ECNG3004

Control System Applications

ECNG3004_2
Instrumentation Systems and Standards
1

Instrumentation Practices & Standards

1. Instrumentation terminology
2. Pneumatic Signal Transmission Systems
3. Electrical Signal Transmission Systems
Voltage
Current Loop
4. Transmission Noise Considerations
Transceiver and wire selection for noise minimisation
Grounding and Shielding
Considerations in Cable Selection

1. Control Instrumentation Terminology

Basic Definitions
Span: Difference between upper and lower limits of
a variable
NB: Upper and lower limits usually determined from
knowledge of plant characteristics, desired
values etc.

Y
Instrument

Input span matches output span i.e.

[Xmin, Xmax] [Ymin, Ymax]

Ymax

Zero: ZERO is the lowest input reference limit that

is mapped to the lower limit of the transmitter
output range e.g. Xmin, Ymin

Y(X*)
Ymin

Live Zero: A zero that is not numerically zero e.g.

Xmin 0 => X has a live zero, Xmin.
X*

Xmin

Xmax

span
Transfer Characteristic

zero

Temp. Transmitter:
Temp. Indicator

Valve

4 20mA
4 20mA 50 -80oC
6 15mA 0% - 100% closure
0

Other instrument characteristics include: linearity

(several definitions), accuracy, resolution, drift,
response time etc.
NB: Relative adjustment of the input or output span
is the same as adjusting the device gain

-100oC

Control Instrumentation Terminology Linear characteristics and percentage units

NB. Readings are often given on a percentage (per unit) basis, i.e. units are
converted to %:

PV PVmin
PV = 100 PV% S x + PVmin , S x PVmax PVmin
PV% = 100
Sx
T Tmin
T = 100T% ST + Tmin , ST Tmax Tmin
T% = 100
ST

NB: Percentage representations match on input and output iff the characteristic
is linear!!
Thats why linearizers
Proof: For a linear characteristic the gradient is

T Tmin
Tmax Tmin
=

PV PVmin PVmax PVmin

are so important as
signal conditioning
elements

correction

T Tmin
PV PVmin
T% = 100
= 100
= PV %
Tmax Tmin
PVmax PVmin
4

Control Instrumentation Terminology Example (Bateson) A DP (Differential Pressure) Transmitter

A DP Cell is used to provide fluid flow measurement by measuring the pressure drop
across an orifice

Transmitted signal (I, V, P etc)

DP Cell

Signal Conversion
Qm
? Electrical Analogy
Linearizer
(square root extractor)

Pipe section

Flow rate, Q

p1

p2
Orifice plate

Q = k ( p1 p2 ) Q = k ( p1 p2 )
2

Instrumentation Signal Standards

Two main signal transmission media:

air (pneumatic systems)
electricity (current and voltage systems)
New: optical systems

2. Pneumatic Signal Transmission Systems

Process variable changes are mapped into corresponding changes in air
pressure level in a closed air system.

Measurement Units
English units pound per sq. inch (psi)
Metric: 1psi=68.95 mbar or 1 bar = 14.5psi
1 psig 1 psi gauge i.e. pressure above atmospheric (15 psi).
absolute pressure (psia) = psig + psi (atmospheric).

A live zero at 3 psig. This allows elements in the system to discern

between a low signal and a system failure (0 psi)
3 psi to represent 0%
15 psi to represent 100%

Pneumatic Systems

Compressed air supply from a compressor or precharged compressed air tank

Must use filters, regulators and lubricators (FRLs) to clean air, maintain constant
pressure and provide lubrication for devices in the loop. Lubrication may involve the
use of oil droplets sprayed into the air stream
System must be designed to eliminate condensate that forms when air is
compressed
Relief (safety) valves must be included in the event of excessive pressure buildup.
Air receiver smoothes variations in air pressure arising from compression cycles

Safety valve
Pressure gauge

Distribution pipe

Integrated compressor
and after cooler
SWP
10bar

Isolating valve

Can you see the

similarity between
the pneumatic
supply and an
electrical power
(AC to DC) supply?

Air receiver

Drain valve
Condensate drain

8
www.norgren.com

Distribution System
z
z

z
z

Ring main installation

Dead leg with a drip leg
drain on each corner to
collect and remove
water
Pipes slope to each
corner
Take off drops
connected to the top of
the main pipe to avoid
water pick up
Filter, regulator and
lubrication (FRL) units
before each application

9
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Water in compressed air

fully
saturated
air

When large quantities of air are

compressed, noticeable
amounts of water are formed
The natural moisture vapour
contained in the atmosphere is
squeezed out like wringing out
a damp sponge
The air will still be fully
saturated (100% RH) within the
receiver
Condensate
Drain
10
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Drip leg drain

Automatic drain valve for

terminating a dead leg
Water automatically drained when
pressure is on, also when shut
down
Fit with an isolating shut off valve
for maintenance
Incorporates a course mesh filter to
retain large solid particles
Built in bleed valve to depressurise
the unit prior to maintenance
11
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ISO Standards for compressed air quality

ISO 8573-1
Solids

Water

Oil

particle concentration
size max maximum
m
mg/m 3

Max Pressure
Dew point OC

concentration
mg/m 3

70
40
20

0.01
0.1
1
5
25
-

Class

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

0.1
1
5
15
40
-

0.1
1
5
8
10
-

+3
+7
+ 10
Not Specified

Pressure dew point is the temperature to which compressed air must be cooled
before water vapour in the air starts to condense into water particles

12
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Pressure regulator
Pressure regulators are used to ensure constant working pressure (P2 = constant)
under for a range of load (air flow) conditions. They work off a supply pressure P1 >
P2.
Regulated pressure
adjustment: varies
upper poppet valve
spring tension

Poppet valve

Operation

Low pressure (P2) on the outlet side causes

the upper spring to push the poppet down.

This opens the valve allowing air from the

supply side to flow.

This results in an increase in outlet pressure

which in turn causes the poppet to rise.

When the pressure reaches the set level

poppet valve closes to hold the pressure at
P2

If the pressure P2 is too high, the diaphragm

is lifted and excess air is vented through the
upper valve seat.

P2 can be set on a gauge fitted to the

regulator

Spring
Diaphragm

Spring

4
80
2

40
120
lbf/in2
bar

10

13
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Whats a Poppet valve?

A poppet valve is a valve in

which the moving element or
poppet, usually spherical or
conical in shape, moves in a
direction perpendicular to its
seat.
Poppets are used in many
valve applications such as
pressure regulators and
relief valves because of their
ease of manufacture,
minimum leakage and
insensitivity to clogging by
dirt particles.

14
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Typical Regulator Pressure characteristics

Spring range 0-10 bar
Primary pressure 10 bar

Pressure bar

8
6

4
z

2
0

10

20
Flow dm3/s

30

40

The curves show the

characteristics and
hysteresis of pressure
from a set value for
increasing then
decreasing flow
The transition from no
flow to just a little flow
produces an initial drop
For the useable range the
curve levels out and even
rises slightly then falls
steeply as the useable
range is exceeded

15
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Other Components
Lubricators

Relief Valves
Normal pressure is not
enough to overcome
spring tension and lift
the diaphragm to vent to
air

Compressed
Air circuit

Pressure trip
Level
adjustment:
Varies spring
tension
spring
diaphragm

Atmosphere
(vent)

Excessive pressure will lift

the diaphragm to open the
poppet valve and relieve air to
the outlet

Oil drips from upper section (aeration chamber)

into the air stream. System design ensures drops
are broken up to appropriate size. Oil is drawn by
suction from a reservoir through a tube to the
aeration chamber

16
www.norgren.com

3. Electrical Industrial Signal Transmission Systems

1. Electrical transmission may utilise voltage as well as current as signaling
media. The use of wireless systems is on the increase
2. Standards exist for analog and digital communication
1. Standard electrical voltage ranges include: -10V to +10V, 0V to +5V, +1 to
+5V. This is for both analog and digital communication
2. Most industrial instrumentation communication uses current as the
signal medium. The standard range for current analog signal
transmission is 4mA 20mA
3. 0-20mA standards exist for digital signaling.
4. There are various wireless standards. These generally require conversion
to digital format. Standards therefore exist for the coding of the data and
the protocol structure for communication. The more current structures
include IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth

17

Voltage Transmission and Noise Why current?

Voltage Tx systems are more susceptible to EMI/RFI noise ( typically from motor,
solenoid switching transients and radio systems) than current systems
110, 220, 440 VAC and greater

EM Radiation (RF coupling)

Capacitive Coupling

Currents from amps to kA range

Inductive Coupling

Utility
Power
Supply

Plant
Equipment

To control equipment

Injects noise

Sensor
and
transmitter

Loop signal

Receiver
Ground loop effect

Process
Variable

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION LOOPS

(low power systems)
18

Model for noise injection in an electric circuit

Thevenin model for noise source. Rn
would typically be much larger than
the impedances in the signal loop
(O(108) or more)

Rn1
Rtx
Vn

Vs

Rrx

Rn2

Thevinins equivalent of
signal source

Receiver input equivalent circuit.

Rrx is smaller for current
signalling than it is for voltage
signalling

NOTES:

19

Improving noise rejection via differential mode transmission

Noise signal
Vn:

Vin

V+

Vtx

Neither signal path is grounded

Vtx+ Vn

V-Vtx
Balanced
differential
transmitter

-Vtx + Vn

V+

Vo = K(V+rx V-rx)
=
2KVtx

VBalanced
differential
receiver

Largely used for dig

communication
Eg RS422, 485, 10BaseT
etc
RS485: 10Mb/s up to 1.2km
Rs232: 20kb/s up to 15m

20

Improving Noise Rejection via Twisted pair cable

Remember Lenzs law? The induced voltage, V volts, in a coil is V = nA dB

dt

A(m2)

where
is the area enclosed by a conductor loop, n the number of loop turns
and B the magnetic flux density (Wb/m2) threading the coil.
in

in

in

in

Bn

Bn

in

in
in

Twisted pair cable

in

Unraveled to show
induced currents

Effect of EM induction is cancelled over adjacent twists.

Effectiveness depends on wire quality (variations in cross section
and electric properties of conductor and insulator), regularity of
twists
21

Grounding and Shielding

SAFETY ISSUE:
Electrical grounding of equipment chassis needed for safety considerations

Lethal level:
0.3A

NOTES:

22

Ground Loops
CAUTION: In some equipment electrical and signal grounds are tied
1. Problematic when interconnecting equipment because of ground loops
2. Ground loops a loop antenna. Detects stray EM radiation, injects corresponding
induced currents into the ground line.
3.The line impedance translates this into voltage variations at each device signal
reference point. This introduces a level of noise into the signal (typically mains
frequency harmonics but depends on environment e.g. arc welding plant, motor starting
transients, electro-chemical plant, arc furnaces)
signal
Signal return
(reference)
Device
Electronics

Device
Electronics

V 0

Igloop

NB: Apart from adding

noise, ground loop
currents can cause
damage to circuits if
currents are large.
Likely if other
equipment set up earth
currents in same path
!!!!!!!!!
23

Magnetic Shielding
1. A shield is a conductive enclosure
2. Shields are required to minimise magnetic interference on the circuits and signal
carrying conductors they enclose

b
isig + imag

isig

i
i

A current in wire magnetically

induces a current, imag, in wire b
corrupting the signal isig.

Magnetic
shielding
attenuation
characteristics
for different
material

Enclosing wire b in a magnetic shield (metallic enclosure)

attenuates the magnetic field emanating from a thus reducing imag
by several dB. The shield provides a lower reluctance path for the
field than air. The attenuation of the field depends on the material, its
thickness and the field frequency

Frequency
Audio
100kHz

Thickness
(in.)
0.020
0.125
0.020
0.125

Aluminium Copper
(dB)
(dB)
2
3
10
25
35
130

Steel
(dB)
10
40
>150
>150
24

Electrostatic Shielding
1. Shields are also used to minimise electrostatic interference on circuits
2. To be effective for electrostatic shielding, shields must be tied to ground (not
the signal reference) allowing the removal of charge (for cases where the
electrostatic effect is caused by a circuit that is also connected to ground the
most common case)

b
a +
i

+ +

isig + istat

+ +

a +

Varying electrostatic charge in wire

a induces a current, istat, in wire b
corrupting the signal isig. The current
is caused by the corresponding
varying displacement of charge in
b:

+ +

isig

+ +

Enclosing wire b in a grounded conducting shield (metallic

enclosure) attenuates the electrostatic field effect from a thus
reducing istat by several dB. The shield provides a return path for the
surface charges displaced by a
NB: Attaching the shield to signal ground can compromise the effect
of the shield. Induced charges on the shield can then effectively
change the potential of the signal ground as a function of the charge
on a.

25

Grounding and Shielding Practice

1. All transmission cable should have a shield.
2. All shields should be grounded at one point (usually at the ground point of
the most sensitive circuit (transducer?).
3. If one-point is impossible, tie each piece of equipment to earth through a
resistor (100 recommended for RS485, RS422) to limit ground loop
current.
4. The above eliminates coaxial cables (1 wire shield) which uses the shield
as signal return). Use shielded twinax or other multiple wire cable.
5. Use shielded twisted pair to further minimise magnetic effects
6. Maintain a reasonable distance between signal and power cables; long
parallel runs will increase the chance of crosstalk between signal cables
and interference between signal and power cables.

26

Considerations in Cable Selection

The primary consideration in selecting control and instrumentation cables are:
Voltage level (typically 300 and 600V ratings)
Emission and interference reduction
Control Cable: a few mV to a few hundred volts

Instrument Cable:
Overall shield, individual pairs or triads twisted but not shielded
Overall shield, individual pairs or triads twisted and shielded

Environmental conditions (heat, chemical)

The main factor here is the insulation type. This is selected depending on the environmental
classification see next
27

Considerations in Cable Selection Hazardous Zones (National Electric Code Art. 500)

28
Wire and Cabling handouts

3. Electrical Systems : 4-20 mA Current Loop

Live Zero of 4mA (can tell if a wire is broken)
Predecessor: 10-50mA current loop

Analog signaling
Rline

Transducer

R1
(display)

Rtransducer
(>106)

ILoop

(controller)

(4-20mA)

Vsupply = Vtransducer + ILoop (Ri + Rline)

ILoop (Ri + Rline)

ILoop
varies
with PV

R2

Vsupply

Typically Vtransducer < 4V

Typically,
Vsupply ILoop (Ri + Rline) +12V

Figure 3: Typical Current Loop Connection

29

4-20 mA Loop Connections Transmitter Type Classification

Standard: ANSI/ISA-50.00.01-1975 (R2002)

Type 2: 2-wire circuit.

Tx has a floating
connection

Type 3: 3-wire circuit.

Tx and Rx share a
ground with the
supply

Type4 : 4-wire circuit.

Tx and Rx floats.
Supply powers the
Tx.

30

4-20 mA Class Designations

Class L

Class H

Class U

Minimum Load
Resistance

300

800

300 800

Minimum Vs (V)

23

32.7

23 32.7

2,3,4 (L,UH) expand on specs!!!

Benefits of the 4-20mA Current Loop
Rejection of variations in supply voltage and line resistance
(including bad connections) (VLoad = IsignalRLoad ).
The current loop can accommodate multiple receivers without
signal degradation. The maximum number of loads is determined
by the transmitter classification and loop supply
The current loop has a high rejection of parasitically induced
electrical noise effects because of their very low receiver
impedances (few hundred ohms)

31

Passive V/I converter

R1

Vin

RLOAD

R1

Rbias

ILOAD

I LOAD
Vbias

Rbias

Vin
VBIAS
=
+
2 R1 + RLOAD 2 RBIAS + RLOAD
1 Vin VBIAS
+
2 R1 RBIAS

[] BALANCED
[] Adjust Zero via _______________
[] Adjust Span via _______________
[] Susceptible to changes in RLOAD
[] So, design for R1>>RLOAD and RBIAS >> RLOAD

32

Active (better) voltage to current converter

ZERO

R3VZ

Vin
ILOAD=
+
, 1 1
(R4 +R5)(R1 +R2) R4 +R5

Vz

R3

Vcc
-Vz

R2

Vin

+ OP1

R1

T1

-Vcc

T2

Iload
LOAD

R4

SPAN

R5
Use T2 for bi-directional
current output

33

Loop-powered devices: Powering off the 4-20 mA signal line

+
Rsense

Vdrop DC-DC Converter

VS

Transducer

PV

ILoop = f(PV)

Signal loop
34

Loop-powered devices: Powering off the 4-20 mA signal line

Boost converter

comparator
switch

http://www.maxim-ic.com.cn/appnote/
35

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) Protocol

HART sensor

~ +0.5mA

PV

ILoop = f(PV) + IHART

IHART 0mA

4-20mA PV representation
~ -0.5mA

Logic 1: 1200Hz

Logic 0: 2200Hz

Bell 202 FSK

www.hartcomm.org

36

HART benefits

The HART Protocol

1. is backward compatible with the 4-20mA current loop standard

legacy (analog 4-20mA) devices and modern HART devices can be

combined on the same loop.
change in wiring is not required, reducing the cost of upgrade.

2. facilitates 2-way communication with HART enabled transducers.

a) Allows communication of parameters in addition to the normal PV output.
These parameters include device status, diagnostic alerts, process variables
and units, loop current and percentage range, basic configuration
parameters and manufacturer and device tag (ID) information. All HART
enabled devices must store 35 to 40 data items as a standard feature.
Allows for early warning of device problems, deployment multi-variable
devices (i.e. simultaneously output more than 1 PV e.g flow, pressure and
temperature), automatically track and detect changes (mismatch) in Range
or Engineering Units, perform device calibration.

The Analog Devices AD421 is a complete loop-powered 4-20mA digital to

analog converter designed for use in smart sensors.
37

Notes pg 8

20 mA current loop digital communications

All loop current sources in active units

Receiver

Transmitter

20mA
+
+

Receiver

Transmitter
+
20mA
Active Unit

Passive Unit

Default state is Iloop = 20mA =MARK; 0mA = SPACE

Active Unit alone has 20mA current sources. Replaced by RS422, 485
19.2kbaud up to 600m
Lost popularity because of lack of standards
38

Digital Communication Standards

Balanced differential voltage transmission is nowhere as popular as the 4-20mA
current loop for analog signal applications. However, Balanced differential voltage
transmission almost completely dominates serial digital communication
domain.
The most popular standards are RS-422 and RS-485.
RS-422 and RS-485 transmit reliably at 10Mb/s up to about 1200m (the older
RS232C/D is guaranteed to 15m at 20kb/s).
RS-485 differs from RS-422 in that it can accommodate multiple drivers and
receivers (32 of each) per line. RS-422 can handle only 1 driver and 10 receivers.
These standards will be discussed in more detail in the section on Computers in
Control; however, the student can locate more information on serial protocols in pgs
606-610 and 723 727 of Horowitz, and Hill
A variety of standards exist for industrial wireless communication. These will also be
discussed later
39

Comparison of Transmission Methods

Factor

Pneumatic

Voltage

Current Loop

integrity to signal loss

due to broken cable

Very good.

Poor.

Very good.

immunity to electrical
noise interference

Virtually immune

low to moderate for

unipolar transmission.
High for balanced
differential mode
transmission over tp

Very high immunity due

to low impedance
circuits

Signal loss and delay

Relatively long delays,

signal loss at high
frequency

Relatively Short delays;

some signal loss on long
lines

Relatively Short delays.

Not as susceptible to
signal loss

Power wiring/hosing

Separate hosing
required to power
equipment above 15psi

Separate wiring usually

required to power
devices

No separate wiring
required to power
devices

Smart sensor
capability

Extremely limited in pure

pneumatic systems

Capable but not widely

applied

Widely applied for smart

sensors

Susceptibility to
grounding problems
(ground loops, ground
reference variations)

n/a

High: unipolar.
Low : differential

Low susceptibility

volatile atmospheres

Applicable to all area

classifications

Area classification must

be considered

Area classification must

be considered
40