‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory Personality - originated from the Latin persona, which referred to-a theairical mask worn by Roman aciors in Greek dramas, It is a pattern of relatively permanent waits and unique characteristics that give both cansisteney and individuality to a person's behavior. Traits - contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations Characteristics ~ are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelli gence. Theory - is a serof related axsumpdions that allows scientists to use /agical deductive reasomiug to formulate restable hypotheses. * Generates research ‘o Descriptive research — is concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building. ‘o_ Hypothesis testing - leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness af the theory, Fabifiable Organizes Data Guides Action Internally Consistent Parsimonious is - is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to he tested through the use of the scientific method. + Deductive reasoning ~ going fram the genctal to the specific. * Inductive reasoning - going from the specific to the general. Six Dimensions of Personality Theories * Determinism versus free choice ‘6 Causality - holds that behavior is a function of past experiences © Teleology - is an explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes, * Conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior * Biological versus sacial influences on personality * Uniqueness versus similarities Reliability - is the extent io which it yields consistent results Validity - measures what itis supposed to measure. * Construct validity ~ is the exieni io which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct ‘0 Convergent = scores on that instrument correlate highly with scores on a variety of valid ‘measures of that same construct. ‘0 Divergent ~ it has low or insignificant conelations with other inventories that do not measure that construct Discriminant - it discriminates between two groups of people known to be different. + Predictive validity —the extent that a test predicts some future behavior ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER,Chapter 2 Psychodynamic Theories: Freud - Psychoanalysis: Overview of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis has endured because it (1) pastulated the primacy of sex and aggression-two universally Popular themes, (2) attracted a group of followers who werededicated to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine, and (3) advanced the nation af unconscious motives, which permit varying explanabons for the same observations. IL. Biography of Sigmund Freud Born in the Czech Republic in 1256, Siamund Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. In his practice 5.a psychiatrist, he was more interested in learning about the unconsciaus matives of patients than in curing neuroses. Early in his professional career, Freud believed that hysteria was a result of being seduced during childhood by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other relative. In 1897, hawever, he abandoned his saduction theory and replaced it with his nation of the Oedipus complex, a concent that remained the center of his psychoanalytic theary. U1, Levels of Mental Life Freud saw mental functioning 2s operating on three levels: unconscious, preconsciaus, and conscious, ‘A. Unconscious ‘The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyand awareness but that motivate most human behaviors Unconscious drives can bacame conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such 2s dream images, slips of the tangue, or neurotic symptoms. Uncanscious processes originate from two sources: (1) repression. or the blocking out of arziety: experiences and (21 phylogenetic endowment, er inherted experiences that le beyand an indivduai's personal experience The precansciaus contains images that are nat in awareness but that can become conscious either quite easily or with some level of difficutty. . Conscious (Consciousness plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem from sither the perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious system) or fram the unconscious and preconsGous after they have evaded censorship. IV. Pravinces of the Mind Freud conceptualized three regions of the mind: the id, the ego, and the superego, A The td The id, which is completely unconscious, serves the pleasure principle and contains our basic instincts. Itoperates through the primary process. B. The Ego. ‘The ego. or secandary process, is governed by the reality principle and is respansible for reconciling the unrealistic demands cf the id and the superego, . The Superego ‘The superego, Which serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems-the conscience and the ego-ideal, The conscience results fram punishment for improper behavior whereas the ego-ideal stems fram rewards far socially acceptable behavicr. \V. Dynamics of Personality ynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people, AL instincts Freud grouped all human drives or urges under two primary instincts-sex (Eros or the life instinct} and aggression (the death (or destructive instinct). The zim of the sexual instinct i pleasure, which can be gained through the erogenous zones, especially the mouth, anus, and genitals. The object of the sexual instinct is any person or thing that brings sexual pleasure, All infants possess primary narcissism, or self-centeredness, but the secondary narcissism of adalescence and adulthood is "ot universal. Both sadism (receiving Sexual pleasure fram inflicting pain on another) and masochism (receiving sexual pleasure fram painful experiences) satisfy both sexual and agaressive drives. The destructive instinct aims ta return a person to an inorganic state, but it ordinarily directed against other people and is called aggression B. Anxiety Freud believed only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and outside world can each be a source of anxiety. Neuratic ‘anwiety stems from the ego's relation with the id; moral arvdety te similar to guilt and resutts from the ego's relation with the superego: and realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear, is produced by the ego's relation with the real world VI. Defense Mechanisms Aerorang to Freud, defence machandms operate to protec the ego aginst the pan of anwety, pression Repression involves forcing unwanted, arucety-loaded experiences inta the uncanscious. Iis the mast basicof all defense mechanisms because it i an active process in each of the athers, B. Undoing and Isolation Undoing (= the ego's attempt to de away with unpleasant experiences and thelr consequences, usually by means af repatitious ceremonial actions. Isolation, in contrast. is marked by obsessive thoughts and invalves the ego's attempt ta isolate an ‘experience by surrounding it with a blecked-out region of ingensibilty. C. Reaction Formation ‘Arreaction formation is marked by the repression of one impulse and the astentatious expression of its exact oppositeD. Displacement Displacement takes place when people redirect their unwanted urges onto ather abjects or peaple in arder ta disguise the original impulse. E Feation Fieations develop when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development. making psychological change difficult. F, Regression Regressions occur whenever @ person reverts to earlier, mare infantile modes cf behavior. G. Projection Projection is seeing in others thase unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one's own unconscious. When ‘carred ta extreme, projection can became paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of persecution H. Introjection Introjecions take plate when people incorporate postive qualities of ancther person into their oun ego to reduce fesingé of inferiority. |, Sublimation Subimaticns inive the elevation ofthe sexual istine's aim toa higher level, which permits people ta make contributions ta society and culture, VII. Stages of Development Freud saw psychasexual development as proceeding from birth to maturity through four overlapping stages A Infantile Period The infantile stage encompasses the first 4to 5 years of life and is divided into three subphases: oral, anal, and phallic During the oral phase, an infant is primarily motivated to receive pleasure through the mouth. During the second year of Ife, 2 child goes through an anal phase. If parents are too punitive during the anal phase, the child may become an anal character, With the anal triad of orderliness, singiness, and ebstinery. During the phallic phase, boys and girls begin to have differing psychosexual development. At this tine, bays and gis experience the Gedipus complex in which they have sexual feoings far ane parent and hastle feelings for the other. The male castration camplex, which takes the form of castraban anxety, breaks up the male Oedipus complex and results in a well-formed male superaga. Far gris, however, the castration compl, in the form of penis envy, precedes the female Oedipus complex. astustion that leads ta-aniy a gradual and incomplete shattering of the female Oedipus complex and a weaker, more flexible fermale superego B. Latency Period Freud beleved that psychosexual development goes through a latency stage-from about age S until puberty-in which the sowal inctinct i partially suppressed. C. Genital Period ‘The genital period begins with puberty, when adolescents experience a reawakening of the genital aim of Eros. The term “genital period” should not be confused with “phallic perio.” 0. Maturity Freud hinted at a stage of prychalogieal maturty in which the ega would be in contrat the id and superaga and in which consciousness would play @ mare important role in behavicr. VIII Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Freud erected his theory on the dreams, free associations, slips of the tongue, and neurotic symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he also gathered information from history, lterature, and works of art ‘A. Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique During‘the 1890s, Freud used an aggressive therapautic technique in which he strongly suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced as chikiren. He later dropped this technique and abandaned fis belief that mst patients had been seduced during childhood. B. Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique Beginning in the late 1290s, Freud adopted a much more passive type of psychotherapy, one that relied heavily on free association, dream interpretation, and transference. The goal of Freud's later psychotherapy was to uncover repressed memories, and the therapist uses dream analysis and free assaciation tado sa. With free association, patients are required to ‘Say whataver comes to mind, na matter haw irrelevant or distasteful. Successful therapy rests on the patient's transference af childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist and away from symptom formation. Patients’ resistance to change ‘can be seen as progress because it indicates that therany has advanced beyond superfical conversation. . Dream Analysis In interpreting dreams, Freud differentiated the manifest cantent (conscious description) fram the latent content {the Unconscious meaning). Nearly all dreams are wish-fuffilments, although the wish i= usually unconscious and can be known conly through dream interpretatan. To interpret dreams, Freud used bath drearn symbols and the dreamer's associations to the dream content. D. Freudian Slips Freud believed that parepraxes, or so-called Freudian slips, are not chance accidents but reveal a person's true but Unconscious intentions ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER (Chapter 3 Psychodynamic Theories: Adler - Individual Psychology| Overview of Adler's Individual Psychology ‘An original member of Freud's psychoanalytic group, Alfred Adler broke from that group and advocated a theory of personality that was nearly diametrically apposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud's view of humanity was pessimistic and rooted in Diology, Adler's view was optimist, kdealistie, and rooted in family experiences. 11, Biography of Alfred Adier Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in @ town near Vienna, @ secand san of middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a charter member of Freud's organization, However, personal and professional cfferences Between the two men led’to Adler's departure from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Sooty in 1981. Adier soon founded hs awn group, the Society for Individual Psychology. Adler's strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insigh ful ability Taunderstand family dynamics. He was not 2 gifted writer, a itation that may have prevented individual psychology from attaining © world recognition equal ta Freud's psychoanalysis. 111, Introduction to Adlerian Theory ‘Although Adier's individual psychology is both complex and comprehensive, its main tenets can be stated in simple Form. IW. Striving for Success ar Superiarity The sole dynamic farce behind people's actions is the striving for success or superiority. A. The Final Goal The final goal of either success ar superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior meaningful B. The Striving Farce as Compensation Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to avercome these feelings through their natural tendency to mave toward completion. The striving farce can take one of twa courses: personal gain (superiarity} or ‘community benefit (success) . Striving for Personal Superiority Psychologically unheaithy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people. Although they may appear to be interested in cther people, their basic motivaban is personal benefit D. Striving for Success In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so withaut losing their personal identity, \V. Subjective Perceptions People's subjective wiew of the wark+nat reality-shapes their behavior ‘A, Fitionalisrm Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Jadler held that fictions quide behavior, because people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes, B. Organ inferiarities ‘Adler behaved that all humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorties, which stimulate subjective feelings of inferlarity and ave peaple taward perfection ar campletian. VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality ‘Adiar beloved that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpase. When seen in the lightof that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviars.can be seen as operating in a self-consistent manner. A. Organ Dialect People often use a physical disorder to express style af fe, 2 condition Adler called organ dalec. B. Conscious and Uncanscious Canecious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of our goal that we do not early understood is unconscious: the part of our goal that we fail to fuly camiprehend is conscious VII. Social Interest Human behavior has value to the extent that it ts motivated by social interest, that is, 2 feeling of oneness with all of humanity. A. Origins of Social Interest Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in.a social environment, Adler belle ved that the parent-chid relationship can be so strang that it negates the effects af heredity. B Importance of Social Interest According ta Adior, social interest ¢ "the sole criterion of human values,” and the worthiness of all one's actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exis; individuals in antiquity could not have survived without ‘cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward 2 rurturing personVILL. Style of Life The manner of a person's striving ic called style of fe, a pattern that is relatively well sat by 4 oF S years of age. However, Adler beleved that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of Ie, IX. Creative Power Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment-the building blocks of personality-but ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative pawer, that i, by their ability ta freely choose a course af action X. Abnarmal Development Creative pawer is nat limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their own personalities. Thus. each of usis free ta choose either a useful or a usoless style of Ifa, ‘A. General Description ‘The most important factor in abnormal development is lack of social interest. In addition, people with a useless style of Ife tend to [1] sot their goals too high, (2) have a dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in their own private world, B. External Factors in Maladjustment Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: {1] exaggerated physical deficiencies, which do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but which may contribute ta if by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings cf inferiority: (2}-a pampered style of lfe, which contributes to an averriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic Felatonship with the mather oF @ mother substitute; and (2) a naglected style of fe, which leads to distrust of ather paople. C. Safeguarding Tendencies Bath normal and naurotic paople create symptoms as a means of protecting thelr fragile self-esteem. These safeguarding tendencies maintain a neuratic style of life ‘and protect a person fram: disgrace. The three principal safeguarding tendencies are) excuses, which allow peopleto prasarve their inflated Sehse of personal worth; (2) aggression, which may take the form of depreciating others accomplishments, accusing athers of being responsible for one's awn failures, or self-accusation: and (3) withdrawal, which ‘an be expressed by psychologically maving backward, standing stil, hesitating, or constructing abstades, D. Masculine Protest Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirabilty of being manly, 2 condition Adler called the masculine protest The frequently found inferior status of women is nat based on physiology but an historical developments and social learning, XI. Applications of Individual Psychology fale applied the princes of wv peycalegy to family contain, ear reembetvons creams, ard pychotherapy, ‘A. Family Constellation ‘Adler believed that people's perception of how they fit into their family is related to theirstyle of life. He claimed that firstborns are licely to ave Strang feelings of power and superiority, to be averprotective, and ta have more than their share of anxiety. Secand-born children are likely to have strong social interest, provided they do nat get trapped trying to overcome their older sibling. Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence, whereas oniy chidren have some of the characteristics of both the oldest and the youngest child. B, Early Recollections ‘more relable method of determining style of lfe isto ask people for their earliest recollections. Adler believed that early memories are templates on which people project their current style of lfe. These recollectons need not be accurate accounts of eariy events; they have psychological importance because they reflect a person's current view of the world €. Dreams ‘Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems, However, dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another person. D, Psychotherapy ‘The goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. To ensure that the patient's social interest will eventually generaiize to other relationships the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER. Chapter 4 Psychodynamic Theories: Jung - Analytical Psychology | Overview of Jung's Analytical PsychologyCar! Jung believed that people are extremely complex beings who possess a variety of opposing qualities, such as intraversion ‘and extraversion, masculinfy and femininity, and rational and irrational drives, 11. Blography of Carl Jung Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, the oldest surviving child of an idealistic Protestant minister and his wife. Jung's arly experience with parents [who were quite opposite of each ather) probably influenced his own theory of personality Soon after receiving his medical degree he became acquainted with Freud's writings and eventually with Freud himself. Not long after he traveled with Freud tothe United States, Jung became disenchanted with Freud's pansexual theories, broke with Froud, and began his own approach ta theory and therapy, which he called analytical psychology. Fram a cribeal midife crisis, during which he neatly last contact with realty, Jung emerged to become one of the leading thinkers of the 20th century. He Glad in 1961 at age 85, IL Levets of the Psyche Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into a conscious and an unconscious level, with the latter further subdivided into ' personal and 2 collective unconscious, ‘A. Conscious mages sensed by the ego are said to be conscious. The ego thus represents the conscious side of personality, and in the Beyehologialy mature idvdusl, te e99 secondary te the set, ‘The unconscious refers to those psychic images not sensed by the ego. Some unconscious processes flow from aur personal experiences, but others stem from our ancestors’ experiences with universal themes. Jung dlvced the unconscious into the personal unconscious, which contains the complexes (emotionally toned groups of related ideas) and the collective unconscious, Gr ideas that are beyond our personal experiences and that originate from the repeated experiences of our ancestors, C. Collective Unconscious Collective unconscious images are not inherted ideas, but rather they refer to our innate tendency to react in a particular way ‘whenever our personal experiences stimulate an inherited predispasition toward action, Contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes D. Archetypes Jung believed that archetypes originate through the repeated experiences of our ancestors and that they areexpressed in ‘certain types of dreams, fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations. Several archetypes acquire their own personality, and Jung identified these by name. One is the persona:the side of our personality that we shaw ta others. Anather is the shadow the dark side of personality, To reach full psychological maturity, Jung believed, we must first realize or accept our shadow. A second hurdle in achieving maturity is for men to accept thelr anima, or feminine side, and for waren to embrace their animus, cor masculine dispositan. Other archetypes include the great mother (the archetype of nourishment and destruction): the wise ‘old man (the archetype of wiscom and meaning): and the hero, (the image we have of a conqueror who vanguishes evil, but ‘who has a single fatal flaw). The mast comprehensive archetype is the self that is the image we have of fulfilment. completion, of perfection. The uitimete in psychological maturity is selFreaization, which is symbolized by the mandala, or parfect geometric igure. IV, Dynamics of Personality Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy also apply to psychic energy. These forces include ‘causality and teleology as well as progression and regression. ‘A. Causality and Teleology Jung accepted a middie position between the philosophical issues of causality and teleology. In other words, humans are ‘motivated bath by their past experiences and by thelr expectations of the future, B. Progression and Regression To achieve self-realization, people must adapt to bath their external and internal works. Progression invalves adaptation to the outside world and the forward flaw of psychic energy, whereas regression refers ta adaptation ta the inner warld and the Bakar flaw of psychic energy, Jung bele ved thatthe backward step is estental to a person's forward movement toward self-realization. V. Psychological Types ight basic psychological types emerge from the union of two attitudes and four functions, A. Attitudes Attitudes are predispositions to act or react in.a characteristic manner. The bwo basic attitudes are intraversion, which refers to poople’s sub jactive porcaptions, and extravarsion, which indicates an orientation taward the objective world, Extraverts are influenced more by the real world than by their sub jective percention, whereas intraverts rely on their individualized view of thing. Introverts and extraverts often mistrust and msunderstand ane another unctions ‘The two attitudes or extraversion and intraversion can combine with four basic functions to farm eight general personality types. The four functians are (1) thinking, ar recognizing the meaning of stimull; (2) feeling, oF placing a value con something: (3) sensation, or taking in sensory stimuli; and {4} intuition, ar perceiving elementary data that are beyond four awareness. Jung referred to thinking and feeling as rational functions and ta sensation and intuition as irrational functions, VI. Development of Personality Nearly unique among personality theorists was Jung's emphasis on the second half of fe. Jung saw middie and old age astimes when people may acquire the ability to attain seif-reaiization, A, Stages of Development Jung divided development into four broad stages: (1) childhood, which lasts from birth until adolescence: (2) youth, the period from puberty until middie life, which i @ time for extraverted development and far boing grounded to the real world af ‘schooling, occupation, courtship, marriage, and family: (3) middle life, which is a time fram about 35 or 40 until old age when People should be adopting an introverted attitude: and (4) old age, which is 2 tme for psychological rebirth, self-realzation, ‘and preparation for death, B. Self Realization Self-realization, of individuation, invalves 2 psychological rebirth and an integration of various parts of the psyche into 2 Unified ar whole individual. Self-realzation represents the highest level of human develop ment, VIL. Jung's Methads of Investigation Jung used the wordassociation test, dreams, and active imagination during the process of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to his theary of personality ‘A. Ward Association Test Jung used the wordassodiation test early in his career to uncaver complexes embedded in the personal unconscious, The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word, Unusual responses indicate a complex. B. Dream Analysis, Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and thus can be useful in explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. Big dreams” and “typical dreame,” bath af which come fram the collective unconscious, have meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual. . Active Imagination ‘Ting also used active imagination to arrive at collective images. This technique requires the patient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to appear in a different form, Eventually, the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and other collective unconscious images. D. Psychotherapy ‘The goal of Jungian therapy is ta help neurotic patients become healthy and to mave healthy peaple in the direction of salf= realization, Jung was eclectic in his cholee of therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young, ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER Chapter 5 Psychodynamic Theories: Klein — Object Relations |. Ovarview of Object Relations Theory Many personality theorists have accepted some of Freud's basic assumptions while rejecting others. One approach to ‘extending psychoanalytic theory has been the object relations theories of Melanie Kiein and others. Unlike Jung and Adler,who came to reject Freud's ideas, Klein tried to validate Freud's theories. In essence, Klein extended Freud's develapmental stages downward to the first 4 to 6 months after birth, 11 Blography of Melanie Klein Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1892, the youngest of faur children. She had neither a Ph.D. nor an M.0. degree but became an analyst by being psychoanalyzed. As an analyst, she specialized in working with young chikiren, In 1927, she to London where she practiced until her death in 1960. 11, Introduction to Object Relations Theary Object relations theory differs from Freudian theory in at least three ways: (1) it places more emphasis on interpersonal relatanships, (2) it stresses the infant’ relationship with the mother rather than the father, and (3) it suggests that people are motivated primarily for human contact rather than for sexual pleasure. The term object in object relations theory refers to any person or part of a person that infants intraject, or take into their psychic: Structure and then later praject onto other people, 1. Psychic Life of the Infant Klein believed that infants begin life with an inherited predispasition to reduce the anxisty that they experience as a consequence of the clash betieen the Ife instinct and the death instinct. A, Fantasies Klein assumed that very yaung infants possess an active, unconscious fantasy life. Their mast basic fantasies are images of the "good" breast and the "bad" breast B. Objects Klein agreed with Freud that drives have an object, but she was more likely toemphasize the chills relationship with these cbjects (parents' face, hands, breast, penis, etc.), which she saw as having a life of their own within the chit Fantasy worl. V. Positions In theirattempts ta reduce the conflict produced by goad and bad images, infants organize their experience into pasitions, ar \ways of dealing with both internal and external objects, A, Paranoid-Schizaid Position ‘The strugoles thet infants experience with the good breast and the bad breast lead to two separate and appasing feelings: 8 desire to harbor the breast and a desire to bite or destray ft. Ta tolerate these two feclings, the ego splits self By retaining parts of its life and death instincts while prajecting cther parts ant the breast. It then has a relationship with the ideal breast and the persecutory breast. To control this situation, infants adapt the paranoid-sch oid position, which is a tendency to see the world as having both destructive and ormnipotent qualities, B. Depressive Pasition By depressive position, Klein meant the anciety that infants experience around 6 months of age aver lasing their mather and yet, at the same time, wanting to destray her. The depressive position is resolved when infants fantasize that they have made Up for their previous transgressions against their mather and also realize that thelr mather will nat abandon them. V1. Psychic Defense Mechanisms ‘According to Klein, children adopt various psychic defense mechanisms to protect their-ego against anxiety aroused by thelr ‘awn destructive Fantasies. A. Introjection Klein defined introjection as the fantasy of taking into one's awn body the images that ana has of an external object, especially the mother's breast. Infants usually introject good objects as a pratection against anmiety, but they also introject bad objects in order to gzin control of them. B. Projection The fantasy that one's own feelings and impulses reside within another persan is called projection. Children project both good and bad images, especially onto their parents C. Spitting Infants tolerate good and bad aspects of themsalves and of external abjects by splitting, or mentally keeping apart, incompatible images. Splitting can be beneficial to bath children and adults, because it allows them to like themselves while Stl recogniaing some unlikable qualities, D. Projective identification Projective identification is the psychic defense mechanism whereby infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them onto another object, and finally introject them in an altered farm. VII. Internalizations Alter introjecting external objects, infants organize them into a psychologically meaningful framewark, a process that Klein called internalzaton ‘A. EgoInternalizations are aided by the early ego's ability to feel anmdety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form object relations in both fantasy and reality. However, a unified aga emargas anly after first splitting itsalf into two parts: those that deal with the life instinct and those that relate to the death instinct. B. Superega. Klein belie ved that the superego emerged much earlier than Freud hed held. To her, the superego preceded rather than followed the Oedipus complex. Klein also saw the superego as being quite harsh and cruel. C. Oedipus Complex. Klein belie ved that the Oediaus complex begins during the first few months of life, then reaches its zenith during the genital st ‘age, at abaut 3 or 4 years of age, or the samme time that Fraud had suggested it began. Kien alco held that much af the Gedipus complex is based on children's fear that their parents will seek: revenge against them for their fantasy of emptying the parent's body. Far healthy development during the Oedipal years, children should retain pasitive fealings for each parent. ‘According ta Klein, the little bay adopts a “ferinine’ position very early in life and has no fear of being castrated as, Punishment for his sexual feelings for his mother. Later, he projects his destructive drive onto his father, whom he fears will Bite or castrate him, The male Oedipus complex is resalved when the bay establishes good relations with bath parents. The little gil also adapts @ “feminine” position toward both parents quite early in Ife. She has positive feeling for bath her ather’s breast and her father's penis, which she believes will feed her with babies. Sometimes the girl develops hostility toward her mother, whom she fears will retaliate against her and rab her of her babies, but in mast cases, the female Oedipus complex is resolved without any jealousy toward the mather. VIII Later Views on Object Relations Arnumber of ther theorists have expanded and altered Kiain's theory of abject relations, Notable amang them are Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg, Heinz Kohut. and John Bowlby. ‘A. Margaret Mahler's View Mahler, a native of Hungary who practiced psychoanalysis in both Vienna and New York, developed her theary of abject relations fromeareful observations of infants as they bonded with their mothers during their first 3 years of life, Im their progress taward achieving a sense of identity, children pase through a series of thrae majar develop mental stages. First i= Formal autism, which cavers the first 3 to 4 weeks of fe, a time when infants satisfy their needs within the all-pawerful Protective orbit of their mother's care, Second ts normal symbiosis, when infants behave ac if they and their mather were an omnipotent, symbiotic unit. Third is separation-individuation, from about 4 months until about 3 years, a time when children a becoming psychologicly separated from their mothers snd achieving individuation, ora sense of persona entity. inz Kahut's View Kohut was a native of Vienna who spent mast of his professional life in te United States. Morethan any of the other object relations theorists, Kahut emphasied the development of the self. In caring for thelr physical and psycholagical nacds, adults treat infants as if they had a sense of self. The parents’ behaviors and attitudes eventually help children form a sense of self that gives unity and consistency to thelr experiences. C. Otto Kernbera's View Kernberg, a native of Vienna who has spent mast of his professional career in the United States, believes that the key to Understanding personality is the mother-child relationship. Children who experience healthy relationship with their mather develop an integrated e90, a punitive superego, a stable self-concept, and satisfying interpersonal relations. [n contrast, children who have poor relations with their mather will have difficulty integrating thelr ego and may suffer from same form of Psychopathology during adulthood, D. John Bowlty’s attachment Theory Bowlby. a native of England, received training in child psychiatry from Melanie Klein. By studying human and ather primate infants, Bowlby cbserved three stages of separation anwety: (1) protest, (2) apathy and despair, and (3) emotional detachment from people, including the primary caregiver. Children who reach the third stage lack warmth and emation in their later relationships. IX. Psychotherapy ‘The goal of Kleinian therapy waste reduce depressive anxieties and persacutory fears and to lessen the harshness of internalized objects. To da this, Klein encouraged patients ta re-experience early fantasies and pointed out the differences between conscious and unconscious wishes, ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER ‘Chapter 6 Psychodynamic Theories: Horney - Psychoanalytic Social Theory | Overview of Horney's Psychoanalytic Social Theary Karen Horney's psychoanalvtic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions, especially during childhood, have 2 powerful effect on Ister personality. Like Melanie Klein, Horney accepted many of Freud's observations, but she objected to ‘most of his interpretations, including his notions on feminine psychology.Biography of Karen Horney ren Horney, who was barn in Germany in 1885, was one of the first wamen in that country admitted to medical schadl There, she became acquainted with Freudian theory and eventually became a psychoanalyst and 2 psychiatrist. In her mid-d 0s, Horney left Germany ta sattle in the United States, first in Chicago and then in New York. She soan abandaned orthodox psychoanalysis in favor af a more socially oriented ‘theory-one that had a more pasitive view of feminine development. She died in 1952 at age 67, 11, [traduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theary Although Harney's writings deal mastly with neurases and neurotic personalities, her thearies also appropriate suggest much ‘that i appropriate to normal develop ment. She agreed with Freud that early childhood traumas are Important, But she placed far mare emphasis an social factors. ‘A, Horney and Freud Compared Horney criticized Freudian theary on at least three accounts: (1) its rigiity toward new ideas, (2) its skewed view of feminine psychology, and (3) fs overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle, 8. The impact of Cutture Horney insisted that modern culture is too campetitive and that campetition leads to hostility and feelings of isolation, These ‘conditions lead to exaggerated needs for affertion and cause people to overvaiue love, . The Importance of Chikdhood Experiences Neurotic conflict sterns largely from-childhood traumas, mast of which are traced to 2 lack of genuine lave. Children wha do ot receive genuine affection Teel threatened and adapt rigid behavioral patterns in an attempt ta gain lava, IV. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety All children need feelings of safety and security. but these can be gained only by lave from parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect, dominate, reject, or overindulge their children, conditions that lead to the childs feelings of basic hostility toward parents, children repress feslings of basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of ‘apprehension called basic amdety. People can protect themselves fram basic anxiety through a number of pratective devices, including (1) affection, (2) submissiveness, (3) power, prestige, or passession, and (4) withdrawal. Normal people have the flexibility to use any or all of these approaches, but neuratics arecompelied to rely rigidly on anly ane. V. Compulsive Drives Neurotics are frequently trapped in a vicious circle in which their compulsive need to reduce basic anciety leads to a variety of self-defeating behaviors: these behaviors then produce more basic anmiety, and the cyde continues. ‘A, Neurotic Needs Horney identified 10 categories of neurotic needs that mark neurotics in thelrattempt to reduge basic ansiety. These include needs (1) for affection and approval, (2) fora powerful partner (3) to restrict one's life within narrow borders. (4) for power, (5] to exploit others, (6) for social recognition or prestige, (71 for personal admiration, (8) for ambition and personal ‘achievement, (9) for salf-sufficiency and independence, and (10) for perfection and unassailabiity B. Neuratic Trends Later, Horney grouped thase 10 neuratic needs into three asic neuratic trends, which apply to both normal and neuratic individuals in their attempt to solve basic conflict. The three neuratic tends are (1) moving toward people, in which compliant people protect themselves against feelings of helplessness by attaching themselves to other people: {2] moving against people, in which aggressive people protect themselves against perosived hostility of athers by exploiting others; and (3) moving away fram people, in which detached people protect themseives against feelings of isolation by appearing arrogant and slbat. VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts People also experience inner tensions or intrapsychic conflicts that bacome part of their balief system and take on a life-of their awn, separate fram the interpersonal conflicts that created ther. ‘A, The Idealized Self-Image People who do nat receive lave and affection during childhood are blocked in their attempt to acquire a stable sense of identity, Feeling alienated from seff, they creste an idealized self-image, or an extravagantly pasitive picture of themselves. Harney ecognized three aspacts of the idealized self-image: (1) the neurotic search far glary, or a comprehensive drive taward ‘actualizing the ideal self: (2} neurotic claims, or 2 beliet that they are-entitied to special privileges; and (3) neurotic pride, or a false pride based not on realty but ona distorted and idealized view of sel. B. Sel Hatred ourotics dislike thomselves because reality always falls short of their idealized view of self. Therefore, they learn self-hatred, which can be expressed as: {1 relentless demands on the self. (2) merciless self-accusation, (3} self-contempt, (4) self frustration, (s) setormentor 2ef-tartue, and (6) 2e¥- destructive achons and impul VII, Feminine Psychology Horney beliaved that psychological cferences between men and women are not due to anatomy but to culture and social expectations. Her view of the Oedipus complex differed markedly from Freud's in that she insisted that any sexual attraction Cor hostility of child to parent would be the resutt of learning and ‘nat biology.VIIL.Psychotherapy ‘The goal of Horney's psychotherapy was to help patients graw toward self-realization, give up their idealized self-image, relinguish their neurotic search for glory, and change self-hatred to self-acceptance. Harney beleved that successful therapy is bullton salf-analysis and self-understanding, ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER. Chapter 7 Psychodynamic Theories: Fromm - Humanistic Psychoanalysis |. Overview of Fromm's Humanistic Psychoanalysis Erich Fromm's humanistic psychoanalysis looks at people from the perspective of psychology. history. and anthropology. Infuenced by Freud and Horney, Fromm developed a more culturally oriented theory than Freud's and @ much broader theory than Horney’.11. Biography of Erich Fromm Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the anly child of orthodox Jewich parents. A thoughtful young man, Fromm was influenced by the bible, Freud, and Marx. as well as by socialist ideology. After receiving his Ph.D., Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and became an analyst by being analyzed by Hanns Sache, fa student of Freud. in 1934, Fromm maved to the United States and began a psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he also resumed his friendship with Karen Harney, whom he had known in Germany. Much of his lster years were spent in Mexica and Switzerland, He died in 1980 111, Fromm's Basic Assumptions Fromm believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and left with no powerful instincts ‘to adapt to a changing world, But because humans have acquired the ability to reason, they can think about their tslated canditionra situation Framm called the human dilemma. IV. Human Needs ‘According to Fromm, our human dilemima cannot be solved by satisfying our animal needs. It can only be addressed by fulfling our uniquely human needs, an accamplishment thet maves us toward a reunion with the natural work, Fromm identified five of these distinctively human ar existential needs. ‘A, Relatedness First is relatedness, which can take the form of (1} submission, {2} power, and (3) lave. Love, orthe ability to unite with ‘another while retaining one's own individuality and integrity, is the only relatedness need that can solve our basic human dilemma, B. Transcendence Being thrown inte the world without their consent, humans have ta transcend their nature by destraying or creating peaple or things. Humans can destroy through malignant aggression, or killing for reasons other than survival, but they can alsa create ‘and care about their creations, C. Roatedness Rootedness is the need to establish racts and to feel at hame again in the world. Productively, rootedness enables us to grow beyond the security af cur mother and establish tes with the outside world. With the nonproductive strategy, we become fixated and afraid to move beyond the security and safety of our mother or 2 mother substitute. D, Sense of Identity The fourth human need is for a sense of identity, or an awareness of ourselves as a separate person. The drive for a sense of identty is expressed nonproductively as conformity to @.group and productively as individuality, E. Frame of Orientation By frame of orientation, Fromm meant 3 road map or consistent philosophy by which we find our way through the world, This raed is expressed nonproductive as a striving for irrational goole and productively as movernent award ratona goals V.The Burden of Freedom ‘AS the only arimal possessing seff-awareness, humans are what Fromm called the "freaks of the universe." Historically, as people gained mare palitcal freedom, they began to experience more icalation fromathers and fram the warld and to fel free fromthe security of a permanent place in the world, 4 a resuit, freedom becomes a burden, and people experience basic anxiety, or 2 feeling of being alone in the world ‘A, Mechanisms of Escape To reduce the frightening sense of isolation and aloneness, people may adopt one of thrae mechanisms af escape: (1) authoritarianism, or the tendency to give up one's independence and to unite with @ powerful partner: (2) destructiveness, an escape mechanism almed at daing away with ther people or things; and (3) canfarmity, oF surrendering of one's individuality in order to mest the wishes of others, B. Positive Freedam ‘The human dilernma can only be solved through pasitive freedam, which is the spontaneous activity of the whole, integrated personality, and which i achleved when a person becomes reunited with athers, V1. Character Orientations Peaple relate to the world by acquiring and using things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization), and they can do so either nonproductively or productively. ‘A. Nonproductive Orientations Fromm identified four nonproductive strategies that fail ta move people claser to positive freedam and self-realization. People with receptive orientation believe thet the source of all good les outside themseives and that the only way they can relate to the world is ta receive things, including love, knowledge, and material abjects. People with an exploitative orientation also believe that the source of good lies outside themselves, but they aggressively take what they want rather than passively receiving it. Haarding characters try to save what thay have already obtained, including theiropinions, feelings, and material possessions. People with a marketing orientation see themselves as commodities and value themselves against the criterion Cf their ability to sell themselves. They have fewer positive qualities than the other orientations because thay are essentially ematy. , The Productive Grientation Peycholagically healthy peaple work toward pasitive freedom through productive wark, love, and reasoning. Productive ave Necesstates 3 passionate love of all fe and is called bophila,VIL. Personality Disorders Unheaithy paople have nonpraductive ways of working, reasoning, and especially laving, Fromm recognized three major personality disorders: (1] necrophilia, or the lave of death and the hatred of all humanity: (2) malignant narcissism, ar 2 ballet that everything belonging to one's self is af great value and anything belonging to others is worthless; and incestuous symbiosis, or an extreme dependence on one's mother ar mather surrogate, VIIL.Psychotherapy ‘The goal of Frommis psychotherapy was to work toward satisfaction of the basic human needs of relatedness, transcendence, rootadness, a sonse of identity, and 2 frame of orientation, The therapist tries to accomplish this through shared communication in which the therapist is simply @ human being rather than a scientist. 1X, Framm's Methods of Investigation Fromm's personality theory rests on data he gathered from 2 variety of sources, including psychotherapy, cultural anthropology, and psychahistary. |A, Social Character in a Mexican Village Fromm and his associates spent several years investigating social character in a isolated farming vilage in Mexico and found ‘evidence ofall the character orientations except the marketing ane, B. A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler Fromm applied the techniques of psychahistary to the study of several historical people, including Adolf Hitler-the person Fromm regarded as the world's mast conspicuous example af someone with the syndrame af decay, that is, necrophilia, malignant narcisicm, and incestuous symbiosis. ‘THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER ‘Chapter 8 Psychodynamic Theories: Sullivan - Interpersonal Theory | Ovarview of Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory ‘Although Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood, he evolved a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of interpersonal relations, He insisted that personality is shaped almost entirely by the relationships we have with other people, Sulivan's principal contribution to personality theary was his conception of developmental stages, 11. Blography of Harry Stack SullivanHarry Stack Sullivan, the first American to develop a comprehensive persanality theary, was born in a small farming ‘community in upstate New York in 1892. ‘A socially Immature and isolated child, Sullivan nevertheless farmed ane close interpersonal relationship with a bay five years ‘alder than himself. in his interpersonal theory, Sullivan bale ved that such a relatonship has the pawer to transform an immature presdolescent inta.a psychologically healthy individual. Sic years after becoming a physician, and with na training in paychiatry, Sulivan gained a pasition at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, D.