Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
IGCSE HISTORY
B5 CONFLICT CRISIS AND CHANGE : CHINA C1911-C1989
1. CHINA 1911 - 1934
A. The Causes, Events and Results of the 1911 Revolution
i.
Causes
Education
Many Chinese students went abroad to obtain their education in
places such as Britain, Japan, America due to the Hundred Days
Reform. They returned heavily influenced by westernised
knowledge, policies and ideas. Some of these scholars were
angered by how backward and underdeveloped China was as a
country compared to Western societies. These scholars pushed for
modernisation in China which led to the growth of Nationalist
movement.
Economic Problems
China faces a railway problem as protests broke out when
government tried to nationalise regional railways in an attempt
to gain revenue and control local authorities. This was strongly
opposed by provincial authorities especially in Sichuan (this added
on to discontent which became a contributing factor to the Sichuan
Uprising) because members of gentry, landowners, and merchants
had all invested money in railway construction. Railway
Protection Societies were formed which the government tried to
suppress with force. This intensified anti-Qing feelings and led
to a series of violent revolts across the country.
During 1839-1860, China had fought two Opium Wars fuelled by
Britains desire to sell Indian Opium in China for huge profits. China
was badly beaten and forced into unequal treaties, in which
China was forced to accept missionaries, allow foreign concessions
in China, and give ports to foreign powers. In these concessions,
foreigners had their own infrastructure, police and courts to keep
power over the Chinese. Many employed Chinese workers, causing
socioeconomic disruptions in China as villagers moved into cities,
leading to overcrowding, shortages and poor living conditions.
These treaties gave foreign forces huge power from within
China, opening trade routes and the ability to live without Chinese
interference. These unfair terms of these treaties along with
humiliation of defeat and forced submission to foreign powers
fuelled resentment in Chinese people.
ii.
Events
iii.
End of Dynasty
The revolution ended the Qing Dynastys 2000 years of imperial
rule in China. The Republic was a new for of government and a
milestone for Chinese history.
Causes
Yuan Shikais presidency
In 1913, Yuan Shikai took over Chinese government. He
dissolved National and Provincial assemblies, House of
Representatives and Senate. They were replaced with Council
of State. Yuan organised the provincial governments with each
province supported by a Military Governor and Civil authority
which gives each governor control of their own army. This
decentralised power even further. He had himself elected as
President and banned the KMT. By 1914, he was dictator of
China. By 1915, he proclaimed himself as emperor of China. Many
of his military supporters abandoned him and southern
provinces declared independence and began to rebel. Yuans
death in 1916 led to infighting amongst cliques in the
government. As a result, government lost control of China to
warlords in provinces.
ii.
Power struggle
Warlords were only interested in power and wealth and not the
peoples wellbeing which led to the implementations of warlord
policies. Warlords imposed high taxes to squeeze cash from
peasants across China, enlisted peasants into their armies and
governed with great severity. The economy collapsed as
warlords simply printed more money to pay for their army which
led to severe inflation. The competition between the warlords
intensified as competing groups of warlords began fighting
throughout China. Loyalties shifted constantly. The general division
between North and South of China was made worse as it caused
further divisions within these regions. Warlord rule was not
uniform. The Christian warlord banned foot binding, opium,
brothels and wore simple uniform. Zhang Zong Chang (the dogmeat
general) of Shandong province was opposite, he kept numerous
concubines and has a brutal army of troops. Zhang Zuolin of
Manchuria was the most powerful warlord as his area of rule was
almost the size of Western Europe.
Events
iii.
Effects
Civil War
Conditions in China were worst when warlords fought each other to
get control of each others provinces. The power struggle and
competition between the warlords led to large civil wars took place.
In these wars, both sides fought ferociously. 300,000 soldiers were
involved. 700 Yunan men stripped entirely naked. Armed with
knives and revolvers, Warlords rushed in Sichuan camp with 16,000
men and began a murderous rampage. The attack was a success.
Panic seized regiment after regiment and the whole force fled
eventually. 10 of the warlords were captured, naked and kept in
streets under cold weather, drenching in rain before being
murdered. 2 were killed and cut up in streets which their hearts and
livers were later sold in a cookshop.
Causes
Political change
New Culture Movement
There was a new intelligentsia of 5 million by 1919, educated in
western-type schools as a result of the Hundred Days Reforms in
1898. Elite who attended school abroad were concentrated in
coastal cities, as a result there was urban population growth in
those cities, Shanghai. This was the emergence of a
bourgeoisie political force. They attacked on Confucianism and
perceived the West as a solution to Chinas problems. This
movement sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese
culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic to address
Chinas problems. Led by scholars like Chen Duxiu, the movement
created a desire for change across China. This then gave way to
the Intellectual Revolution.
Treaty of Versailles
In 1917, China had joined WW1 on the Allied side, with the
condition that all German spheres of influence in China, like
Shandong province, be returned to China. American advocacy of
self-determination at the Versailles was attractive to Chinese
intellectuals, so the failure to award China the Shandong
province was seen as a betrayal. As a result, China declared war
on Germany in 1917. They did not send troops to Germany but they
sent 140,000 workers to work on the Western Front while 40,000 of
them worked for the French and 100,000 of them worked for the
British. Their jobs were to carry trunks and risk their lives on the
trenches. They were known as Chinese Labour Corps also known
as Chinas forgotten army. They were treated by the French and
British poorly as they were racist. 10,000 died from shelling, poor
treatment and the Spanish influenza in 1918.
ii.
iii.
Events
The May Fourth Movement was the name given to an explosion of
yearning for change and national rebirth. In 1919, news
reached Chinese people in China that the Allies at the Versailles
Palace in Paris were planning to allow Japan to keep the
German spheres of influence in Shandong province. Students
at Beijing University began an explosive protest. On Sunday, 4th
May, 3000 students assembled in Tiananmen Square. They
demanded their government assert itself against the Japanese.
They wrecked the house of the government minister responsible for
the treaty. A city-wide student union was established devoted to
change which is what is known as the May 4th Movement. This
was replicated across China in cities like Shanghai, Wuhan and
Tianjin.
Effects
Protests
String of protests soon spread across China against Western
powers. Campaigns were held to boycott Japanese goods. Shanghai
was paralysed with a general strike. This marked the beginning of
patriotism in China. The rising tide of protests prevented Chinese
delegation from accepting the terms of the treaty and China
refused to sign however, Japan still had control of Shandong.
Marxism
This encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new
ideologies (Marxism.) This led to the foundation of the
Chinese Communist Party, CCP in 1921. They focused on the
urban working class and organised strikes. Chinese Seamans Union
strike in Hong Kong spread to Guangzhou and Shanghai in 1922 and
ii.
iii.
the KMT and Chiang responded to the power struggle with the
Shanghai Massacre.
10
ii.
11
iii.
12
Events
The Northern Expedition was a combined military operation by the
United Front (KMT & CCP) against the rule of the warlords in
Beijing as well as local warlords. It started in July 1926 and targeted
Effects
CCP Fleeing
The Communists were left with little alternative to armed struggle
against the KMT. After the Shanghai Massacre, they were forced to
flee the Kiangsi Province, setting up a Soviet which they were
eventually forced to abandon in 1934.
Warlord problem not fully resolved
Many warlords simply formed an alliance with KMT to avoid being
destroyed. There was little resistance as warlords simply
surrendered to the approaching KMT troops because their armies
mutinied and joined the KMT. They continued the infighting
amongst themselves and treated peasants badly. This led to
continual resentment of Chiangs new government.
Stability of Chiang Kai-sheks position
Chiang Kai-sheks position was strengthened. He ruled as dictator,
similar to Hitler in Germany. He was the chairman of the military
committee and commander in chief, prime minister and head of the
KMT party.
Army support
Chiangs new regime was supported by the army and enforced
control through a secret police called the Military Bureau of
Statistics. Most social support came from rich, commercial elites in
the cities and richer peasants and gentry in the countryside.
13
ii.
Causes
The CCP Problem
In 1923, Dr Sun concluded an alliance with the USSR after being
denied recognition by Western Powers. Cominerns like Borodin
arrived with and weapons. This gave KMT financial and military
support but in return, the KMT had to cooperate with the CCP to
form a United Front. Dr Sun agreed to let individual Communists
to join the KMT as long as they remained loyal. Covert Communist
activities soon attracted opposition amongst many right-wing KMT
members.
The KMT Split
Since the death of Sun in 1925, the KMT was divided between the
NRA and Chiang Kai-shek on the right, while KMT leader Wang
Jingwei, Communists and Soviet Agents on the left-wing. Chiang
was concerned to protect the business interest of many KMT
supporters.
Attack on Foreign Concessions
Between January March 1927, the left-wing of the KMT and CCP
forces began attacking western interests in Hankou and Nanjing.
Chiang Kai-shek needed the support of Western Powers in order to
take Shanghai. By April, Chiang and the right-wing of the KMT
became determined to purge the party of communist influence.
Events
The massacre occurred on 12th April 1927 and was the violent
suppression of Communist Party organisations in Shanghai by the
KMT. After capturing Shanghai, the CCP began inciting huge
protests and strikes, demanding the return of international
settlements. Chiang immediately made arrangements with
representatives of the commercial classes and Shanghai underworld
to purge the CCP. On the morning of 12th April, heavily armed
members of the triad Green Gang moved through international
settlement to attack the CCP union strongholds in the working-class
districts. Green Gang met with the leader of CCP workers union to
persuade him to change sides but he refused. As a result, he was
beaten to a pulp and buried alive. Green Gang aided by troops,
rounded up Communists and either beheaded them or shot them
down. Some were thrown alive into the fires of locomotives at the
South Railway Station. Police put the death toll at 400 although it
14
15
Causes
16
went. Seeckts aim was to stop all movement in and out of the
Soviet, starving the communists of food,fuel, weapons and
ammunition. Thus, slowly reducing the area that they controlled. By
October 1934, the Communists had lost over half their territory,
60,000 troops in the Red Army had been killed. Area under control
was steadily shrinking as the KMT advanced.
ii.
17
Events
16 October 1934, 87,000 soldiers of the Red Army set out on the
retreat by Otto Braun. As they retreated, the Reds took with them
all the equipment of the Jiangxi Soviet that would be needed for
setting up a new government in Hunan-Hubei. Thousands of bearers
carried office furniture, files, a printing press, radio equipment, gold
bars, telephone wires were carried. In addition, the Army took with
it as much weaponry and ammunition it could carry such as 33,000
guns, 1,800,000 cartridges, 76,000 grenades, 38 mortars
and 25,000 mortar shells. It took the Red Army 6 weeks to break
through the blockhouse rings encircling the Jiangxi. No sooner had
they broken through than they were forced to fight a major battle
when they reached the Xiang river. (25 November 3rd December).
By the end of the battle, the Red Army had lost 45,000 men. Many
of the Red Army commanders blamed Otto Braun for the great
loses of men. The loses had been due partly to the amount of
equipment they were carrying, which slowed them down, giving the
KMT time to prepare attacks. Otto Braun was also leading the Red
Army in a straight line, making it easy for the KMT to predict its
movements.
Zunyi Conference
When the Red Army reached to the town of Zunyi on 9th January
1935, the leaders of the CCP held a meeting to work out better
tactics. At the Zunyi Conference, Otto Braun was suspended and
military control of the Red Army was given back to Mao and Zhu De.
Sungpan Marches
The Sungpan Marches were the obstacle as there was 400km of
swamp, where the Reds were ambushed by local tribes and many
drowned in mud. Only 7,000 out of 10,000 survived the marshes. In
October 1935, the Reds finally reached the Shaanxi Soviet and
linked up with the troops of Xu Haidong. There Mao set up his HQ in
Yanan, Mao stayed there for the next 10 years and it became the
HQ of CCP in China.
iii.
18
B. War with Japan 1937-1945 the role of the CCP, espescially the Red
Army, and the limitations of the KMT.
i.
Xian Incident
In 1936, he ordered another extermination campaign against the
CCP base in Yanan. Chiang decided that the Japanese were not as
dangerous as the CCP, he wanted to continue his war with the CCP.
However, KMT troops led by Zhang Xueliang, the warlord of
Manchuria, refused to fight the CCP. They wanted Chiang to focus
on the Japanese. To ensure this, Chiang was kidnapped at Xian in
1936 and kept prisoner for 2 weeks. He was eventually released
when he agreed to form a Second United Front. The KMT and CCP
negotiated a deal to cease fire, the communists and nationalists
would join together to go against the Japanese.
ii.
19
Causes
December 1941 meant that Chiang had just secured a new ally
against the Japanese.
Ichigo Offensive
1943, Free China suffered a major defeat when Operation Ichigo
was defeated and the Japanese captured Changsha. Allies main
objective for China was for Chinas army to die down Japans 2
million strong army. In despite the success of the Ichigo Offensive
in 1944, Japan was finally forced to surrender with the dropping of
atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagosaki in August 1945. The
USSR and declared war and invaded Manchuria on 8th August.
iii.
20
21
CCP Leadership
The CCP leadership made their final break with the Sovietorientated groups within the CCP. The CCP leaders were promoting
the idea of building Chinese communism with the peasants at
the base. Marxism was being sinicised into Maoism. However, Maos
book, on the New Democracy, encouraged all classes to
participate in the Communist revolution peasants, workers,
intellectuals and capitalists. The book played down the idea of
levelling classes in order to gain support from the masses/majority.
CCP liberated areas were generally far better than areas under
the control of KMT. Big estates were confiscated from rich lands and
shared among the peasants. Rents and taxes were reduced and
peasants were given interest-free loans. Out-dated and undesirable
practices such as foot binding were abolished. Womens
associations were set up to help women to free themselves from
their violent husbands. The Red Army were disciplined and never
treated peasants badly, they helped peasants in the fields and
around the villages. In return, peasants kept the Red Army
informed about Japanese activities.
iv.
22
Causes
A Divided Country
At the end of the war, Japanese still controlled areas of China, the
KMT still held strong authority over the Southern and Central
provinces whilst the CCP controlled most of North China. The USSR
decided to invade Manchuria. The race was on to capture as much
territory as possible. US aircraft lifted 100,000 KMT troops into
Northern China. The CCP moved into Manchuria, receiving many
captured Japanese weapons for the Red Army. Clashes soon broke
between the CCP and KMT.
ii.
24
Military factors
Manchuria was well suited for guerrilla warfare with its hills and
forests. KMT forces were slowly worn down, reducing their
numerical advantage. They were also able to seize the initiative by
destroying KMT railway lines, isolating them in cities. The PLA led by
Lin Biao became a formidable fighting force. Intensive training and
political indoctrination enabled them to adapt and absorb the KMT
deserters. Chiang also made a serious error by overstretching his
best forces. The KMT was corrupt with poor morale, lacking fighting
spirit. Many KMT commanders like Wei Lihuang was in the KMT as
a CCP spy supplying information to the PLA. The KMT composed of
large conscripted army of reluctant soldiers that were badly clothed
and fed.
Political factors
The CCP had pro-peasant policies as it is a peasant-based party. It
attracted huge support with land reforms such as land expropriation
and distribution and the Land Law of 1932 in CCP controlled
areas. Land taken from gentry and landlords and redistributed to
peasants. Peasant Committees established under the district
Economic Factors
The economy under Chiang suffered from high inflation, prices rose
up to 3000% in February 1947, reducing support even further. KMT
had a corrupt government.
Foreign Factors
The KMT failed to make full use of the US equipment whilst the CCP
was highly trained and equipped by the USSR. The US brokered a
ceasefire in 1946 even prevented the CCP from being wiped out in
Harbin. The US became disillusioned with Chiang as they tried to
form closer ties to the CCP with the Dixie Mission (August 1944August 1945).
Role of Mao
Whilst Mao made military mistakes, his cult of personality and
use of terror made the CCP an efficient fighting force, whilst
Chiangs weak leadership allowed corruption to spread, affecting
KMT troop morale.
i.
25
27
Problems
Many people distrusted modern ideas especially on womens
rights. In traditional Chinese families, marriages were arranged
and wives were expected to completely obey their husbands.
ii.
Changes
C. Political changes including Thought Reform, the Three and Five Antis
Campaigns.
i.
28
Causes
The communists had to prove they were capable of providing a
strong government. 37 years of warlords and war had produced
i.
Causes
30
Events
February 1957, Mao made a speech on the subject of On the
Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People in
which he repeated to his early call to let a hundred flowers
blossom, let a hundred schools of thought contend. He meant that
free speech was healthy and should be encouraged. The speech
was published widely and Mao supported it with a 3-week train
journey through eastern China to spread the message. In April, the
Politburo were persuaded by Mao to sanction the campaign and it
was officially launched in May, unleashing a torrent of
criticisms that attacked the Communist system. In the press,
magazines, at rallies and on posters, intellectuals attacked the
regime for treating people as their obedient subjects and for
developing into a new privileged, bureaucratic class that was out of
touch with people. At Beijing University, students created a
democracy wall that was covered with posters critical of the
Effects
The Anti-Rightist Campaign
This was too much for Mao who in June 1957, suddenly cracked
down on his critics. A full-scale counter-attack on intellectuals was
launched. In the ensuing anti-rightist campaign, perhaps as
many as 500,000 intellectuals were branded rightists and
subjected to persecution. Some were sent to labour camps, others
to the countryside for re-education. Some were sacked from their
jobs and a few students were shot in public. People were forbidden
from speaking freely and the press was censored. The leading
critics were forced to retract their statements.
Silenced Criticism for a Generation
As a result of this wave of persecution, independence of thought
was systematically crushed. Intellectuals in China would never trust
Mao or the CCP again and intellectual life was stultified.
Party Unity Strengthened
Maos position as Party Chairman became unchallengeable which
enabled serious problems in the Great Leap Forward to go
unchecked by the Party. After the Three Anti rightist campaign, no
one wants to open their mouths.
E. The Reasons for, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward.
(1958-1962)
In January 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, which was his
Second Five Year Plan. China was meant to be transformed into a
leading industrial power, overtaking Britain in 15 years and the USA
soon after. Mao got quickly caught up in the euphoria of his belief that
communist rule could finally unlock Chinas vast potential. In Autumn
of 1957, he declared China would produce 40 million tonnes of steel by
1970. By 1958, he raised this to 100 million tonnes by 1962 and 700
million tonnes by early 1970.
i.
31
Causes
Political Reasons
Mao believed mass mobilisation could be used to take China very
quickly from the stage of Socialism to fully developed Communism
without the need for more bureaucracy. A success like this would
further consolidate his political power. Propaganda could be used to
Economic reasons
The First-Five-Year-Plan boosted industrial production by 18.7% but
agriculture output lagged at 3.8%. Unless agriculture could improve,
industrialisation would be held back.
Mao wanted to turn China into a powerful industrial nation as
quickly as possible. Much had already been achieved but the pace
was too slow and the money to set up new factories were scarce. If
China was short of money, it was not short of people. The muscle
power of the peasants could be used as they are the majority of
Chinas population. Mao intended the Chinese economy would
overtake that of Britain within 15 years and that of USA in 30 years.
Chinas vast resource of manpower were not being used effectively.
There was still much unemployment in towns, cities and the
countryside. In the countryside, peasants would be fully employed
on large irrigation and flood control projects and would also develop
small-scale industries. Surplus food would free peasants to work in
factories to increase industrial manpower.
32
International context
Mao wanted China to become a country of great power, free of
foreign influence and foreign aid such as the USSR and the USA. The
peaceful coexistence policy with the USA scared Mao and
enforced the belief that China should stand alone. The Great Leap
Forward was an assertion by Mao of Chinese independence.
ii.
Events
Agriculture
Peoples Communes
Communes were a group of villagers. The average commune
contained about 5000 families who gave up their land, animals
and equipment to common ownership by all members of the
commune. The purpose of the communes was to release what Mao
called the tremendous energy of the masses by making sure
that time and effort were not wasted and that members of a
commune could work at a great variety of tasks. The advantage of
Peoples Communes lies in the fact that they combine industry,
agriculture, commerce, education and military affairs.
Communes were organised so that nothing could distract people
from their work. Around 4 million communal eating halls were set
up so that the number of people who spent time cooking meals
were reduced. Several million children were put in nurseries and
schools so that parents were freed for full-time work. Old and infirm
people were moved into houses of happiness so that their
families did not have to take time off work to look after them.
Communes controlled almost every activity in a persons life
because they combined several different functions.
o
The Central Committee of the CCP was dazzled by claims that these
mass movements had caused the economic production to
double or increase by 10 fold. They endorsed the establishment
of the Peoples Commune in which all activities are communal.
Industry
The Backyard Steel Campaign
Backyard furnaces were an attempt to achieve targets set by Mao.
Communes were expected to contribute to Great Leap Forward.
Small commune factories were set up to make all kinds of industrial
projects such as cement, ball bearings and chemical fertiliser.
Communes also had to aid industrial production by building
600,000, Backyard Furnaces, to produce iron and steel. Metal
implements of all kinds were melted down into pig iron. 11 million
tonnes of steel were produced. As 1958 wore on, figures for the
production for steel, coal, timber, cement, fertiliser and other
industrial products showed a spectacular rise. It began to seem like
Mao was right and that it was possible to accomplish any task
whatsoever.
iii.
Effects
Food production slumped
Peasants were forced into industry. In 1958, there was a good
harvest of 375 million tonnes of grain recorded but closer to 200
million. Because of this, Mao set a higher figure of 430 million
tonnes for 1959. As a result of false reporting, many communal
eating halls started giving peasants very generous meals, using up
the valuable food stocks. However, the 1959 harvest was a disaster
of only 170 million tonnes produced. The situation of false reporting
was not helped by three years of disastrous harvest caused by flood
and droughts. The failures of the Great Leap Forward (absence of
peasants as they neglected agricultural duties to work in backyard
steel campaigns to produce steel) combined with bad weather
reduced the harvest of 1960. In 1960, it was only 143 million
tonnes. This led to major famine in 1960 killing 9 million
peasants. The median age of death in 1957 was 17.6 and in
1963, it was 9.7. This led to the introduction of rationing by the
government where the maximum was 125 grams of grains per day
per person. Between 1959 to 1962, 20 million peasants died of
starvation and related diseases.
34
iv.
35
36
USSR and the USA which caused his plans of the Great Leap
Forward to fail dramatically.
Power Struggle
After the Great Leap Forward, Maos political position was weakened
whilst his economic policies had been rejected. One aim was to
defeat his opponents, regain political supremacy and ensure his
economic policies were accepted. Mao saw two lines developing
within the CCP, Communism and Revisionism. Revisionism was
Maos term for those who wanted to change from communism.
Communist party officials were the worst culprits in Maos eyes.
Instead of setting an example by serving the people, they were
using their power for their own ends such as obtaining seaside
holidays, extra rations of food, clothing and bigger houses for their
families to live in. Mao was upset by the direction of the CCP.
Incentives undermined the ideal of communist equality. The party
leaders leading privileged lives and losing touch with the people
contributes to the division between the party and the people. He
wanted to revive the peoples faith in CCP and Communism.
Economic Struggle
From 1962 to 1966, the leaders of the CCP argued with one another
about which road they should follow in developing China. The
moderates led by Lu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping wanted to
introduce more incentives to get the peasants in the communes to
work hard. They wanted to let peasants have large private plots and
pay them wages according to how much work they did. They
believed by going back to the ideas of the First Five Year Plan to
build up industry on Russian lines. This will manage industry more
effectively, they wanted to create a new class of skilled
managers. By 1962, 20% of of farm land had reverted to private
ownership. Mao totally opposed these policies and retained
his faith in mass mobilisation. He argued that these changes
were turning China into a sick and selfish society where people were
more concerned about themselves than their neighbours. The
peasants were working harder on their own land than they were on
the communes. In the cities, the young were more interested in
latest fashions in clothes and pop music than in studying on how to
become good communists. Therefore, he accused Liu Shaoqi and
37
ii.
Red Guards
Mao then publically announced his return to political life with a
15km swim in the Yangtze river and gave a speech to the CCP in
Beijing, launching the Cultural Revolution with an attack on the
Four olds old culture, old ideas, old customs and old
habits. On the 18th August 1966, Mao gave the first of eight giant
rallies, calling on Red Guards to attack the Four Olds and root out
revisionists. Mao support of the PLA was crucial but Mao decided to
mobilise young people to promote his policies to achieve
revolutionary immortality.
iii.
Education
The Cultural Revolution began among school children and students
in Beijing. Schools and colleges were shut down for six months so
that the curriculum could be rewritten to make young people aware
of communist ideals. In 1962, he launched the Socialist Education
Movement to get people back on to the right road. Chinese culture
and education were criticised by Mao for producing high and
mighty bureaucrats.
38
iv.
The Red Guards were a group of young people and students who
were encouraged to do Maos bidding. Theyre main slogan was
We are critics of the old world, we are builders of the new.
They were given the right to travel free on railways so that
they could take part in massive rallies. The Police and PLA
were ordered not to interfere. They soon used violence to achieve
their aims such as shaving off girls with western haircuts, burning
libraries and museums, attacking foreign embassies, smashed
windows of shops selling Western merchandise, stopped couples
from holding hands. By 1967, there was anarchy as the Red Guards
split into rival factions with over 400,000 deaths.
v.
vi.
vii.
39
Mao Triumphant
The 9th Party Congress in April 1969 confirmed Maos thought as
the guiding ideology in China. Opponents were killed or sent into
exile. All rivals had been demoted or killed although Zhou Enlai and
iii.
iv.
Deaths
500,000 have been estimated to have been killed mostly through
torture and beatings. Millions more were sent for re-education
through hard labour.
v.
Industrial output
Factories were reorganised to give power to workers. Prizes and
bonuses for town workers were abolished. All workers were given
equal wages. Instead special importance was placed on team work.
Technicians were dismissed and production fell. Transportation
ground to a halt. Industrial output dropped by 14% in 1967 and fell
dramatically in 1968.
vi.
40
5. CHINA 1969-1989
A. Changes under Deng in education, birth control, agriculture and
industry.
i.
Education
Purpose
Birth Control
Purpose
Population Growth
During the Cultural Revolution, birth programmes were
abandoned and birth rates spiralled out of control. It was
estimated that by year 2000, Chinas population would be 1.3
billion (20% of the worlds population).
Crumbling economy
In 1982, of the population worked in agriculture and that
population was increasing by 12 million a year. Chinas economic
growth will be slowed down if this carried on as China has extra
mouths to feed. More food had to be constantly produced with
less land as land is required to house the increase in population.
42
Reform
Significance
iii.
43
Those who had more than one child did not receive benefits and
were fined.
In urban areas, the policy had been enforced strictly but remote
rural areas have been harder to control. Many people acclaim
that some women who had been pregnant for the second time,
were forced to an abortion and forcibly sterilised. More successful
in cities instead of countryside because it was difficult to monitor
the countrysides due to distance and high resistance in those
areas. Therefore, it was easier to monitor people in the cities.
The birth rate in China has fallen since 1979 and the rate of
population growth is now 0.7% compared to 5% in 1950.
Industry
Purpose
The economy had suffered hugely under Mao and the Gang of Four
Many machines were old-fashioned and many Chinese factories
were old fashioned and inefficient, running at a loss.
44
Significance
Chinas external trade increased from 20.64 billion to 195.8 billion.
Gross national product grew at a annual rate at 9.36% per annum
Moderate inflation.
Shanghai Stock Market opened in 1986.
However.,
iv.
Agriculture
Purpose
45
Significance
First few years were the golden era as 400 million tonnes of grain
was produced. Income of agricultural workers tripled.
Chinas population was rising. Stock of arable land was falling from
112 million to 96 million hectares. More land was required to house
increasing population growth. Demands of development led to a
sharp decrease of available land. In the 1990s, China had 22% of
world population and 7% of arable land.
Privatisation
A policy by the government to allow people to buy and own their
own companies, as an individual or group of people, this is a move
away from pure communism.
Purpose
46
Reform
Industry
Agriculture
Why : Maos policies of collectivisation
was failing dramatically.
Agricultural Responsibility System
(1978)
o
ii.
Westernisation
Conversion to or adoption of Western tradition and customs. This
would affect social, economic and political ideas of a country.
Purpose
48
THE LEFT
Led by Maos wife, Jiang Qing, and 3 radical politicians from
Shanghai known as the Gang of Four, Zhang Chunquiao, Yao
ii.
iii.
THE RIGHT
Led by Prime Minster Zhou Enlai and Deputy Prime Minister Deng
Xiaoping who had been rehabilitated by Mao who wanted to
balance the factions within the CCP. The right was supported by the
CCP and the PLA, who were eager to end all political arguments.
They supported Zhous plan for Four Modernisations of Chinas
industry, farming, national defence and science and technology.
Rise of the Gang of Four
In 1976, the right suffered a setback when Zhou Enlai died and
was succeeded by Deng. Thousands went to Tiananmen Square to
pay their respects, laying wreaths and posters. On 5th April 1975,
visitor found all the wreaths removed. 10,000 people rioted in
supported of Zhou and Deng followed by 200 arrests. There were
similar protests in other cities such as Shanghai however the left
blamed Deng and removed him from the Party and
government. He was replaced by a minor official called Hua
Guofeng. He was nicknamed helicopter due to his speedy rise to
power. Maos death on the 9th of September 1976 helped the Gang
of Four take control of the CCP.
Fall of the Gang of Four
When Mao died, Hua Guofeng succeeded to all top positions in
government. Whilst he now controlled the CCP and the army, he
lacked real status of his own and the Gang of Four prepared to
manipulate him out of power. He was rescued by the army, PLA,
There was evidence that they plotted against Hua and on the night
of 6th October 1976, the Gang of Four were arrested. Their
supporters were also put in prison. They were hated and
demanded severe punishments. The CCP used press, radio,
newspapers to attack the Gang of Four and in winter of 19801981 they were put on trial and found guilty, they were
sentenced to long prison terms.
Over the next three years, the moderates led by Deng Xiaoping
49
50
Students felt that Deng and the CCP had failed to deliver.
Many also resented the lack of jobs and the fact that top jobs
often went to members of the CCP.
I.
51
Causes
Death of Hu Yaobang
He died on April 15th 1989. Hua had been sympathetic to the
democracy movement but had been removed in January 1987 for
daring to support the student protests. He had been treated harshly
and died from a heart attack. Large crowds gathered in Tiananmen
Square for this memorial service. Three students tried to give a
petition to Li Peng. His refusal to accept the petition sparked off a
series of sit-ins and boycotts of university classes. Students from 40
universities joined their fellow students in Tiananmen Square.
52
Further Support
When the news broke of the decision to continue, thousands who
had earlier given up, returned to the Tiananmen Square. This
included many residents of Beijing who blocked the roads and
avenues leading to Tiananmen Square to prevent the troops from
imposing martial law. The troops were withdrawn to the outskirts of
Beijing.
ii.
iii.
Effects
53
Deng could have used riot police, water cannons and tear gas to
disperse the protestors. Instead, he decided to deal with student
riots by gunning them down, which was unusual of an Asian
country. The students were unarmed and not fully united and
determined. However, Deng seems to have wanted a violent end to
the protest. The massacre was very much in the Chinese tradition of
crushing opposition by the severest means in order to act as a
deterrent as well as highlighting that this opposition was
illegitimate. The use of tanks and bullets was to show Chinese
people the determination of the government not to tolerate
opposition. There are no other explanations for the severity of
Dengs actions:
54
There was a power struggle to see who would take over once
Deng retired or died. This was between Zhao Ziyang and Li
Peng. Li Peng encouraged force against the students,
believing this would win him the support of Deng.