Review

The effectiveness of using

reinforcements in the classroom
on the academic achievement of
students with intellectual disabilities
Narges Adibsereshki

Journal of Intellectual Disabilities

2015, Vol. 19(1) 8393
The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1744629514559313
jid.sagepub.com

University of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences; Pediatric

Neurorehabilitation center, Islamic Republic of Iran

Somaye Jalil Abkenar

Special Education Teacher, Islamic Republic of Iran

Mohammad Ashoori
Special Education Teacher, Islamic Republic of Iran

Mahmood Mirzamani
Azad University, Islamic Republic of Iran
Date accepted: 20 October 2014

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two kinds of reinforcements, tangible
reinforcements and social reinforcements, on the academic achievement of eighth-grade female students with intellectual disabilities in the science subject. The study was an experimental method by
pretest, with a control group. The participants of the study comprised 45 female students with intellectual disabilities from three different middle schools in the province of Tehran. The multistage cluster
method was chosen to determine the sample. The Wechsler intelligence test for matching the groups
in terms of IQ and teacher-applied tests were used for all students to measure the progress of students
in science. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance. The results showed that (a) there was a
significant difference in the academic achievement scores of the groups after applying the intervention
and (b) the mean difference in achievement scores for the tangible reinforcements group was significantly higher than the social reinforcement group and the control group. Also the mean scores for the
social reinforcement group were significantly higher than the control group.
Keywords
intellectual disability, token economy, social reinforcements

Corresponding author:
Narges Adibsereshki, Pediatric Neurorehabilitation Center, University of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran
1985713834, Islamic Republic of Iran.
Email: n.adib@hotmail.com

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Introduction
For years, it is believed that people with intellectual disabilities could not learn and they lived
isolated in the community or segregated in institutions. Fortunately societal attitudes have changed, and now it is recognized that they can learn if taught in the right way. Learning is the process
of making sense of new information. It is personal and the pace at which people learn varies, but
there is evidence that some factors such as motivation can facilitate the process of learning.
Positive reinforcements, especially rewards, can motivate students to learn.

Intellectual disability
Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning, reasoning,
learning, problem solving, and in adaptive behavior ranging from everyday social and practical skills.
This disability originates before the age of 18 (American Association of Mental Retardation, 2002). In
most communities, people with intellectual disabilities (like nondisabled people) are able to access
education but they do not learn at the same pace. For example, children with mild intellectual disabilities attend school, their social adjustment and adaptive behaviors vary, and so schools and teachers
need to provide special programs and appropriate teaching strategies. This might include strategies
such as breaking down learning tasks into smaller steps and introducing each learning task, one step at a
time, to avoid overwhelming the student. Once the student has mastered one step, the next step is
introduced. They learn best by performing a task with hands-on experiences which involve concrete, observable information rather than abstract instructional lectures (Reynolds et al., 2011).
For individuals with intellectual disabilities immediate feedback is required so that they will be
able to make a connection between their answers, behaviors, or questions and the teachers
responses. A delay in giving immediate feedback may not result in the formation of a connection
between cause and effect in the students mind, and therefore, missing the learning point (Reynolds
et al., 2011). These students may attend regular schools (inclusion), but in Iran, they mostly go to
special schools that provide special classes and programs with special teachers.

Behavior modification and positive behavioural support

Behavior modification is viewed as a way to teach someone to behave in a new way, or change a
behavior, using positive or negative reinforcements (Kappel et al., 2012). Originating in the work
of Pavlov regarding positive and negative behavioral reinforcement, Skinner built on this
knowledge in the 1950s and began to apply it to human behavior through applied behavioral
analysis (ABA); ABA is a strategy for teaching people with disabilities to learn new behaviors. By
1970, ABA was used for improving social behaviors including the use of tokens to reinforce
appropriate behavior and reduce the problem behavior.
In mid-1980s, the concept of positive behavioral approaches such as positive behavior supports
(PBS) began to emerge. PBS uses educational approaches to develop an individuals behavioral
repertoire while also redesigning the support provided for them via systems change (Carr et al.,
2002). Positive behaviors are those skills that increase success in academic, work, social, and family settings, and supports are those educational methods that can be used to teach, strengthen, and
expand positive behaviors. PBS emerged from ABA, the inclusion movement and person-centered
values (Carr et al., 2002). PBS, however, differs from ABA in areas such as building relationships,
and believes we cannot help others without forming a good working relationship with them. Both

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approaches, however, recognize that a behavior may be caused by the function it serves and therefore to change a behavior one must first understand the function the behavior serves for the individual. It is also important to look at a behavior from different perspectives to see why it happens
more often in certain situations. Functional analysis is one aspect of positive approaches that were
rooted in ABA; its methods assess the behavior and its use in individuals with intellectual disability. PBS has influenced the education and inclusion of students with behavioral difficulties.
School-wide PBS focuses on prevention, skills building, and environmental modification. It
involves three levels of interventions, namely, primary, secondary, and tertiary (Horner et al.,
1990).
Views differ as to whether ABA and PBS are different approaches, and some experts think both
are different forms of ABA, PBS being rooted in the soil of ABA. More recently, PBS supporters
have suggested that while definitions and emphasis differ, in practice PBS and ABA can be
indistinguishable (Dunlap et al., 2008).

Reinforcements
Skinners work on operant conditioning involves developing relationships between various consequences and behaviors in order to achieve the desired outcome (Zirpoli, 2005). Skinner believed
that positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment when seeking to change or establish
a behavior. Teachers often use reinforcements as a form of discipline in the classroom, and these
reinforcements allow students to learn new ideas, skills, and rules (Charles and Senter, 2004).
There are primary reinforcers such as food and water, which require no special training to be
effective. Secondary reinforcers can be acquired through second-order conditioning, and many
teachers use extrinsic rewards like stickers and tokens to reinforce behavior. Finally, there are
social reinforcers such as praise, affection, and attention (Liberman, 2000). Reinforcement is
something that happens after a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. Different types
of reinforcers may be used to motivate different students (Laura and Peters, 2010), but it is important to make clear to the student under what conditions a reward can be acquired (Ormrod, 2000).
The techniques of behavior modification are based on operant conditioning; the focus is on reinforcing desirable behaviors and ignoring undesirable ones. This approach has a major role in special
education being used both to create effective teaching methods and to control behavioral problems. It is
also used to improve functional skills deficits, promote self-management, and train teachers (Miltenberger, 2008). According to Chitiyo and Wheeler (2009), educators can teach appropriate behavior and
improve the classroom environment by the use of positive reinforcement, but Lannie and McCurdy
(2007) suggest that many educators dont have the skills to manage their classrooms. Strong classroom
management skills are essential for effective teaching (Lannie and McCurdy, 2007).
Moore Partin et al. (2010) showed that using praise and positive reinforcement can decrease
students inappropriate behavior as well as increase appropriate behavior and response to teachers
demands. Through the use of positive reinforcement, teachers can improve their students motivation to behave appropriately (Lepper et al., 2005).
Social reinforcements, such as attention, appreciation, and appropriate praises, are often more
rewarding than toys or food for students. Putting a hand on a students shoulder, using encouraging
words in front of others, a nod, or an approving smile can be very meaningful (Michigan Team
Nutrition, 2004). Students with additional learning needs require encouragement and attention
more than their nondisabled peers, hence giving more attention in the classroom while completing
assignments will help their progression (Zecker, 2006).

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In recent years, educational professionals have been interested in the relationship between the
use of reinforcements in the classroom and the academic achievement of students. Hardman et al
(1990) researched the effectiveness of using a token economy for students with intellectual disability and found that the use of reinforcements had positive effects on the improvement of students academic skills. Kord (2003) studied the effectiveness of feedback to 140 fifth-grade
students who were evaluated in a science course and showed that providing feedback (verbal, written, or both) is effective for the academic development of students and that the written feedback
was more effective than verbal.
Cameron et al. (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of research published over the past 30 years to
determine the overall effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Their results indicated that
rewards produced positive effects on intrinsic motivation during low-interest tasks and during
high-interest tasks when they were explicitly tied to behavior and success. Many studies have
shown that when classroom management is a struggle, some form of tokens can be effective for
achieving control (Bafile, 2005).
Most research has shown that using positive reinforcements in the classroom is effective both for
managing behaviors and for promoting academic achievement of nondisabled students, but fewer
studies have been concerned about their impact on children with intellectual disabilities. The study
reported here examined the effectiveness of tangible reinforcements and social reinforcements on
the academic achievement of female students with intellectual disabilities. It was guided by the
following research questions: (a) Is there a difference between the academic achievement of students
in three groups (the group with tangible reinforcement, the group with social reinforcements, and the
control group)? (b) Which reinforcement (tangible reinforcements or social reinforcements) is more
effective on promoting the academic achievement of students with intellectual disabilities?

Method
The method used for this study was an experimental method by pretestposttest with a control group.

Participants
A sample of 45 female students with intellectual disability aged 1317 years participated in this
study. They were studying eighth grade in special middle schools in Tehran province in the
academic year 20102011. There are 14 special middle schools in Tehran province. Subjects were
selected by multistage cluster sampling technique in which (at the first stage) three schools were
selected randomly from the list of schools, and (in second stage) 15 students who met the inclusion
criteria (1317 years old, IQ of 6070, having intellectual disability and no other disabilities) were
recruited. It was decided that the appropriate sample size in the experimental design would be 15 in
each group (Gall et al., 2003). In this research, there were two experimental groups in which one
received tangible reinforcements and the other one social reinforcements, while the control group
had the usual class sessions and did not have any of the reinforcements.

Data collection tools

A number of different tools were used as follows:
A) Wechsler Intelligence testrevised for children:

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This includes subtests, which can be conducted individually and offers three IQ scores, namely,
verbal IQ, nonverbal IQ, and general IQ. The new Persian version of IQ test is standardized for
children aged 617 years. The reliability coefficient was calculated by two half SpearmanBrown
correlation coefficients for nonverbal IQ and verbal IQ subtests (except numerical memory, which
is made up of two different parts and encoding which is a speed test), which fluctuated between
0.42 and 0.98 and median of 0.69. The test reliability coefficient was also calculated through a
testretest, which ranges from 0.44 to 0.94. In two other cases, the counting and encoding subtest
is less than these values, and the reliability coefficient is 0.73 (Shahim, 1994).
Shahim (1994) assessed the validity of this tool by comparing the scale with the Wechsler
Preschool and Primary School scale and obtained the correlation coefficients for verbal IQ,
nonverbal, and global that were 0.84, 0.74, and 0.85, respectively.
B) Achievement test in the science subject:
Chapter 3 of the science book for eighth-grade students (which contains eight lessons) was
selected for the study. A pretest was designed from the previous materials (chapters 1 and 2).
On completion of chapter 3, a posttest was applied.
C) For determining which reinforcement (social or tangible) is more effective, the Scheffes
post hoc (1954) test was used.

Procedure
The names of the special schools and the permission letter to enter the schools and undertake the
study were provided by Tehrans city special education organization. The importance of interventional studies and our research was explained to the principal, counselors, and parents. They
were assured that the project would be beneficial and that no harm would come to participants.
Consent to participate was obtained from school principals and parents of participants.
After the initial sampling procedure, schools were randomly assigned to the three groups. The
third chapter of the science book containing eight lessons was taught by three female teachers who
had 20 h of training for teaching this course. The teachers were of a similar age and with similar
years of teaching experience. Teachers in the two experimental groups also received additional
training regarding the use of reinforcements.
Based on the instructional goals, in every session, the short answer questions (asked orally)
were designed to see whether the students understood the materials. Teachers explained to students
how and for what they could receive tokens or other reinforcements such as social reinforcements
(Appendix A). The pretest was applied to make sure all participants were almost at the same level
in the science subject.
In this program, individuals begin at an initial level and (depending on their improvement) they
progress to higher levels (Park and Lee, 2012). In this study (depending on their improvement),
students were able to receive simple stickers and then choose a reinforcer from the list (Appendix
B). For example, for three stickers they could choose small box of raisins or peanuts, for four
stickers they could have cookies or cupcakes, and so on. The list of reinforcers was selected
according to participants interests, and the number of stickers required for each reinforcer was
decided by teaching staff.
A posttest was taken after finishing the sessions. The pretest, posttest, and the oral questions
were designed by a teacher not involved in delivering the teaching.

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Table 1. Comparison of the age and intelligence in three groups (tangible reinforcement, social reinforcement,
and control).
Range

Tangible reinforcement
Social reinforcement
Control

SD

Age

IQ

Age

IQ

Age

IQ

15
15
15

1316
1317
1316

6169
6070
6170

14.30
14.60
14.80

64.13
63.73
64.80

1.40
1.24
1.08

2.64
3.10
3.34

Age

p
IQ

0.128 0.461

Age

IQ

0.880

0.634

Data analysis
Data analyses were conducted using descriptive and inferential statistics. For comparison of the
effect of the different conditions (tangible reinforcements group, social reinforcement group, and
control group) on the academic achievement, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used.
Also the Scheffes post hoc test was used to determine which reinforcement is more effective.

Results
Age and IQ scores of the three groups (tangible reinforcements, social reinforcement, and control)
were compared using one-way ANOVA. As shown in Table 1, the mean ages in three groups were
14.30, 14.60, and 14.80, and the means for their intelligence were 64.13, 63.73, and 64.80. This
indicates that there was no significant difference in age or intelligence between the three groups
(p 0.880 and p 0.634).
The first research question focused on comparing the effectiveness of tangible reinforcements,
social reinforcement, and no reinforcement (control group) on the academic achievement of students with intellectual disabilities. To answer this question, the scores in the pretest and posttest of
the three groups were compared.
Table 2 shows that in the pretest, there was no significant difference in the achievement scores
for the three groups, F(2, 42) 0.067, p 0.936.
As shown in Table 3, there was a significant difference in the academic achievement scores of
the three groups in the posttests, F(2, 42) 57.03, p < 0.001. In addition, eta square indicates that
73% of the achievement variance is because of the interventions (2 0.731).
The second research question focused on which of the reinforcements is most effective in
promoting the academic achievements of students with intellectual disability. According to
Table 4, Scheffes post hoc test results indicate that the mean difference (MD) of achievement
scores for the tangible reinforcements group was significantly higher than the social reinforcement group (MD 3.05, p < 0.001) and the control group (MD 4.10, p < 0.001). Additionally, the mean scores for the social reinforcement group were significantly higher than the
control group (MD 1.05, p < 0.04).

Discussion
Different reinforcement programs are established by schools designed to encourage students to
increase their performance and to progress in their education. According to the results of this study,
the academic achievement scores for the groups receiving tangible reinforcements and social

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Table 2. Pretest of the three groups (tangible reinforcement, social reinforcement, and control).

Between the groups

Inside the groups
Total

SS

df

MS

0.211
66.60
66.81

2
42
44

0.106
1.58

0.067

0.936

0.003

SS: sum of squares; df: degrees of freedom; MS: mean of squares.

Table 3. Posttest of the three groups (tangible reinforcements, social reinforcement, and control).

Between the groups

Inside the groups
Total

SS

df

MS

136.07
50.10
186.17

2
42
44

68.038
1.193

57.03

<0.001

0.731

SS: sum of squares; df: degrees of freedom; MS: mean of squares.

Table 4. The comparison of the achievement mean scores in three groups by Schffe test.
Comparison groups

MD

SEM

Social reinforcement
Tangible reinforcement
Control
Social reinforcement
Control

3.02

0.398

<0.001

4.10

0.398

<0.001

1.08

0.398

<0.04

MD: mean difference.

reinforcements were greater than the control group. This is in keeping with Porters (2007) study
about the effect of using tokens with 750 students that led to an increase in academic achievements
and attendance of students. Porter stated that people like getting rewards or tokens for doing tasks,
whether they are bonus points for buying certain objects or just the fact of getting something for
doing a good job. Newcomer (2009) and Simonsen et al. (2008) also believe that using reinforcement strategies to address specific behaviors or to motivate students can be a simple and
effective way to reenergize students.
Another finding of the current study was that the group that received tangible reinforcements
achieved more than the group that received social reinforcements. This supports the literature
reviewed, which indicates that using a reward system can be more effective in controlling behaviors than the traditional method of social praise (Mathur, 1996). Maccini and Gagnon (2000, p19)
suggested implementing some positive pro-active, and consistent behavioral management strategies such as praise and feedback, timeout, token economies and contracts, could motivate students and encourage appropriate behavior. As students become familiar with the instruction and
reward process, the token reward system can be introduced.
The results of this study differ from the study by Waggy (2002) regarding the effects of a token
system compared to social praise on the behaviors of elementary learning-disabled students. That study
indicated there was no significant statistical difference between the two kinds of reinforcements on the

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Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 19(1)

manifest behaviors of learning-disabled students. Social praise was found to be most effective when
used with another method of behavior management. Liberman (2000) states that one of the characteristics of reinforcers is their saliency or the degree to which an individual prefers the reinforcement;
hence, teachers should look for activities their students prefer. The current study indicated that children
with intellectual disability seem to prefer the tangible reinforcements rather than social reinforcements, that is, they prefer actual items for rewards rather than verbal praise.
Using the reinforcements and rewards in the classroom may not reinforce a behavior or attain
the desired result. As teachers seek to reinforce a behavior, they should consider three important
characteristics of operant conditioning, namely, the reinforcer (what kinds of reinforcer they plan
to use), the reinforcement schedule (continuous or partial reinforcement schedule), and the timing
of the reinforcement (the time between operant behavior and the reinforcer). Modifying the
environment will also help students to modify their behavior and learning.

Limitations
The study has some limitations. It only encompassed a small fraction of female students and
schools in our system and only included students with intellectual disability in one grades science
class. The results of this study demonstrate the relationship between predictors and contingent
variables but cannot illustrate what is happening in terms of student satisfaction. In addition, literature regarding social reinforcements and our resources in this area were limited.

Conclusion
Using reinforcement strategies could be an effective way to both address specific behavioral issues
and motivate the students in the classroom. The current study showed that using positive reinforcement (tangible and social reinforcements) in the classrooms for students with intellectual
disability had a positive effect on their academic progress (in science subject) and that the tangible
reinforcements were most effective. These findings can be used by teachers to promote more
effective learning for their students with intellectual disabilities.

Future research
This study extends the current literature regarding the effectiveness of token economy and social
reinforcements on the academic achievement of students with intellectual disabilities. However,
there should be further studies of different kinds of reinforcements to extend the knowledge in this
area and also to investigate the application and use of these methods. Hopefully, future research
can respond to questions regarding using various reinforcements and their effectiveness on academic achievement, with a different population of students in different age and grades.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for profit
sectors.

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Appendix A
Table A1. List of social reinforcements.
Appreciation by writing the name
Showing appreciation by
on the board
installing photo in the bulletin
board
Appreciation by school Web site In charge of designing the bulletin
board
Appreciation in the morning
Applaud in the class
program
Appreciation in the parents
Teaching in class
meeting
Appreciation by sending a letter Performing enjoyable activities in
home
class
Member of music group in school Performing a play in class
Play a computer game in class
Member of the sport team in
school
Helping in the school store
Helping the teacher
Working at the library
Helping the school nurse
Being sport team assistant
In charge of some school
activities
Written encouragement
A merit

Helping the teacher of another

classroom
Doing the morning
announcements
Being class monitor
Become a group leader
Allow an extra activity in class in
some occasions like a birthday

Giving the responsibility of collecting

students work
In charge of checking the attendance
of students
In charge of checking assignments
In charge of bringing the attendance
book
Going out earlier than other students
and do other activities
Being the first one to perform in class
Reading books for students
Sitting at the teachers desk
sometimes
Writing or drawing on the board
Using the library facilities more often
Have an extra time out
Appreciation by calling home and
informing other members of family
Verbal praise and encouragements
Take care of the class plants

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Appendix B
Table B1. List of reinforcers.
Reinforcers

No. of stickers
(as a token) Reinforcers

No. of stickers
(as a token) Reinforcers

Raisins
Peanuts
Hazelnut
Pistachio
Cup cake
Cookies
Biscuits
Milk

3
3
4
5
5
5
5
5

Special stickers
Notebooks
Comb
Toothbrush
Toothpaste
Puzzles
Socks
Bubble pipe

9
10
1
11
11
11
12
12

Fruits
Juice
Stickers
Whistle
Pencil
Lathe
Eraser
Pens
Ruler
Tennis ball

6
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
9

Key chains
Yo-yo
Notepads
Novel books
Spray
Movies
Wallet
Belt
Color pencils
Crayons

12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
16

Pencil chains
Gloves
Individual
Jump rope
Cinema tickets
Sunglasses
Wristwatch
Balls (football, basketball,
volleyball, and soccer
balls)
T-shirts
Sneakers
Tennis racket
Badminton racket
Light reading
Sports clothing
White board
Travel blanket
Field trip
Camera

Downloaded from jid.sagepub.com at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia on May 9, 2016

No. of stickers
(as a token)
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19

20
20
20
21
21
22
22
23
23
24