ChelseaOkeh

G/TIndependentResearchPeriod3
September14,2015
AnnotatedSource

BornsteinB.H.,LaubC.E.,MeissnerC.A.,andKyleS.J.,2013TheCrossRaceEffect:
ResistanttoInstructions,In
JournalofCriminology
,vol.2013,ArticleID745836,
6pages,2013.2/5/2015,HindawiPublishingCorporation

Inthisarticle,informationregardingfalseidentificationineyewitnesstestimonies,
plausibleexplanationsfortheCrossRaceEffect,anditsdevelopmentinlifearediscussed.
ThroughtheCrossRaceEffect,falseidentificationsbyeyewitnessmisidentificationscausemore
falseconvictions.Althoughthesearenotuncommon,greatharmmaybedonetothesupposed
convictiffalselyaccused,rangingfromfinestolifetimeincarceration.Thisarticlestatesthatthis
effectappearsistheearlyinfancystagewhereitisobservedinyoungchildrenandcontinues
intodotage.Inthearticle,thethreeleadingexplanationsfortheCREarethecontacthypothesis,
theencodinghypothesis,andtheretrievalbasedprocesseshypothesis.Thesehypothesesdeal
with:thedifferentcontactanindividualhasonhisownracevsthatofothers,theneurooptical
analysisdonewhenweobserveamemberofourownracevsamemberofanother,and
reflectionsonrecollectionprocessesatthetimeofretrievalofinformationwithinthebrain,
respectively.
ThissourceisveryuniqueandisaveryresourcefultoolontheCRE.Theinformation
coversmanyaspects,yetisdetailed,andgivessufficientinformationequivalenttoifnot
surpassingcollegiatelevelsources.Theauthorsareveryknowledgeableandkeenonproviding
insighttothereaders.Thisarticlepresentsinformationinahighleveloferuditionwhile
thoroughlyaddressingtheleadingexplanationsoftheCRE,itseffectonfalselyidentified

convicts,anditsdevelopmentfromearlyinfancylastingthrougholdage.Knowingthisaidsin
developingtheideathattheCREdoesnotdeterioratewithinthehumanbody,butratherstaysat
aconstantoncelearnedasaninfant.
Burns,M.P.,&Sommerville,J.A.(2014).Ipickyou:theimpactoffairnessandraceon
infantsselectionofsocialpartners.FrontiersinPsychology,5(93),110.

Thisarticledescribestheabilityofcertainfactors,namelyraceandfairnesstoimpactthe
decisionsofinfantswhenchoosingplaymates.Infantsactivelychooseplaymatesbasedonthe
characteristicstheyfindrelevant.Thisissimilartohowadultsineconomicslookforandchoose
partnerslikethemoftheirsamerace,age,socioeconomicstatus,etc.Thistendencyhasvisible
originswheremajorityofchildrenbefriendthosemostsimilartothemsameage,gender,and
sometimesrace.Thistheoryistracedbackasearlyasthepreschoolyears,whereitismost
prominentifaninfantssocialcategoriesaffecttheirsocialselections,andtheinfantisvery
sensitivetorace,aswellasadditionalpatternsintheirobservationalskills.Inrelationtothe
CrossRaceEffect,acertaindemographic,infants,arefacedwiththeinnateeffectofhavinga
biastowardanotherthatofwhichhascharacteristicsaninfantfindrelevantsuchasfairnessin
distribution.
ThisarticleunearthsotherdetailsoftheCrossRaceEffectinpostnataldevelopment.The
articleisdifferentthanothersthatarenarrowlyfocusedontheCRE,andsuppliesno
explanationonitsoriginwithinhumanmaturationorotherreallifeexampleswherethishas
happened,otherthanfacialrecognition.Thecertainfactorsthattheinfantsdeemrelevant,
fairnessindistributionandrace,areseenasmoralandeverydaynormsrespectively.This
enhancestheideaoftheCrossRaceEffectbytrackingtheevolutionofsuchmoralnorms,and
howthroughtheenvironment,aninfantssphereofsocialconventionsareshaped.

Caniff,M.A.1942HowtoSpotaJap.In
APocketGuidetoChina
[Pamphlet]10pages,
1942.9/22/15,WashingtonD.C.WarandNavaldepartment.

Inthissource,racialidentification,andprejudicetowardsJapaneseintheWorldWarII
internmentcampsareemphasizedtostresstheexcessracismtowardsaspecificracesolelybased
onphysicalappearance.Asaresult,someoftheChinese,Korean,ThaiandracesofAsiawere
raciallydiscriminatedaswellbecauseofthewaythattheylooked.ThewaysthattheJapanese
areidentifiedincomparisontotheChinesearearbitrary.WhiletheChinesehaveevenlyset
choppersandsmileseasilywhile,theJapanesedepictedinthecartoonhasbuckteethand
usuallyexpectstobeshot.Inaddition,thepamphletwarnstheUSsoldiersnottotrust
ANY
Japaneseprisonerbecausetheythinkitglorioustodieiftheycantakeanenemywiththem!
Theoriginalpurposeforthesecampsweretopromotethenationalsecurity,butquicklybecame
adeprivationofunalienablerightsinaveryracistway.
Thispamphletwasveryhelpfulinprovidingarichexpanseofknowledgeregardingthe
naissanceoftheCrossRaceEffectanditsimmediateeffectontheJapaneseduringWorldWar
II.ThissourceistailoredtoonespecificracetheJapaneseAmericans,sothereisnoambiguity,
butahypothetical,andinthiscase,historicalexample.Thissourceisunique,beinga
informationalcartoonfoundinapamphletUSsoldiersreceivedduringtheirstayinChinaduring
WWII.ThissourceprovidesinsighttotheracismtheJapanese,enduredduringWWII,aswellas
theChinese,Koreans,andotherasianraceswhowereraciallymisidentifiedandweregiventhe
sameracialprejudiceastheJapaneseintheinternmentcamps.

Chiroro,P.M.,Tredoux,C.G.,Radaelli,S.,Meissner,C.A.,(June2008).RecognizingFaces
AcrosstheContinents:TheEffectofWithinRaceVariationsontheOwnRaceBiasin
FaceRecognition
InPsychonomicSociety
15(6),10891091(Nov.27.2014)Retrieved
fromthelibraryofUMBConNov.27.2014

ThisarticleaddressestheCrossRaceEffect(CRE)ortheOwnRaceBias(ORB)
wherepeoplearebetteratidentifyingfacesoftheirownracethanthefacesofotherracial
groups.ThearticlesuggeststhattherearemanystudiesconductedtoprovetheCREandthere
aremultipleexplanationsforreasonsbehindthetheoriesoftheCRE.Thesetheoriesare
associatedwithenvironmentandcontactwithotherraces,alongwithperceptual
expertisemasteryskillsofperception,andsocialcognition(theuse,storageandprocessofthe
informationofotherpeople).So,awhitetestsubjectmayliveinacommunitywherethereis
morediversityintheracesandethnicgroupsthatlivethere.Ifhecomesincontactwiththe
peopleofthevariousethnicgroups/races,thentheindividualwillhavegreatereaseidentifying
otherraces,comparedtootherwhiteswhohavelimitedcontactwithotherraces.This
investigateswhetherornotdifferentracesandethnicitiesfinditeasiertoidentifyothermembers
ofthatracevsotherraces.Someexplanationsforwhythisoccursvaryfromenvironment,and
contactwithotherraces,totheideaofautomaticracialcategorizationasanearlyperceptual
encounter.

Thisarticleisveryhelpfulbecauseitprovidesanextensivebackgroundinthisstudy,

alongwithwhattheCREis.TheauthoremphasizestherelationshipsbetweentheCRE,andthe
contributingfactorsandwhatenvironmentalpressuresmaycontrolit.Thisarticleaddressesthe
overalleffectinperceptualexpertisemasteryskillsofperception,aidsinsocialcognition,and
providesaneffectivebeginninginthisareaofanthropologic/socialcognitiveresearch.

EsinsJ,SchultzJ,WallravenCandBlthoffI(2014)Docongenitalprosopagnosiaandthe
otherraceeffectaffectthesamefacerecognitionmechanisms?Front.Hum.Neurosci.
8:759.doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00759

Congenitalprosopagnosiaisaninnatefacialrecognitionimpairmentthatissimilartothe
CrossRaceEffect,whereanindividualhasbetteridentificationofamemberoftheirownrace
ratherthanamemberofanother.Thisarticleinvestigateswhetherornottheprocessingand
recognitionmechanismsarethesameinbothfacialandracialrecognitionimpairments.Infacial
recognition,humansuseholisticprocessingbycombiningcertaincharacteristicsoftheface
(eyes,mouth,nose,etc)andidentifyingpeoplewiththeface,ratherthanindividualaspects.
Althoughthegreatermajorityofhumansareexpertsinsteadyfacialrecognition,thishabitcan
bedisturbedbyCongenitalprosopagnosia,ortheCrossRaceEffect.PeoplewhofallunderCP
frequentlyencountersocialdisabilitiesandareoftenconsideredarrogantbecauseoffailureto
greetrelatives.Theauthorhasidentifiedthreecontributionstothecategorizationindividuation
oftheCRE,andwhyitaffectsindividualsthewayitdoes.Thisisthroughthecombinationof
perceptualexpertise,motivatedindividuation,andsocialcognition.
Thisarticleisveryconstructive,givinginformationthatprovescorrelationbetweenthe
CREandCP.Thissourceprovidesinformationonotherrecognitionimpairmentsotherthanthe
CRE,toleadtofurtherresearchastowhythebrainundergoessuchsocialcognitive
misidentification.ThearticlealsoexplainswhatconstitutestotheCRE,ratherthandefining
whatitis.Throughthis,theauthorprovidesinsightonotherviewsonthetopicandbydissecting
it,findswhatexactlywhatcontributestogeneratingtheCRE.

KlothN,ShieldsSE,RhodesG(2014)OntheOtherSideoftheFence:EffectsofSocial

CategorizationandSpatialGroupingonMemoryandAttentionforOwnRaceandOther
RaceFaces.PLoSONE9(9):e105979.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105979

ThisjournalarticleaddressesthecausesoftheCrossRaceEffectorOwnRaceBiasina
crossraceidentificationexperiment.Inthearticle,theCREisdefinedasaphenomenonwhere

peoplecanrecognizeafacefromtheirownracebetterthanthefacebelongingtoanother.The
causesoftheCREspanfromavarietyoffactorsmostnamelytheperceptualexpertisetheory
andthesocialcognitiontheory.Intheperceptualexpertisetheory,theprimefactorofhumans
identificationskillsistailoredbyoursurroundings.Inthesocialcognitivetheory,thereisthe
firmbeliefthatagrowinglackofsocialinterestandinotherracesmakespeoplemore
recognitionblind.Studiesregardingthesejustificationsprovetheeffectsofingroup(orsame
race)andoutgroup(orcrossrace)categorizationcanimpactmemorybasedrecognition.
ThroughthisresearchinvestigationtheCREwasidentifiedasaneffectofperceptualexpertise
andsocialcognitiononmemory,faces,andidentityculturaldifferencesleadtovaried
effectivenessofsocialcategorizationmanipulation.

ThisarticlehasverypertinentinformationontheCrossRaceEffectanditsevolution

withinhumansocialdevelopment.Inthearticle,theconstituentsoftheCREaresocialcognition
andperceptualexpertiseandareleadingfactorsofthevariedeffectivenessofsocial
categorizationmanipulation.Theauthorgivesjustificationbehindthesetheorieswith
experimentsandthoroughobservationsofotherreasonswhytheCREhassuchanimpactonour
identificationandrecognitioncapacities.

LiYi,PaulC.Quinn,CongFeng,JiaoLi,HaiyanDing,KangLee(February2015).Autistic
ChildrenDoNotExhibitanOwnRaceAdvantageasComparedtoTypicallyDeveloping
Children.
ResearchinAutismSpectrumDisorders,

Volume8,Issue11
,
15441551.

RetrievedonOctober9,2015fromScienceDirect

ThisarticleconveystheideathatTypicallyDeveloping(TD)childrendemonstratethe

CrossRaceEffect,whereanindividualhassuperiorrecognitionoveranotherrace,while
childrenwithAutismSpectrumDisorderorASDarenotassusceptibletotheCRE,mirroringan

incompleteperceptualexpertiseinfacialrecognition.Thefactorsthatattributetothis
earlydevelopingexpertiseareimagesofelectrophysiologicalbehaviorofthebrainthatshowthe
developmentofthiseffect.ThestudiesdoneonindividualswithASDreportthattheyspendless
timelookingattheeyesthanthemouth,unlikeTDindividuals.Othercontributionstothistheory
arethatTDindividualsspendmoretimeandhavemoreexperienceidentifyingmembersofthe
otherracewhentheyareassociatingwiththemonadailybasis.IndividualswithASDdonot
havethechanceandabilitytofinetunesuchskills,andthisinattentionmayplayamajorrolein
recognitionskills,perceptualexpertise,andsocialcognition.

Thisarticlesuppliesverypertinentinformationonthesubjectoftheeffectofthe

CrossRaceEffectonindividualswithAutismSpectrumDisorderandhowtheirmental
developmenthasbeenaffectedintheareaofperceptualexpertiseandsocialcognition.A
commoncirculatedmisconceptionwasthateverybody,infantorelderwasaffectedbytheCRE,
whilethatissimplynottrue.Thisappliesgreatlytocertaincaseswheretheeyewitnessmayhave
ASD,hinderingthereliabilityofeyewitnessidentification,andincreasingthepercentageof
misidentificationssimilartohowtheCREhassuchanimpactoneyewitnessmisidentifications.

OwnRaceFacesCaptureAttentionFasterthanOtherRaceFaces:EvidencefromResponse

TimeandtheN2pcZhouG,ChengZ,YueZ,TredouxC,HeJ,etal.(2015)OwnRace
FacesCaptureAttentionFasterthanOtherRaceFaces:EvidencefromResponseTime
andtheN2pc(N2posteriorcontralateral).PLOSONE10(6):e0127709.doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0127709

Inthisjournalarticle,theCrossRaceEffectisaprimefactorinhowfastattentionis
capturedinachangeblindnessexperiment.TheCrossRaceEffect,ortheOwnRaceAdvantage,
provesthatpeoplecanprocesshumanfacesoftheirsameracebetterthanthoseofdifferent

races.Withintheexperiment,theresultsexemplifiedthatchangeswithintheownracefaces
wereonaveragedetectedfasterthanthechangesthatweremadeinotherracefaces.Theauthor,
however,suggeststhatthisisnotaneffectofattentionchange,butaneffectofthesensitivityof
perception.Thistheorysupportsthispropositionbecauseinordertolabelthatasattention,the
entirebodymustbeinvolvedintheidentificationprocesstheeyemovementsthatwere
measured,andwerefoundsensitivetothoseofthesameracebecauseofthequickerdetection.
ThisarticleisaresourcefultoolinaidingresearchrelatingtotheCrossRaceEffect
becauseoftheemphasisonfacialrecognition,andhowtheCREhassuchalargeeffectonthe
attentionandsensitivityofthetestsubjectsoverallperformanceinthespeedofidentifying
changesinpicturesofsameracepeople.Inaddition,thepresenceofconfiguralprocessingwasa
notionthatthisstudyhadtracesofperceptualexpertiseandsocialcognitionkeycontributionsto
theCRE.Thisarticlealsomentionstheworkofotherstudiesdonebyvariousauthorsthat
recognizethecategorizingofraceprocessthattakesplacebecauseoftheCREthroughwhich,it
canbeinterpretedasataskforracesearchingormeasuringtheeffectofsensitivityandattention.

PezdekK,OBrian.M,Wasson,C.(Dec2011)CrossRace(ButNotSameRace)Face
IdentificationisImpairedbyPresentingFacesinaGroupRatherThan

Individually.
InLawandHumanBehaviors,
36(6)488495.Retrievedfromthe
libraryofUMBCNov.272014.

Thisarticlediscussesthescientificandactualrelevanceofthisstudypertainingto
criminalmisidentifications,andutilizingtheCrossRaceEffecttolowerthepercentageof
misidentifications.TherearemanycriminalmisidentificationsbecauseoftheCrossRaceEffect,
(CRE)andthelimitedabilitytodifferentiateindividualsofracesotherthanyourown.A
characteristicprominentinthesecasesarethatmoreaccurateidentificationsaremadeifthe

eyewitnessandtheconvictareofthesamerace.If,however,thetestsubjectlivesinalimitedor
singleracecommunity,theywillhavegreatertroublewithrecognitionofotherracialgroups.In
lawandthejudiciary,eyewitnessesidentifyingtheirperpetratorswere
1.4timesmorelikely
to
identifytheactualconvictgiventheyarethesameraceratherthancrossrace.In
misidentification,however,theeyewitnessis
1.56timesmorelikely
toidentifythewrong
suspect,simplybecauseofthecomplicationinrecognizingotherraces.
ThisarticledetailstherelevanceoftheCREineverydaylife.Thearticlealsoyields
insightastohowmisidentificationsofcrossracesuspectsaremorelikelytooccurthancorrect
identificationofsameracesuspects.Thearticleacknowledgedallpeople,eyewitnessesornot,
automaticallycategorizecrossracefaces.Thearticlepresentsinformationaddingtotheoverall
clarificationoftheCREbyaddressingthecontributionsofmisidentification,furtherdeveloping
theideasandeffectsoftheCRE.

Shriver,E.R.,Young,S.G.,Hugenberg,K.Bernstein,M.J.,(January2008)Class,Race,and
theFace:SocialContextModulatedtheCrossRaceEffectinFaceRecognition.
Society
forPersonalityandPsychologyBulletin
34(2)260274.Retrievedfromthelibraryof
UMBCNov.272014.

ThearticleintegratesseveraltheoriesoftheCRE,stressinghowCrossRacefacesmay
stimulaterareandmorefeaturebasedhandlingofCrossRacefaces.Thearticlepromotes
differentprocessingstylesaccountingforthevariancerecognitionbasedontwotheories:
namely,thesocialcognitivetheoryandtheperceptualexpertisetheory.Thesocialcognitive
theoryisbasedonthetendencyforindividualstothinkcategoricallyaboutnongroup(nonrace)
members.PerceptualexpertisetheoriesrefertoDeFactoracialsegregationleadingtothe
processingofCrossRacefacesinrelationtosameracefaces.Whenthetheoryistested,thereis

broadvariationofidentificationandmisidentificationbecauseofthetendencytohavebetter
recognitionforthesameraceratherthancrossracefaces.Eachpersonorspecificgrouphastheir
ownmeansofdifferentiatingraces,andwithso,isabletoformabias/perspectivebasedon
recognition,socialcognition,andperceptualexpertisemasteryskills.
Thisarticleisverybeneficialinprovidinginformationonsocialcognitionandperceptual
expertiseoftheCRE.Theauthorthoroughlyensuresthereadersfullcomprehensionofthe
materialbyemphasizingsignificantfactsandsupportingthemwithhypotheticalexamples.
However,thearticleisprimarilybasedontheenvironmentalpressuresthatcontroltheCRE,
alongwithbiasthroughclassandsocioeconomicstatus,withlittleroomforotherareasof
informationundertheCRE.ThearticleaidsthereaderscomprehensionoftheCRE,andaidsin
provingacorrelationbetweenbothracialidentificationandabiasofsocioeconomicstatus.This
leavesthereadertoinvestigateothercorrelationsofbiasbetweentheCREandotherfactors.

Tullis,J.G.,Benjamin,A.S.,&Liu,X.(2014).Selfpacingstudyoffacesofdifferent
races:Metacognitivecontroloverstudydoesnoteliminatethecrossracerecognition
effect.Memory&Cognition,42(6),86375.Retrievedfrom

http://search.proquest
.
com/docview/1550519128?accountid=28903

Inthisarticle,theauthorstudiedwhetherornottheCrossRaceEffect(wherean
individualidentifiessomeoneoftheirownracebetterthansomeoneofsomeoneofanotherracial
groupoutsidetheirown)ledtoagreaterdevotiontoidentifyingfaceswithoutanycognitive
resourcesinfacialencoding.Forhumanbeings,recognizingfacesisanessentialrolein
interactionsbothsocialandprofessional.Falserecognitionandmisidentificationofpeopleseen
oftenisseenasasourceofchagrin,makingtheindividualatargetofridicule.Theprocessesthat

peopleuseinordertodistinguishdifferentracesaremnemonicmeaningtheyusepatternlike
skillssuchasletters,ideasetc.toaidinmemorization.Mnemonics,however,havebecomea
deficitnotbecauseofcognitivedismissalasformerlyattributedto,butbecauseofindividuation.
Individuationcausesmoretimetobespentstudyingapictureinordertobetteridentifyitinthe
future.Thismethod,however,haslittletonoeffectontheCREbecauseofhowmuchofan
impairmentitistoperceptualexpertiseandsocialcognitionoffacialfeatures.
Inthisarticle,themaincomponentsoftheCREalongwithhowtheycontributetoitare
explained.Thisarticlehascitedsimilararticleswrittenrecently,providingcommoninformation
thatissupportedbyotherexperts,verifyingitsauthenticity.Thearticlealsoelaboratesonthis
information,providingnewviewsandinsightspreviouslyoverlooked,orunknowncompletely.
Theinformationhelpsclarifynewtermsthatareintroducedwiththosepreviouslystatedinother
articles,providingcontextualaidincomprehension.