invading the Red areas, and trying to capture them by fighting
fighting battles, Seeckts method was to surround the Jiangxi Soviet
with 500,000 troops who then advanced slowly by building
blockhouses, digging trenches, putting up barbed fences as they

16

went. Seeckts aim was to stop all movement in and out of the
Soviet, starving the communists of food,fuel, weapons and
ammunition. Thus, slowly reducing the area that they controlled. By
October 1934, the Communists had lost over half their territory,
60,000 troops in the Red Army had been killed. Area under control
was steadily shrinking as the KMT advanced.
ii.

17

Events

16 October 1934, 87,000 soldiers of the Red Army set out on the
retreat by Otto Braun. As they retreated, the Reds took with them
all the equipment of the Jiangxi Soviet that would be needed for
setting up a new government in Hunan-Hubei. Thousands of bearers
carried office furniture, files, a printing press, radio equipment, gold
bars, telephone wires were carried. In addition, the Army took with
it as much weaponry and ammunition it could carry such as 33,000
guns, 1,800,000 cartridges, 76,000 grenades, 38 mortars
and 25,000 mortar shells. It took the Red Army 6 weeks to break
through the blockhouse rings encircling the Jiangxi. No sooner had
they broken through than they were forced to fight a major battle
when they reached the Xiang river. (25 November 3rd December).
By the end of the battle, the Red Army had lost 45,000 men. Many
of the Red Army commanders blamed Otto Braun for the great
loses of men. The loses had been due partly to the amount of
equipment they were carrying, which slowed them down, giving the
KMT time to prepare attacks. Otto Braun was also leading the Red
Army in a straight line, making it easy for the KMT to predict its
movements.

Zunyi Conference
When the Red Army reached to the town of Zunyi on 9th January
1935, the leaders of the CCP held a meeting to work out better
tactics. At the Zunyi Conference, Otto Braun was suspended and
military control of the Red Army was given back to Mao and Zhu De.

Luding Bridge Crossing


At the Upper Yangzi crossing in May 1935, the KMT had destroyed
all available boats. Mao built a bridge and crossed it successfully. At
the Luding Bridge on the Dadu River, the KMT tore up all the planks
leaving only the chains. KMT shot at the Reds who swung across the
chains. This was used as propaganda as it shows the Reds bravery.
100 KMT members retreated and joined Mao. The Long March was
unsuccessful because the Red Army lost 90% of the men they
begun with.

Sungpan Marches
The Sungpan Marches were the obstacle as there was 400km of
swamp, where the Reds were ambushed by local tribes and many
drowned in mud. Only 7,000 out of 10,000 survived the marshes. In
October 1935, the Reds finally reached the Shaanxi Soviet and
linked up with the troops of Xu Haidong. There Mao set up his HQ in
Yanan, Mao stayed there for the next 10 years and it became the
HQ of CCP in China.

Key Events in the Long March


During the 5th Suppression campaign, 800,000 KMT troops with
tactics of buildings blockhouses and encirclement made it difficult
for the Red Army to obtain food, weaponry and ammunition forced
the Red Army to retreat on October 19,1934. It was difficult for the
Red Army to replenish their men who had fallen to KMT. As a result,
they retreated to the North. They crossed the Xiang River as 90,000
Reds broke out of Jiangxi. They carried all they could carry and this
limited their speed which enabled KMT to protect their movements.
Furthermore, they were led by the Bolsheviks to walk in a straight
line, which also proved to be unsuccessful as it was easier for the
KMT to attack. As a result, they lost 50,000 people. At the Zunyi
conference, only 30,000 left in the Red Army and the Bolshevik
leader, Otto Braun was replaced by Mao as he lost influence with
the Reds.

iii.

18

Importance of the Long March

It removed the CCP from a region in China in which it would have


been vulnerable to the Japanese invasion in 1937 as well as attacks
from the KMT.

It was the occasion for a number of crucial party meetings which


were to have profound effect on the leadership and policy of the
CCP for the next 40 years.

B. War with Japan 1937-1945 the role of the CCP, espescially the Red
Army, and the limitations of the KMT.
i.

The Mukden Incident


As a result of the Great Depression, Japans economy collapsed.
Since Manchuria was rich in raw materials, Japan believed that they
could resolve economic issues by expanding to Manchuria to seize
resources there. In September 1931, the Japanese Invaded the
Northern province of Manchuria and named it Manchukuo. Fearing
a full-scale invasion, Chiang did little to stop them other than
complain to the League of Nations. He was more concerned with the
communists saying, the Japanese were a disease of the skin, but
the Communists were a disease of the heart.

Xian Incident
In 1936, he ordered another extermination campaign against the
CCP base in Yanan. Chiang decided that the Japanese were not as
dangerous as the CCP, he wanted to continue his war with the CCP.
However, KMT troops led by Zhang Xueliang, the warlord of
Manchuria, refused to fight the CCP. They wanted Chiang to focus
on the Japanese. To ensure this, Chiang was kidnapped at Xian in
1936 and kept prisoner for 2 weeks. He was eventually released
when he agreed to form a Second United Front. The KMT and CCP
negotiated a deal to cease fire, the communists and nationalists
would join together to go against the Japanese.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident


On 7th December 1937, a clash occurred between Japanese and
Chinese troops around the famous bridge 10 miles west of Beijing.
By 26th July, China was given an ultimatum to withdraw all forces
from Beijing. Chiang finally refused and war was declared. 29th July,
Beijing fell. 30th July, Tianjin fell. 13th December, 200,000 females
were killed and 20,000 were raped. This was known as the Rape
of Nanjing. The Three Alls were implemented by the Japanese
which were to Kill all, Burn all and Destroy all.

ii.

19

Causes

War with Japan 1937-1945


The Japanese swept most of KMT armies away for most of the
war. Shanghai fell in November 1937, Nanjing fell in January 1938,
Wuhan and Canton in October 1938 and Hong Kong in 1941. By
1941, the Japanese had a 34/50 division in China and had over
extended themselves. Japan declaring war on the USA in

December 1941 meant that Chiang had just secured a new ally
against the Japanese.

Puppet government established (ended in 1941)


The Japanese wanted a puppet government to get their 2
million strong troops out of China. In March 1941, Wang Jing Wei
puppet government and signed the Tokyo-Nanjing treaty in
October 1943. Occupied China joined the Greater East Asia CoProsperity Sphere. Japan closely controlled.

Chiang establishing Free China in Chongqing


Chiang returned to Chongqing to set up a KMT government of
Free China. Free China accounted for half the population of China
but its government had no effective control over this area. Chiang
maintained support of Warlords by using political repression and
censorship. In Chiongqing, he established a war economy such as
state control of industry, mining and electricity. Railways and
steel factories were built. Inflation was the major economic problem
at 230% per annum, causing government borrowing. A greater
burden fell on the peasants. The peasants were heavily relied upon
and Land tax was introduced to tax peasants heavily.

Chiang and the Japanese


The Americans were prepared to help China against the Japanese.
The assistance of the American air force helped to fly US supplies
into Chiangs capital of Chongqing over the Himalayas by following
a route called the Hump. In 1938, Japanese established the New
Order in Asia and tried to seek Chiangs cooperation. They did not
want to continue the war in China. Chiangs policy to conserve
Chinese troops for the fight against the CCP after the war and
fighting with the CCP broke out again in 1941.

Ichigo Offensive
1943, Free China suffered a major defeat when Operation Ichigo
was defeated and the Japanese captured Changsha. Allies main
objective for China was for Chinas army to die down Japans 2
million strong army. In despite the success of the Ichigo Offensive
in 1944, Japan was finally forced to surrender with the dropping of
atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagosaki in August 1945. The
USSR and declared war and invaded Manchuria on 8th August.

iii.
20

Role of CCP in the War (red army)

21

The Red Army


The CCP emerged from the war with Japan stronger than the KMT.
The Japanese could not guard all the areas they conquered as they
went south. This meant that CCP could often move into occupied
areas and take control. From 1937 onwards, they carried out
successful guerrilla tactics against the Japanese, taking control of
many parts of China. In 1940, the CCP began a campaign known as
the Hundred Regiments Battle in which they attacked the
Japanese controlled railway system and paralysed Japanese
transport. Small Red Army units struck deep into Japanese-held
territory, hit important targets, and then retreated back into safety.
The Communists worked amongst the peasants and soon controlled
the country side. The Japanese retaliated with the Three All
Campaign in 1941, Kill all, Burn all, Destroy all. Their aim was to
turn people against the CCP in areas which supported them, by
burning down their villages, crops and killing the peasants. This
campaign had the opposite effect which drove many peasants to
support the CCP. In 1937, the CCP held 30,000 square miles of
China, with 2 million people. By 1945, when the Japanese
surrendered, CCP already controlled 300,000 square miles and 95
million people.

CCP Leadership
The CCP leadership made their final break with the Sovietorientated groups within the CCP. The CCP leaders were promoting
the idea of building Chinese communism with the peasants at
the base. Marxism was being sinicised into Maoism. However, Maos
book, on the New Democracy, encouraged all classes to
participate in the Communist revolution peasants, workers,
intellectuals and capitalists. The book played down the idea of
levelling classes in order to gain support from the masses/majority.
CCP liberated areas were generally far better than areas under
the control of KMT. Big estates were confiscated from rich lands and
shared among the peasants. Rents and taxes were reduced and
peasants were given interest-free loans. Out-dated and undesirable
practices such as foot binding were abolished. Womens
associations were set up to help women to free themselves from
their violent husbands. The Red Army were disciplined and never
treated peasants badly, they helped peasants in the fields and
around the villages. In return, peasants kept the Red Army
informed about Japanese activities.

iv.

The limitations of the KMT

Chiang decided that the Japanese were not as dangerous as the


CCP, he wanted to continue his war with the CCP. Chiang planned a
attack on the CCP despite the United Front. He was kidnapped a
result, which makes weakens KMT as a whole because of the lack of
cooperation. The KMT appeared unpatriotic and unwilling to attack
Japan. Chiang took until 1937 to declare war and had retreated into
Sichuan. He was cut off from his main industrial base.

KMT officials were corrupt and did little to improve welfare


problems. Rents remained high, lack of medical care and the
economy was wracked with high inflation. This helped to give rise to
the CCP as the Red Army were helping the peasants in the country
side. It made the peasants appeal to the CCP as they offered
reforms and better living conditions in CCP liberated areas. Warlords
remained able to do what they wished, which meant little change
for the people. As a result, the KMT had little support in the country
side. The peasants perceive them as a Party of bankers,
business owners and land owners.

C. Key Features of the Civil War 1946-1949, The Battle of Huai-Hai.


i.

22

Causes

Chiangs conduct during the War


Chiang attacked the CCP, despite the United Front. The United
Front was weak as both sides carried infighting whilst fighting the
war against Japan. Chiang was seen as unpatriotic where as the
communists were perceived in a better light of being true patriots.
Corruption, low morale and lack of trust between generals created
further infighting amongst them which weakens the KMT and
Chiangs prestige. Chinese were more impressed with the CCP,
making a renewed conflict more likely.

A Divided Country
At the end of the war, Japanese still controlled areas of China, the
KMT still held strong authority over the Southern and Central
provinces whilst the CCP controlled most of North China. The USSR
decided to invade Manchuria. The race was on to capture as much
territory as possible. US aircraft lifted 100,000 KMT troops into
Northern China. The CCP moved into Manchuria, receiving many
captured Japanese weapons for the Red Army. Clashes soon broke
between the CCP and KMT.

ii.

Failure of Mediation between USA and USSR


The USA and the USSR wished to avoid civil war in China. Under
USA pressure, Chiang was forced to agree to peace talks. In October
1945, an agreement was reached, however both the KMT and CCP
refused to give up military control. Stalin ordered the CCP to hand
over cities in Manchuria to the KMT. In 1946, the US sent General
George Marshall to mediate again but talks broke down. The CCP
took control of Harbin in Northern Manchuria and rural areas. By
late 1946, civil war had broken out.
Events

First phase of War (July 1946-June 1947)


The Nationalist Offensive. The KMT started the war with
2,800,000 troops and 6,000 artillery pieces. The CCP could only
come up with 320,000 troops and 600 artillery pieces. The KMT
outnumbered the CCP by 3:1. The KMT took the initiative and
captured larger cities, establishing a corridor of control through
Manchuria. CCP were in full retreat and lost their headquarters in
Yanan. Chiang committed half a million of KMT troops to capture
Manchuria but failed to breakthrough Red Armys defence in
Harbin. The CCP had to tactically withdraw.
Second phase of War (June 1947-November 1948)
In May, led by Lin Biao, launched a full-scale assault on KMT. PLA
avoided major battles with the KMT and concentrated on making
guerrilla tactics against them. Despite not having an airforce, the
PLA inflicted serious losses on the KMT which sapped the morale of
troops. In 1948, the PLA moved to a strategy of conventional
warfare with massed infantry assaults. The Red Army (PLA) from
their rural bases adopted the guerrilla warfare, ambushing KMT
units and keeping them locked down in cities by blowing up railway
lines. They captured Laoyang in April 1948 and made gains in
Shandong, isolating the KMT consolidating their authority on
former bases. The CCP made night raids on KMT bases, blowing up
their railway lines and ambushing their patrols.. In October 1947,
railway junction of Jinzhou was captured, trapping the KMT troops in
Manchuria. The KMT become isolated in cities whilst the CCP
controlled the countryside. PLA took much of Central and Northern
China in 1947 which forced the KMT to go into defensive. November
1948, Manchuria was lost and Chiang lost over 400,000 troops.
More land the CCP conquered, the bigger the PLA army grew as
peasants flocked to join the CCP.
23

Third phase of war (December 1948-October 1949)


Northern China was captured in two major offences. The first
against the vital railway junction of Xuzhou which lasted 65 days
from December 1949 to January 1949. Both sides committed over
600,000 troops each. The defeat of the KMT was a major blow and
cut off the rest of Northern from Chiang. Tianjin was easily
captured first then Beijing on the 31st of January. The whole of
Northern China was under control of CCP. In April, the PLA renewed
the attack. Chiangs capital of Nanjing was captured on the 23rd
April with Wuhan and Shanghai falling in late May. The PLA
divided into two to attack the South. Peng Dehaui struck west
towards Xian and Lanzhou, which fell in August 1949. Lin Biao
marched South, capturing Canton in October. Chongqing was
taken in November with Chiang and the remnants of KMT fleeing to
Taiwan. On October 1st 1949, Mao declared the establishment of
the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and appointed himself as
Chairman. The Battle of Huai-Hai, November 1948-January 1949,
both sides faced each other with half a million men in harsh winter
conditions. CCP attacked first and isolated the KMT troops who
surrendered on January 10.
D. Reasons for the success of Mao and the CCP in the Civil War.

24

Military factors
Manchuria was well suited for guerrilla warfare with its hills and
forests. KMT forces were slowly worn down, reducing their
numerical advantage. They were also able to seize the initiative by
destroying KMT railway lines, isolating them in cities. The PLA led by
Lin Biao became a formidable fighting force. Intensive training and
political indoctrination enabled them to adapt and absorb the KMT
deserters. Chiang also made a serious error by overstretching his
best forces. The KMT was corrupt with poor morale, lacking fighting
spirit. Many KMT commanders like Wei Lihuang was in the KMT as
a CCP spy supplying information to the PLA. The KMT composed of
large conscripted army of reluctant soldiers that were badly clothed
and fed.

Political factors
The CCP had pro-peasant policies as it is a peasant-based party. It
attracted huge support with land reforms such as land expropriation
and distribution and the Land Law of 1932 in CCP controlled
areas. Land taken from gentry and landlords and redistributed to
peasants. Peasant Committees established under the district

Soviets, they were able to call for elections or re-elections in local


committees. Committees dealt with education, military training,
political training, public health and revolutionary defence. They
need not engage in brutal abuse of the population unless you were
a landlord. They were adept at using propaganda to spread support
in cities. PLA troops were extremely disciplined and went to help the
peasants in the country side, indoctrinating them. This was a direct
contrast to the unruly and cruel nature of the KMT troops. As a
result, they were extremely popular with the peasants.

Economic Factors
The economy under Chiang suffered from high inflation, prices rose
up to 3000% in February 1947, reducing support even further. KMT
had a corrupt government.

Foreign Factors
The KMT failed to make full use of the US equipment whilst the CCP
was highly trained and equipped by the USSR. The US brokered a
ceasefire in 1946 even prevented the CCP from being wiped out in
Harbin. The US became disillusioned with Chiang as they tried to
form closer ties to the CCP with the Dixie Mission (August 1944August 1945).

Role of Mao
Whilst Mao made military mistakes, his cult of personality and
use of terror made the CCP an efficient fighting force, whilst
Chiangs weak leadership allowed corruption to spread, affecting
KMT troop morale.

i.

25

The Battle of Huai-Hai


It was the final battle of the civil war but not the end of the
civil war. It lasted for two months, November 1948 to January
1949. It was near the Huai-Hai river. CCP had an advantage
because they had civilian support (peasants in particular). CCP
attacked and destroyed weaker KMT formations and surrounded
them. Severe winter, for a few weeks which slowed down
productivity as both sides did nothing. KMT troops who were treated
horribly by their leaders left and deferred to join the CCP. On the
10th of January, 300,000 KMT troops surrendered. The KMT troops in
Shanghai rounded out Communists and executed them before
evacuating Shanghai as the CCPs were advancing.

3. CHANGES UNDER MAO, 1949-1963


i.

Changes in Agriculture and industry including the First Five Year


Plan, attack on the landlords, the Agrarian Reform Law,
cooperatives and collectives.

First Five-Year-Plan (1953-1957)


Influenced by Russian advisers, the Chinese drew up a 5 year plan
for the development of their economy. The plan ran from 1953-1957
gave priority to heavy industry such as steel, coal, machinery.
700 new production plans were written up for central China and
Manchuria. Chinas light industry such as cotton-making, food
processing were neglected in favour of heavy industry. People had
to put up with only a slow growth in their living standards in the
availability of consumer goods. Purpose of five year plan, new ideas
to maximise growth of economy, anti-imperialism by centralising
economy, high saving and investment, primitive accumulation
(peasants forced to sell or more of their total grain production to
the state at extremely low prices.
Attack on landlords
Maos aim for the Agrarian Land Reforms in June 1950 was to
revoke power which landlords held and exercised over
peasants. Because of the Agrarian Land Reform, CCP members
were sent out to the countryside to organise the peasants
against the landlords. The peasants encouraged to hold mass
meetings at which landlords are denounced. These Peoples
Courts or Speak Bitterness campaigns became increasingly
violent and often ended up in execution of landlords. By 1952, 2
thirds of the landlord population had been killed, 750,000 to
1,000,000 landlords had been killed. Land was taken from those
who had more than they needed for their own use and given to
those who had none. By 1952, 46 hectares of land had been
redistributed to 300 million peasants.
Agrarian Land Reform Law
CCP had been committed to land reforms since 1921. It has always
been an argument in the party on how to proceed. Mao had already
begun the process of giving land to peasants in CCP controlled
areas. Mao wanted to revoke the power which landlords held
and exercised over peasants. The Agrarian Land Reform Law was
passed in June 1950 to speed up the process of land reforms. By
1952, land reform had transformed China. 40% of the land was
redistributed with 60% of peasants benefitting. Land reforms proved
26

to be a disappointment to many peasants as they did not have the


proper equipment and finance to cultivate the land to maximise
agricultural output. Therefore, mutual aid teams were set up.
Cooperatives and Collectives
Mao followed the soviet model of collectivisation with his
cooperatives. Peasant farms were too small to be productive
and efficient and would not be able to provide maximum
agricultural output to meet the needs for the rapidly growing
cities as well as to achieve the food production level as targeted in
the First Five-Year-Plan. Mao feared that there would be an
emergence of a new social class such as the Kulaks in Soviet
Union that would only be interested in making profits for
themselves. Following the Agrarian Land Reform in June 1950,
after redistributing 46 hectares of land to 300 million peasants,
peasants were grouped into collective labour.

27

Stage 1, Mutual Aid Teams


In 1951, They were set up to pool labour and farming
equipment. 6-7 households came together and formed a
team to pool tools, animals and labour. This had a big
impact on Chinas food production as food production level
increases. Peasants worked on each others land,
fertilising, killing pests and harvesting so that each plot
of land would become more productive. Quarrels often
occurred regarding whose land should be worked on first. It
was difficult to solve these problems. Therefore, they
formed a peasant cooperative.

Stage 2 : Lower Stage Co-operatives


In 1953, the government and the CCP made great efforts to
persuade peasants to join the lower stage
cooperatives. This meant that 30-50 peasants families
pooled their land and shared labour to make one
bigger and more efficient farm. Similar to Mutual Aid
Teams, but with larger amounts of people and trying to make
it a more efficient farm than a more efficient land. Families
still legally owned their plot of land and the land was
kept on permanent loan to the cooperative which each
family is paid rent for its land.

Stage 3 : Higher Stage Co-operatives


In 1955, The Five-Year-Plan went much further than this by
joining the lower-stage cooperatives into a higherstage cooperative. These consisted of 200-300 families.
Families no longer get paid rent (contrast with the lowerstage cooperatives). They only receive wages for labour.
They had to surrender title deeds to all land, equipment
and animals to cooperatives (contrast to lower-stage
cooperatives). They were only allowed to keep small personal
plots of land for growing vegetables or raising chickens. End
of 1956, 96 out of every 100 peasant families joined the
higher-stage cooperatives. Most of the 300 million
peasants who gained land from the Agrarian Land Reform
were now landless yet again.

B. Changes in the role of women


Mao was determined to change old attitudes to women who had been
seen as second-class citizens.
i.

Problems
Many people distrusted modern ideas especially on womens
rights. In traditional Chinese families, marriages were arranged
and wives were expected to completely obey their husbands.

ii.

Changes

1950 Marriage Law which declared women to have equal rights


with men and broke the traditional male-dominated family which
had kept women in subjection. It forbade arranged marriages,
dowries, concubinage and child marriage. Womens property rights
also asserted and divorce became available on equal terms.

Prostitution was made illegal with all houses registered and


visitor list kept by street committees.

Carefully laid down the rights of women and children. It


provided equal pay and maternity benefits as well as child care at
the workplace so that women were encouraged to work outside the
home.

C. Political changes including Thought Reform, the Three and Five Antis
Campaigns.
i.

28

Causes
The communists had to prove they were capable of providing a
strong government. 37 years of warlords and war had produced

social disintegration and criminal habits on a large scale. There


were an estimated one million bandits in 1949. Thieves and
gangsters stalked the cities. Many women had turned to prostitution
as a means of survival. There were also many ex-sympathisers
with the KMT regime who had not escaped to Taiwan and some
even launched sabotage expeditions. Opposition to the government
had to be removed or brought under control.
ii.

Changes (Thought Reform & Mass campaigns)


To strengthen the control of China, the CCP turned China into a
one-party state. All other political parties were suppressed in a
series of purges in 1950-1952. Foreigners were also driven out
and foreign businesses taken over or had their assets frozen. Any
who showed any opposition to communism was labelled a counter
revolutionary or an imperialist. To avoid accusations, Chinese
increasingly tried to prove their loyalty by accusing others.The basis
of control was the danwei, a working or neighbourhood unit. It
exercised surveillance over its members and demanded active
participation.
In 1951, the Party began a movement for thought reform. It was
called the Movement for the Study of Mao Zedongs Thought
encouraged the danwei. This involved close study of his readings,
combined with public self-criticism at Party meetings. Special
labour camps were set up for those who resisted and by 1953 with
over 1.5 million inmates. As many as one million opponents
were executed between 1949 and 1951, with over 65,000 killed
in Guangzhou alone.
To gain further control, the Party organised mass campaigns to
encourage mass participation. 1950 Three Mountains
Campaigns, campaign targeted to go against feudalism,
capitalism, and imperialism. 1951 Three Antis Campaign,
targeted to go against party members and bureaucrats and sought
to combat corruption, waste and bureaucracy. 1952 Five Antis
Campaign, targeted and to go against businessmen and sought to
combat bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft of government property
and spying. People who were found guilty were sent to labour
camps to be re-educated with thought reform. The strangest party
campaign was the Swat The Fly (lasted throughout the 1950s)
where every citizen was asked to kill at least 10 flies a day.

D. The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957)


29

i.

Causes

Trap to Expose Anti-Communist elements.


The campaign was a deliberate scheme and plan by Mao to flush
out critics of the government and CCP. Mao uses the Hundred
Flowers campaign as a trap to invite people to speak out so that he
could then use what they say against them as as an excuse to
victimise them.
Serious error of judgement
Mao had travelled widely throughout China during the early 1950s
and had always been received very warmly. He appears to have
believed that it was now possible to allow greater freedom of
expression in China. Mao genuinely encouraged free speech and
criticism but was shocked by the reaction and criticism he received.
He then clamped down on his critics. It became a muddled and
inconclusive movement hat grew out of conflicts within the CCP
leadership.
Effects of First Five-Year-Plan
The First-Five-Year-Plan had been achieved but serious problems
of waste and chaos in planning especially in agriculture. This
caused debates and disputes to brew within the CCP. Mao wanted to
speed up the economic change but faced opposition in the
Politburo.
ii.

30

Events
February 1957, Mao made a speech on the subject of On the
Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People in
which he repeated to his early call to let a hundred flowers
blossom, let a hundred schools of thought contend. He meant that
free speech was healthy and should be encouraged. The speech
was published widely and Mao supported it with a 3-week train
journey through eastern China to spread the message. In April, the
Politburo were persuaded by Mao to sanction the campaign and it
was officially launched in May, unleashing a torrent of
criticisms that attacked the Communist system. In the press,
magazines, at rallies and on posters, intellectuals attacked the
regime for treating people as their obedient subjects and for
developing into a new privileged, bureaucratic class that was out of
touch with people. At Beijing University, students created a
democracy wall that was covered with posters critical of the

communist party. Even Mao himself began to be criticised.


iii.

Effects
The Anti-Rightist Campaign
This was too much for Mao who in June 1957, suddenly cracked
down on his critics. A full-scale counter-attack on intellectuals was
launched. In the ensuing anti-rightist campaign, perhaps as
many as 500,000 intellectuals were branded rightists and
subjected to persecution. Some were sent to labour camps, others
to the countryside for re-education. Some were sacked from their
jobs and a few students were shot in public. People were forbidden
from speaking freely and the press was censored. The leading
critics were forced to retract their statements.
Silenced Criticism for a Generation
As a result of this wave of persecution, independence of thought
was systematically crushed. Intellectuals in China would never trust
Mao or the CCP again and intellectual life was stultified.
Party Unity Strengthened
Maos position as Party Chairman became unchallengeable which
enabled serious problems in the Great Leap Forward to go
unchecked by the Party. After the Three Anti rightist campaign, no
one wants to open their mouths.

E. The Reasons for, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward.
(1958-1962)
In January 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, which was his
Second Five Year Plan. China was meant to be transformed into a
leading industrial power, overtaking Britain in 15 years and the USA
soon after. Mao got quickly caught up in the euphoria of his belief that
communist rule could finally unlock Chinas vast potential. In Autumn
of 1957, he declared China would produce 40 million tonnes of steel by
1970. By 1958, he raised this to 100 million tonnes by 1962 and 700
million tonnes by early 1970.
i.

31

Causes
Political Reasons
Mao believed mass mobilisation could be used to take China very
quickly from the stage of Socialism to fully developed Communism
without the need for more bureaucracy. A success like this would
further consolidate his political power. Propaganda could be used to

encourage peasants to work harder. Mao wanted another revolution


to hand control of agriculture and industry. He believed that these
were being run by middle class experts who were similar to
mandarin class under the emperors rendering it similar to
imperialism, which was everything he was against.
Mao wanted to decentralise control away from the centralised
State bureaucracy to local party cadres as he feared the revolution
as becoming bogged down in bureaucracy. Mao wanted China to be
in a continuous revolution. The Great Leap Forward would be a way
to continue the revolution.

Economic reasons
The First-Five-Year-Plan boosted industrial production by 18.7% but
agriculture output lagged at 3.8%. Unless agriculture could improve,
industrialisation would be held back.
Mao wanted to turn China into a powerful industrial nation as
quickly as possible. Much had already been achieved but the pace
was too slow and the money to set up new factories were scarce. If
China was short of money, it was not short of people. The muscle
power of the peasants could be used as they are the majority of
Chinas population. Mao intended the Chinese economy would
overtake that of Britain within 15 years and that of USA in 30 years.
Chinas vast resource of manpower were not being used effectively.
There was still much unemployment in towns, cities and the
countryside. In the countryside, peasants would be fully employed
on large irrigation and flood control projects and would also develop
small-scale industries. Surplus food would free peasants to work in
factories to increase industrial manpower.

32

International context
Mao wanted China to become a country of great power, free of
foreign influence and foreign aid such as the USSR and the USA. The
peaceful coexistence policy with the USA scared Mao and
enforced the belief that China should stand alone. The Great Leap
Forward was an assertion by Mao of Chinese independence.

ii.

Events
Agriculture
Peoples Communes
Communes were a group of villagers. The average commune
contained about 5000 families who gave up their land, animals
and equipment to common ownership by all members of the
commune. The purpose of the communes was to release what Mao
called the tremendous energy of the masses by making sure
that time and effort were not wasted and that members of a
commune could work at a great variety of tasks. The advantage of
Peoples Communes lies in the fact that they combine industry,
agriculture, commerce, education and military affairs.
Communes were organised so that nothing could distract people
from their work. Around 4 million communal eating halls were set
up so that the number of people who spent time cooking meals
were reduced. Several million children were put in nurseries and
schools so that parents were freed for full-time work. Old and infirm
people were moved into houses of happiness so that their
families did not have to take time off work to look after them.
Communes controlled almost every activity in a persons life
because they combined several different functions.
o

A commune was a unit of local government.


It has a committee made up of peasants, party members
and soldiers running schools, clinics, nurseries, eating halls,
entertainments and other public services.

A commune was a unit of work organisation


Work in the commune was divided by dozen of families
grouped into Work Teams. Dozens of Work Teams were then
grouped into Work Brigades.

A commune was a unit of the Communist Party


The Party Committee ensures that the communes always
followed party decisions.

The speed which communes were created astounded the Chinese.


By the end of 1958, 7000 million people (90% of the population)
had been placed into 26,500 communes in all parts of the country.
By mid 1958, a campaign was launched to abolish private plots.
33

The Central Committee of the CCP was dazzled by claims that these
mass movements had caused the economic production to
double or increase by 10 fold. They endorsed the establishment
of the Peoples Commune in which all activities are communal.
Industry
The Backyard Steel Campaign
Backyard furnaces were an attempt to achieve targets set by Mao.
Communes were expected to contribute to Great Leap Forward.
Small commune factories were set up to make all kinds of industrial
projects such as cement, ball bearings and chemical fertiliser.
Communes also had to aid industrial production by building
600,000, Backyard Furnaces, to produce iron and steel. Metal
implements of all kinds were melted down into pig iron. 11 million
tonnes of steel were produced. As 1958 wore on, figures for the
production for steel, coal, timber, cement, fertiliser and other
industrial products showed a spectacular rise. It began to seem like
Mao was right and that it was possible to accomplish any task
whatsoever.
iii.

Effects
Food production slumped
Peasants were forced into industry. In 1958, there was a good
harvest of 375 million tonnes of grain recorded but closer to 200
million. Because of this, Mao set a higher figure of 430 million
tonnes for 1959. As a result of false reporting, many communal
eating halls started giving peasants very generous meals, using up
the valuable food stocks. However, the 1959 harvest was a disaster
of only 170 million tonnes produced. The situation of false reporting
was not helped by three years of disastrous harvest caused by flood
and droughts. The failures of the Great Leap Forward (absence of
peasants as they neglected agricultural duties to work in backyard
steel campaigns to produce steel) combined with bad weather
reduced the harvest of 1960. In 1960, it was only 143 million
tonnes. This led to major famine in 1960 killing 9 million
peasants. The median age of death in 1957 was 17.6 and in
1963, it was 9.7. This led to the introduction of rationing by the
government where the maximum was 125 grams of grains per day
per person. Between 1959 to 1962, 20 million peasants died of
starvation and related diseases.

34

China also used the Lysenkoism technique to maximise agricultural


output. This was based on the claims of Trofim Lysenko, a soviet
scientist. China tried to produce supercrops with extremely high
production yields. They used deep ploughing and close planting.
This method rotted the crop, exhausted the soil of nitrates to grow
and produced low yields.
Industrial production slumped
Party workers urged people to produce more and faster. As a
result, old and overworked factories and machinery fell apart
under the strain. 11 million tonnes of steel was produced by 1958.
The Great Leap Forward failed as 3 million of the 11 million steel
made in backyard furnaces campaign were too impure for industrial
use and had to be thrown away as scrap. So many furnaces were
built that eventually, 1 person per 10 people was making steel. This
took many people away from the feels, thus leaving agriculture
yet again neglected which completely goes against the aim
for The Great Leap Forward which was to improve agricultural
output. Furnaces also used much of the countrys resources as
people used all the metal items they owned to make steel including
door knobs, hair pins, farming equipment and etc. Targets remained
set at impossibly high levels which were never met. Backyard
furnaces were eventually abandoned in 1959.
Mao steps down
Mao took part of the blame and admitted that the Great Leap
Forward was a fail in 1959. As a result, he stepped down as
Chinas head of state. He was still chairman of the CCP but China
was now controlled by President Liu Shaoqi. They reversed many of
Maos policies including reducing communes in size. Peasants
working in backyard steel production were sent back to the fields.
Peasants were allowed their own private plots again, and to sell
what they grew at market for their own profit. Town workers wages
increased. Although Mao was no longer allowed a say in running the
economy, he continued to have great influence over the mass of
the people. He used this influence in 1966 to get rid of the
moderates by starting a political revolution, the Cultural
Revolution.

iv.
35

Why did the Great Leap Forward FAIL?

Mao ignored economic realities. Economic laws would be


ignored as bureaucratic or revisionist. The speed in which
communes were established and the exaggerated production
figures which local officials reported to the government (scared and
want to avoid being labelled as rightists) caused Maos confidence
to grow, further, inflating already impossible targets. He was in too
much of a hurry and did not give enough thought to the harsh
practical realities and problems that would arise from the Great
Leap Forward.

It was nonsensical as major industrial development needed capital


investment, technology and planning. However, Mao stood against
these ideas and labelled them as rightists or revisionists. He
was afraid that this would create a class of experts such as the
Kulaks in Russia which will cause Mao to lose his grip of the
continuous revolution.

Anti-rightist campaigns. Had purged China of crucial experts and


scared officials into telling Mao what he wanted to hear. Targets
were inflated to ensure survival.
Waste and inefficiency. Military training and factory work took
peasants away from food production, leaving grain to rot as
agriculture was neglected. Farming tools were even melted down to
produce steel as they all desperately used ANY metal scraps they
could find to make steel which led to 3 million tonnes of 11 million
tonnes being impure.
Failure of commune system. Peasants resented being forced to
give up land and private lines. There was no incentive to work hard
and many peasants hoarded grain due to lack of food.
Natural disasters. In 1960, north and central China faced
droughts, flooding and horrible weather conditions.

36

Reduction of foreign influence. One of the main causes of the


Great Leap Forward was to reduce foreign influence such as the
USSR and the US. Foreign businesses and foreign aid was reduced.
As a result, in 1960, the USSR withdrew its aid to China by removing
all scientists and engineers working in China to return home. This
contributed to the failure of the Great Leap Forward as this meant
that China was short of technicians and expertise needed to build
its economy. Factories under construction could not be finished
without Soviet assistance, some factories already built had to be
closed down as the supply of spare parts from the Soviet Union
dried up. This is ironic as Mao wanted to help China grow as an
independent country by removing and refusing help offered by the

USSR and the USA which caused his plans of the Great Leap
Forward to fail dramatically.

4. THE IMPACT OF THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION


A. Maos motives for the Cultural Revolution (1966-1969)
i.

Power Struggle

After the Great Leap Forward, Maos political position was weakened
whilst his economic policies had been rejected. One aim was to
defeat his opponents, regain political supremacy and ensure his
economic policies were accepted. Mao saw two lines developing
within the CCP, Communism and Revisionism. Revisionism was
Maos term for those who wanted to change from communism.
Communist party officials were the worst culprits in Maos eyes.
Instead of setting an example by serving the people, they were
using their power for their own ends such as obtaining seaside
holidays, extra rations of food, clothing and bigger houses for their
families to live in. Mao was upset by the direction of the CCP.
Incentives undermined the ideal of communist equality. The party
leaders leading privileged lives and losing touch with the people
contributes to the division between the party and the people. He
wanted to revive the peoples faith in CCP and Communism.
Economic Struggle
From 1962 to 1966, the leaders of the CCP argued with one another
about which road they should follow in developing China. The
moderates led by Lu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping wanted to
introduce more incentives to get the peasants in the communes to
work hard. They wanted to let peasants have large private plots and
pay them wages according to how much work they did. They
believed by going back to the ideas of the First Five Year Plan to
build up industry on Russian lines. This will manage industry more
effectively, they wanted to create a new class of skilled
managers. By 1962, 20% of of farm land had reverted to private
ownership. Mao totally opposed these policies and retained
his faith in mass mobilisation. He argued that these changes
were turning China into a sick and selfish society where people were
more concerned about themselves than their neighbours. The
peasants were working harder on their own land than they were on
the communes. In the cities, the young were more interested in
latest fashions in clothes and pop music than in studying on how to
become good communists. Therefore, he accused Liu Shaoqi and
37

Deng Xiaoping for being capitalists.


Revolutionary Immortality
Mao was attempting to achieve revolutionary immortality. He
was 74. He feared that his revolution would be destroyed after his
death. He had to save it using the youth of the next generation. So
he turned to the Red Guards to save the revolution. Mao wanted to
make a last ditch effort to preserve the continuous revolution. He
believed in continuous or permanent revolution as he wanted young
people to experience revolution. According to Mao, without this
there was a danger of returning to old China.
B. Key Features of the Cultural Revolution
C. Red Guards, Education and the Cult of Mao
i.

In early 1965, Mao began scheming against his revisionist rivals,


using his allies to place attacks in attacks in newspapers. On 16th
May 1966, Mao persuaded the Politburo to issue a circular which
launched the Cultural Revolution. Representatives of the
bourgeoisie have sneaked into our party. They are a bunch of
country-revolutionary revisionists. Some of these have been
exposed, others have not.

ii.

Red Guards
Mao then publically announced his return to political life with a
15km swim in the Yangtze river and gave a speech to the CCP in
Beijing, launching the Cultural Revolution with an attack on the
Four olds old culture, old ideas, old customs and old
habits. On the 18th August 1966, Mao gave the first of eight giant
rallies, calling on Red Guards to attack the Four Olds and root out
revisionists. Mao support of the PLA was crucial but Mao decided to
mobilise young people to promote his policies to achieve
revolutionary immortality.

iii.

Education
The Cultural Revolution began among school children and students
in Beijing. Schools and colleges were shut down for six months so
that the curriculum could be rewritten to make young people aware
of communist ideals. In 1962, he launched the Socialist Education
Movement to get people back on to the right road. Chinese culture
and education were criticised by Mao for producing high and
mighty bureaucrats.

38

iv.

The Red Guards were a group of young people and students who
were encouraged to do Maos bidding. Theyre main slogan was
We are critics of the old world, we are builders of the new.
They were given the right to travel free on railways so that
they could take part in massive rallies. The Police and PLA
were ordered not to interfere. They soon used violence to achieve
their aims such as shaving off girls with western haircuts, burning
libraries and museums, attacking foreign embassies, smashed
windows of shops selling Western merchandise, stopped couples
from holding hands. By 1967, there was anarchy as the Red Guards
split into rival factions with over 400,000 deaths.

v.

Red Guards were inspired by Cult of Mao. Mao was worshipped as


a new emperor, with workers forced to worship his portrait and read
his sayings in the Little Red Book. 740 million copies were printed
in 1966-1969. The meeting closed with everybody sating May the
Chairman live ten thousand years. Everywhere in China, there
were statues and portraits of Chairman Mao whilst loudspeakers
blared out songs of the Cultural Revolution. Many bowed before his
picture after getting up in the morning and before sleeping at night.

vi.

Attacks on the party


The main target was Liu Shaoqi who had replaced Mao as Head
of State. He was accused of being number 1 enemy of
communism. The Red Guards broke into his house, physically
attacked him and forced him to write down his confession.
Eventually in 1969, he was expelled from the party.

vii.

By September 1967, Mao attempted to restore order. Schools


and colleges were reopened and he called on young people to
return to their studies. The PLA was used to quell the fighting in
areas of Red Guard violence. Over five million young people were
sent to the countryside for compulsory re-education. By 1969,
law and order had been restored in most areas and Cultural
Revolution was over.

D. Impact of the Cultural Revolution on China and Maos position


i.

39

Mao Triumphant
The 9th Party Congress in April 1969 confirmed Maos thought as
the guiding ideology in China. Opponents were killed or sent into
exile. All rivals had been demoted or killed although Zhou Enlai and

Deng Xiaoping survived by not opposing Mao. Liu Shaoqi was


denounced as a hidden traitor and died of medical neglect as he
was refused medical treatment for his pneumonia and diabetes.
Deng Xiaoping was removed from his post as Secretary of the CCP.
ii.

Army most powerful institution


CCP Committee were now dominated by the PLA. Lin Biao was
named successor to Mao and over half of CCP delegates wore army
uniforms. The army composed 45% of the 279 members in the new
Central Committee. The 25-man Politburo composed of 9 serving
soldiers and 3 former marshals.

iii.

Education was disrupted


During the revolution, schools and colleges were closed for 6
months as the syllabus was rewritten to favour the communist
regime. However, some schools closed up to 2 years. Students
refused to sit for examinations and the exam system was abolished.
Students of all ages were made to learn from peasants and factory
workers by spending part of their education in factories or on farms.
University places went to students who supported the Cultural
Revolution.

iv.

Deaths
500,000 have been estimated to have been killed mostly through
torture and beatings. Millions more were sent for re-education
through hard labour.

v.

Industrial output
Factories were reorganised to give power to workers. Prizes and
bonuses for town workers were abolished. All workers were given
equal wages. Instead special importance was placed on team work.
Technicians were dismissed and production fell. Transportation
ground to a halt. Industrial output dropped by 14% in 1967 and fell
dramatically in 1968.

vi.

Impact on Maos position


During the 9th party congress when Mao named Lin Biao as his
successor and the second-in-command, Lin Biao began to doubt
Mao whilst Mao feared that Lin might try to oust him as leader. Mao
god rid of several Party leaders who supported Lin. In retaliation,
Lin, in 1971, drew up a plan to overthrow Mao which was
codenamed Project 571. The plot was discovered, Lin and his

40

plotters tried to escape but the aircraft crashed in Mongolia.


Mao dies on 9th September 1976.

5. CHINA 1969-1989
A. Changes under Deng in education, birth control, agriculture and
industry.
i.

Education
Purpose

To reverse educational reforms of the Cultural Revolution.


Under Mao, students were admitted to university if they had a
good political record. Examinations were boycotted because
they were seen as creating an unequal society.

Lack of educated leaders


During Maos leadership, only 25% of the CCP had formal
education. This meant that the remaining 75% of the CCP were
uneducated.

To establish his leadership and make people forget about Mao .


Reform
Deng restored tough examinations for university places.
Success in academic subjects once again became essential.
Special key schools were set up for best performing students.
This provided China with the skills needed to prosper.
Time spent on political education and manual labour was
reduced.
Young Party cadres with a college education or professional
training were sent to government positions in provinces.
Deng believed in the four modernisations 1963
(modernisation in agriculture, industry, national defence and
science and technology). He believed the modernisation in
science and technology was the most important and he
believed that the foundation of all modernisations was
education. Thus, he believed sending students to foreign
countries would speed up the process of modernisation. In
January 1979, Deng and Carter signed a normalisation
41

agreement on the cooperation in science and technology and a


cultural agreement. This diplomatic relation and change in
attitude towards foreign relations from before shows Chinas
growth as a nation.
Significance
Bilateral exchanges between China and the U.S. in 1979, sending
students and scholars to each other is a significant part of
educational cooperation. China has sent more than 700,000
students to the U.S. As a result, China and U.S sharing
intellectual understanding that will benefit their countries in
generations to come. People of China became educated and
there was obvious advancements in science and technology.
ii.

Birth Control
Purpose

Population Growth
During the Cultural Revolution, birth programmes were
abandoned and birth rates spiralled out of control. It was
estimated that by year 2000, Chinas population would be 1.3
billion (20% of the worlds population).

Crumbling economy
In 1982, of the population worked in agriculture and that
population was increasing by 12 million a year. Chinas economic
growth will be slowed down if this carried on as China has extra
mouths to feed. More food had to be constantly produced with
less land as land is required to house the increase in population.

42

Reform

In 1979, he introduced the one-child family policy with


massive publicity. It was a series of measures designed to
encourage couples from having more than one child. To control
birth he offered incentives through housing, wages, and
education.
o

The minimum age for marriage was 20 for women and 22


for men.

Couples had to get consent of their commune and take a


written test in family planning.

Those with only one child were given generous family


allowances and more rations.

Single children found it easier to get into higher education


whilst their parents got priority housing.

People who were willing to be sterilised got extra cash and


holidays.

Significance

iii.
43

Overall, it was a successful policy with disastrous effects.

Those who had more than one child did not receive benefits and
were fined.

The policy was keenly resisted in rural areas where it was


traditional to have more than eight children.

In urban areas, the policy had been enforced strictly but remote
rural areas have been harder to control. Many people acclaim
that some women who had been pregnant for the second time,
were forced to an abortion and forcibly sterilised. More successful
in cities instead of countryside because it was difficult to monitor
the countrysides due to distance and high resistance in those
areas. Therefore, it was easier to monitor people in the cities.

The birth rate in China has fallen since 1979 and the rate of
population growth is now 0.7% compared to 5% in 1950.

Due to traditional preferences for boys, large numbers of female


babies ended up homeless or killed. In 2000, 90% of all aborted
foetuses were female. As a result of female infanticide being a
traditional practice, balance of Chinese population is distorted,
men outnumber women by 60 million.

Industry

Purpose

The economy had suffered hugely under Mao and the Gang of Four
Many machines were old-fashioned and many Chinese factories
were old fashioned and inefficient, running at a loss.

The economy was also too micromanaged by Beijing


In one area, 2 million pairs of shoes piled up in warehouses. Nobody
was buying them because the style was old-fashioned, yet factories
were still producing them because managers were under order to
do so.
Reforms

Ten Year Plan


o

New factories built

Workers paid bonuses for extra output (incentives)

People were free to own their businesses. They were now


allowed to retain a proportion of their surplus and distribute it
as incentives.

More consumer goods produced.

Foreigners were encouraged to visit China and invest their


money.

Industrial Responsibility system


Less control from the centre. Factory managers were told to run
their factories profitably and to produce what people wanted to buy.
o

Enterprises now allowed to retain a proportion of their surplus


and distribute it

New management techniques introduced which allows


managers much greater freedom of operation.

Special Economic Zones (1979)


Encouraged western firms to establish themselves in areas such as
Shanghai and Guangdong, through the promise of cheap land and
local labour. These foreign businesses were expected to train
Chinese personnel and to give priority to using Chinese raw
materials.

44

Attract foreign capital into China

Offered special incentives , suitable sites and cheap labour

Significance
Chinas external trade increased from 20.64 billion to 195.8 billion.
Gross national product grew at a annual rate at 9.36% per annum
Moderate inflation.
Shanghai Stock Market opened in 1986.
However.,

iv.

Economists pointed out the risk of overheating, productive


capacity is unable to keep up with aggregate demand.

State-owned industrial enterprises were largely unprofitable

Economic growth has been uneven and has produced


discrepancies of wealth. Corruption and uneven economic
growth in wealth began to emerge.

Corruption and other social evils.

Agriculture
Purpose

The cooperative farms were failing to produce enough food. In


1982, China had to import 13.7 million tonnes of grain to feed its
population. Increasing population meant that there were more
mouths to feed. Peasants had to produce more food. The amount of
grain required in 2000 would be 50% higher than agricultural output
in 1980.
Reform

Size of peasant plots increased.


Introduction of Responsibility System for commune land started
in 1978. Families were given responsibility for cultivating areas of
land within their commune. They signed contracts promising to
produce fixed amounts of food for sale to state. They were allowed
to sell any surplus at market for profit or retain products as they
wished.
By 1983, China had 44,000 markets as farmers could sell their
produce privately. The income of agricultural workers tripled
between 1977 to 1983. This marked China moving away from
communism and towards capitalism.

45

Significance

First few years were the golden era as 400 million tonnes of grain
was produced. Income of agricultural workers tripled.

Situation worsened after 1984 onwards. State monopoly in of trade


in grain ended. Price of gain reduced, therefore farmers income
was reduced. Peasants earned less.

Chinas population was rising. Stock of arable land was falling from
112 million to 96 million hectares. More land was required to house
increasing population growth. Demands of development led to a
sharp decrease of available land. In the 1990s, China had 22% of
world population and 7% of arable land.

A new slogan of to be rich is to be glorious appeared. A new


class of entrepreneurial peasant emerged.

Overall, it was successful to a certain extent. It depends on the


political standing of an individual to determine the success of this
reform. A moderate would most likely be happy and contented
with this reform. A communist, it will most likely be upset as this
was moving away from communism towards capitalism.

B. Emergence of privatisation and westernisation.


i.

Privatisation
A policy by the government to allow people to buy and own their
own companies, as an individual or group of people, this is a move
away from pure communism.
Purpose

Deng was a moderate therefore; he began moderate policies. Due


to the success of privatisation, Deng managed to fill important
positions with his supporters without protest. There was less
emphasis on equality and more emphasis on peoples
initiatives and incentives. This again contrasts Maos policies of
collectivisation that failed to meet targets.

46

Reform
Industry

Why : more emphasis on peoples


initiatives and incentives.
Industrial Responsibility System
(1978), increased consumerism
among general populace with
consumer goods flooding the market.
Enterprises allowed to keep surplus
and distribute as incentives.
New management techniques
introduced which gave managers
freedom of operation, managers were
not forced to adhere to government
rules and more freedom to control
their business.
Less control from government,
industries worked better under party
officials control.

Agriculture
Why : Maos policies of collectivisation
was failing dramatically.
Agricultural Responsibility System
(1978)
o

Grew a class of entrepreneurial


peasants unlike Stolypins Kulaks in
Russia.

Signed contracts promising to


produce fixed amounts of food for
sale to state.

Ownership of land remained


collective but 15% of all team land
was allocated for private plots.

Families given responsibility to


cultivate areas of land within their
commune.

Allowed to sell or retain surplus


products as they wish.

Privately owned businesses were


allowed.

Communes were abandoned

Encouraged factory owners to work as


they were allowed to keep surplus and
sell it on their own as profit.

Encouraged peasants to produce more


on private plots and commercially
farm.

They were able to choose what they


wanted to produce. Establishment of a
stock exchange in 1986 was a clear
indication of its rapidly privatising
economy. Furthermore, the increased
foreign presence in economic zones
displays the change in attitude of
China towards foreigners.

Production Responsibility System

ii.

Production of harvest to be handed


to the production team.

Westernisation
Conversion to or adoption of Western tradition and customs. This
would affect social, economic and political ideas of a country.
Purpose

Shortly after Maos death, Deng Xiaoping ended the Cultural


Revolution and launched his reforms, which implemented policies
47

such as economic development, and the reconstruction of the legal


system. One major principle Deng stood by, was to guide these
reforms through the influence of Western powers. Because of this,
western-influenced legislative work began in fields such as foreign
investment and trade, which soon expanded to the social classes.
Under Mao, China was virtually closed off from the world. Foreign
influences and trade was limited and during the Cultural Revolution,
many foreign embassies were attacked. This improved in 1972
when US President Nixon visited China leading to a thaw in
relations.
Reform
The 1978 Open Door policy was designed by Deng to open up
China to world capitalism and western influences. On TV, the
Chinese were able to see the Pope or US President. They could buy
foreign books in translation and listen to foreign music. There was
more entertainment and less political meetings. In communist
newspapers, the Chinese could read about the darker side of life in
China such as industrial accidents, crime and Party officials
scandals and corruption.
Deng realised that economic recovery would be helped by
Western technology and expertise. He sent students abroad to
study engineering and technology. He encouraged foreign
companies to set up projects in China in partnership with stateowned Chinese businesses. These ranged from textiles to hotel
construction to oil prospecting.
C. The Rise and Fall of the Gang of Four
i.

48

Growing Power Struggle

After the Cultural Revolution, Mao developed a suspicious hostility


to the power of the army and removed many of Lin Biaos
supporters. In retaliation, Lin drew up a plan to overthrow Mao
in 1971 called Project 571 but was discovered. He tried to
escape in an aircraft but died when it crashed in the Mongolian
desert. After Lins death, Maos health began to fail and there was
growing power struggle between the right-wing moderates and leftwing radicals for control of the CCP.

THE LEFT
Led by Maos wife, Jiang Qing, and 3 radical politicians from
Shanghai known as the Gang of Four, Zhang Chunquiao, Yao

Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen. They were supported by the


Communist Youth League and control press and radio. They
believed in Maoism and wanted to continue the political struggle
against the revisionists. They put all their energy into series of
campaigns against the bourgeoisie and outdated ideas like 1973
Anti-Confucius campaign.

ii.

iii.

THE RIGHT
Led by Prime Minster Zhou Enlai and Deputy Prime Minister Deng
Xiaoping who had been rehabilitated by Mao who wanted to
balance the factions within the CCP. The right was supported by the
CCP and the PLA, who were eager to end all political arguments.
They supported Zhous plan for Four Modernisations of Chinas
industry, farming, national defence and science and technology.
Rise of the Gang of Four
In 1976, the right suffered a setback when Zhou Enlai died and
was succeeded by Deng. Thousands went to Tiananmen Square to
pay their respects, laying wreaths and posters. On 5th April 1975,
visitor found all the wreaths removed. 10,000 people rioted in
supported of Zhou and Deng followed by 200 arrests. There were
similar protests in other cities such as Shanghai however the left
blamed Deng and removed him from the Party and
government. He was replaced by a minor official called Hua
Guofeng. He was nicknamed helicopter due to his speedy rise to
power. Maos death on the 9th of September 1976 helped the Gang
of Four take control of the CCP.
Fall of the Gang of Four
When Mao died, Hua Guofeng succeeded to all top positions in
government. Whilst he now controlled the CCP and the army, he
lacked real status of his own and the Gang of Four prepared to
manipulate him out of power. He was rescued by the army, PLA,
There was evidence that they plotted against Hua and on the night
of 6th October 1976, the Gang of Four were arrested. Their
supporters were also put in prison. They were hated and
demanded severe punishments. The CCP used press, radio,
newspapers to attack the Gang of Four and in winter of 19801981 they were put on trial and found guilty, they were
sentenced to long prison terms.
Over the next three years, the moderates led by Deng Xiaoping

49

gently eased Hua from power. 1980, he was excused from


office. Under Deng, China began a period of moderate policies,
carrying out Four Modernisations of Zhou Enlai. The Cultural
Revolution was finally over. In 1981, the Central Committee of the
CCP announced that Mao had been 70% correct and 30% wrong.
The CCP could not condemn its Chairman without fatally
undermining its own legitimacy.
D. Origins of Democracy Movement 1979.
i.

Dengs Opposition to reform


Although Deng believed in economic reform and Westernisation, he
was a communist hardliner and was very conservative towards
political change. He believed that China had gone through too
much in the Cultural Revolution and needed a rest from political
argument. Deng believed popular democracy would
undermine his economic reforms.
This was expressed in 1980 by the National Peoples Congress
which condemned the view that people had a right to speak freely
and even criticise the government.
He was influenced by his four cardinal principles
- Keeping to socialist road
- Upholding the peoples democratic dictatorship
- Upholding leadership by CCP
- Upholding Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought
In addition, Deng wanted to restore authority and control of
the CCP after the disasters of the Great Leap Forward and Cultural
Revolution. He wanted to show that the CCP was still capable of
governing China.

E. The Democracy Wall movement and Wei Jingsheng.


F. Support of university students from 1986.
G. Features and aims.
H. Reaction of Deng.
i.

50

The Democracy Wall Movement began in early 1979. Wall


posters began to appear in the Avenue of Eternal Peace, near
Tiananmen Square. It was a common meeting place for students
who often attached small letters and posters onto walls. Some were
political graffiti whilst others expressed anti-government and

anti-Party feelings. Many Chinese suffered during the Cultural


Revolution but struggled to benefit from Dengs reforms, Wei
Jingsheng was one such person. He was a writer who on 25th March
1979, published an article called Democracy or New
Dictatorship which attacked Deng. The attack shocked Deng an
in summer 1979, the government tore down the posters. Wei
Jingsheng was brought to trial and sentenced for 15 years
imprisonment. Wei was viewed as the first martyr of the
movement who saw in Dengs reforms the opportunity to
modernise the political system as well as the economy. It urged
Deng to adopt democracy and accused the CCP of corruption. In
1986, major disturbances broke out in universities in Hefei, Wuhan
and Shanghai. Thousands following Fang Lizhi at Hefei who was a
professor demanded an open government and democracy. On 5 th
January 1987, students at Beijing University burnt copies of local
CCP newspapers and protested against conservatives. Deng
generally tolerated the movement unless he was personally
attacked. The punishment of Wei Jingsheng was a warning and
insisted that genuine Democracy was not an option for China.
ii.

Growing opposition and unrest.

The Democracy Movement was disappointed at his rejection


of democracy and repression of student demonstrations.

Many economic reforms proved to be very disappointing.


Inflation had risen as had unemployment. The growing population
and rural to urban migration led to severe overcrowding in cities.

Students felt that Deng and the CCP had failed to deliver.

Many also resented the lack of jobs and the fact that top jobs
often went to members of the CCP.

I.

Tiananmen Square Massacre


i.

51

Causes
Death of Hu Yaobang
He died on April 15th 1989. Hua had been sympathetic to the
democracy movement but had been removed in January 1987 for
daring to support the student protests. He had been treated harshly
and died from a heart attack. Large crowds gathered in Tiananmen
Square for this memorial service. Three students tried to give a
petition to Li Peng. His refusal to accept the petition sparked off a
series of sit-ins and boycotts of university classes. Students from 40
universities joined their fellow students in Tiananmen Square.

Transport workers showed their support by allowing the students to


travel free to Beijing.

May Hunger Strike


A group of 300 students had gone on a hunger strike. The
government made contact with hunger strikers, urging them to call
it off. The hunger strikers refused because they were achieving
world publicity with camera crews and journalists from every
continent reporting the events. Gorbachev was due to visit Beijing.
He was popular because of his reforms in the Soviet Union.
Moreover the students were convinced that the authorities would
not dare crush the demonstration during his visit.

Zhao Ziyang (May 1989)


On the sixth day, Zhao Ziyang had asked the students to end the
hunger strike. 17th May, Zhao Ziyang summoned students leaders
for a televised talk. However, during the meeting, students pulled
out saying it was not a dialogue of equal footing. This was
another failed attempt at discussion between the protestors and the
CCP.
19th May, in tears, he promised that the issues over which they were
protesting would be resolved. The same evening Zhao was
dismissed from his post.
20th May, Deng had decided that the demonstrations would be
ended by force and introduced martial law which meant that the
military government would take over and ordinary law was
suspended. However, then the students voted to end the hunger
strikes but continue the protests.

52

Further Support
When the news broke of the decision to continue, thousands who
had earlier given up, returned to the Tiananmen Square. This
included many residents of Beijing who blocked the roads and
avenues leading to Tiananmen Square to prevent the troops from
imposing martial law. The troops were withdrawn to the outskirts of
Beijing.

Troops move in Early June


Deng was now determined more than ever to end the protests.
Crack troops, led by specially appointed commanders, advanced on

Beijing. By 2nd June, 350,000 PLA soldiers surrounded Tiananmen


Square and controlled the routes leading to it, ignoring the protests
of the local people.

ii.

iii.

Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe


Of the immediate concern was the rise of anti-communist
movements in Eastern Europe. The collapse of Soviet power began
in 1989. What goes on in Russia is important to China as it is
Chinas model and China and Russia have bilateral and diplomatic
relations.
The Massacre (3rd-4th June 1989)
The PLA commanders described the action as a full military
campaign to overcome the resistance of rebels and recapture the
Tiananmen Square. The troops were told to reclaim the Square at all
costs.
o

At 10pm of 3rd June, the first shots were fired at


demonstrators and by midday 4th June, the occupation was
over.

At regular intervals groups of students were marched away


and later imprisoned.

The number of causalities is unknown although it included


both PLA soldiers beaten to death by angry crowds and
students being shot.

The government had imposed a news blackout but


information of the massacre was leaked out.

Effects

In the weeks that followed, demonstrators who escaped were


rounded up and imprisoned. Ringleaders were given heavy
sentences.
CCP officials that had supported the protests were dismissed whilst
those who opposed the demonstrations were promoted.
The government admitted that 23 students had been
accidentally killed.
The massacre marked the ned of democracy movement in China. At
the 14th Party congress of the CCP in October 1992, the dictatorship
of the CCP was confirmed, no criticism was allowed to be permitted.
Political reform would not be allowed.

53

On June 8th, Li Peng went on national television, praising the troops


for doing their best. He also reported that no one died from the
Tiananmen Square Massacre.
iv.

Why was the massacre carried out?

Deng could have used riot police, water cannons and tear gas to
disperse the protestors. Instead, he decided to deal with student
riots by gunning them down, which was unusual of an Asian
country. The students were unarmed and not fully united and
determined. However, Deng seems to have wanted a violent end to
the protest. The massacre was very much in the Chinese tradition of
crushing opposition by the severest means in order to act as a
deterrent as well as highlighting that this opposition was
illegitimate. The use of tanks and bullets was to show Chinese
people the determination of the government not to tolerate
opposition. There are no other explanations for the severity of
Dengs actions:

54

The Chinese government insisted that the students and


foreign support and were trying to undo the communist
revolution.

Deng perceived the Students Democracy Movement as a


serious treat to his leadership.

There was a power struggle to see who would take over once
Deng retired or died. This was between Zhao Ziyang and Li
Peng. Li Peng encouraged force against the students,
believing this would win him the support of Deng.

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