Quick Revision Mechanics XI 2014

Notes for School Exams
Physics XI
Quick Revision
Units & dimensions
Vectors
Kinematics
Laws of Motion
Work, Energy & Power
Centre of Mass & Collision
P. K. Bharti, B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur

2007 P. K. Bharti
All rights reserved.
www.vidyadrishti.org
2013-2015
Quick Revision
Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)
Important questions for 1st terminal Examinations

Units and dimensions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Different type of errors and derivations on product

and exponents
Least count
Significant digits
Finding dimensions of physical quantity
Numerical on checking correctness of an equation
using dimensional analysis
Numerical on derivation of formula using
dimensional analysis
Vectors
7.
Triangle law of vector addition and parallelogram

law of vector addition with proof.
8. Numerical on component of vectors, vector addition,
subtraction, dot product and cross product.
9. To prove triangular inequalities |a+b| < |a| + |b| etc.
a
b
c
10. To prove = =
sin A sin B sin C
Kinematics
11. To prove one of these using calculus method
v=
u + at
1
=
s ut + at 2
2
2
2
v=
u + 2as
23.
24.
25.
26.
Cause of friction
Rolling friction
Angle of repose and angle of friction
Numerical
Circular Motion
27. Derivation of centripetal acceleration ac =
v2
r
28. Banking of roads without and with friction

29. Numerical
Work, Energy and Power
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Derivation of Work-Kinetic Energy theorem

Derivation of spring potential energy
Numerical on Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Numerical on ballistic pendulum
Conservative force
Potential, kinetic and mechanical energy graph
Centre of Mass & Collision
36. Derivation of centre of mass of semicircular ring and

semicircular disc
37. Perfectly elastic collisions and different cases
38. Oblique collision and different cases
39. Coefficient of restitution
Rotational Motion
Distance covered in nth second

12. Projectile motion derivations
Equation of trajectory (parabolic path)
Maximum height
Range
Time of flight
Speed at a particular instant
Time of ascent = time of descent
Condition for maximum range etc.
Particle thrown horizontally from a height
13. Numerical on relative motion and projectile motion
14. Simple problem on graphs
40. Derivation of moment of inertia of simple bodies

(please note that it is not in NCERT and should not
be asked in schools exam)
41. Derivation of parallel and perpendicular axis theorem
42. To prove
= o + t
43.
44.
45.
46.
1
=
o t + t 2
2
2
=
2
0 2 +
Geometrical meaning of angular momentum
Conservation of angular momentum
Deduction of Keplers 2nd law from conservation of
angular momentum
Numerical on pure rolling, radius of gyration, torque
equation
Newtons Laws of Motion

15. Newtons 2nd law of motion in terms of linear
momentum
16. To prove Newtons 2nd law is the real law of motion
17. Numerical on Conservation of Linear Momentum
18. Numerical on Free Body Diagram, Newtons 2nd Law
and pseudo force
Friction
19.
20.
21.
22.
Graph of friction
Laws of limiting friction
Friction is necessary evil
Friction increases even after polishing a surface
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Gravitation
47. Newtons law of gravitation
48. Variation in acceleration due to gravity with height,
depth and rotation
49. Gravitational potential energy
50. Escape velocity
51. Orbital velocity
52. Keplers Laws
53. Gravitational field and potential
54. Geostationary and polar satellites
55. Gravitational field and potential (please note that it is
not in NCERT and should not be asked in schools
exam)
CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro
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Waves
Mechanical properties of solids

56.
57.
58.
59.
Definitions of all types of stress and strains

Hookes law
Stress vs strain graph (imp)
Elastic potential energy
Mechanical properties of fluids
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
Variation of pressure with depth in hydrostatic

Pascal law
Archimedes Principle
Bernoullis Theorem (imp)
Speed of efflux: Torricellis theorem
Venturimeter
Stokes law and terminal velocity
Reynolds number
Capillary rise
Drops and bubbles
Reasoning on surface tension (eg why droplets are
spherical etc)
Thermodynamics
71. Zeroth law of thermodynamics

72.
=
2 3
98. Types of waves

99. Travelling wave & standing wave
100. Standing waves on string with both end fixed and one
end fixed
101. Standing waves on open and closed organ pipe
102. Speed sound (Newton) and Laplaces correction
(imp)
103. Beats (imp)
104. Doppler effect (imp)
All the best!

From P. K. Bharti, B. Tech. (IIT Kharagpur)
HOD Physics @ Concept, Bokaro Centre
JB-20, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec4, Bokaro
Ph: 7488044834
Email: pkbharti.iit@gmail.com
73. Assumptions of Kinetic theory of gases (imp)

1
74. P = 2
(imp)
3
75. Mean free path
76. Degrees of freedom
77. Equipartition of energy
78. Work done by a gas for different processes and
graphically (imp)
79. Cp Cv = R
80. Why Cp > Cv
81. PV = constant
(imp)
82. Why is adiabatic curve steeper than isothermal
curve?
83. Carnot Engine & its efficiency (imp)
84. Second law of thermodynamics
85. Newtons Law of cooling
86. Conduction
Oscillations (SHM)
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
SHM
Energy in SHM
Spring mass system
Simple pendulum
Damped SHM
Resonance
Physical Pendulum
Oscillations of a liquid column in a U-tube
Oscillations of a body dropped in a tunnel along the
diameter of the earth
96. Oscillation of a floating cylinder
97. Oscillation of a ball in the neck of an air chamber
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Units
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit.
Fundamental or base units
The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
Derived units
The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
derived quantities are called derived units.
System of units
A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived
units, is known as the system of units.
The International system of units
CGS (centimetre, gram and second)
The base units for length, mass and time in CGS system were
centimetre, gram and second respectively.
FPS (foot, pound and second)
The base units for length, mass and time in FPS system were
foot, pound and second respectively.
MKS (metre, kilogram and second)
The base units for length, mass and time in MKS system were
metre, kilogram and second
S. I. Units (Systme Internationale d Unites)
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Systme Internationale d
Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated
as SI. We shall follow the SI units in our syllabus.
Base SI Units
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Electric Current
Temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous Intensity
SI unit
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candela
Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
Two more units

Sl.
No.
1.
2.
Quantity
SI unit
Symbol
Plane angle
Solid angle
radian
steradian
rad
sr
Page |4
Dimensions
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or
exponents) to which the base quantities are raised to
represent that quantity.
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bases Quantity
SI unit
Dimension
Length
Mass
Time
Electric Current
Temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous Intensity
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
[L]
[M[
[T]
[A]
[K]
[mol]
[cd]
Application of dimensional analysis

Following are the three main uses of dimensional
analysis:
(a) To check the correctness of a given physical relation.
It is also known as principle of homogeneity of
dimensions.
(b) To convert a physical quantity from one system of
units to another.
(c) To derive a relationship between different physical
quantities.
a) Principle of homogeneity of dimensions: According to
this principle, a physical equation will be dimensionally
correct if the dimensions of all the terms occurring on
both sides of the equation are the same.
To check the dimensional correctness of a physical
equation we make use of the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions. If the dimensions of all the terms on the two
sides of the equation are same, then the equation is
dimensionally correct.
Example. Let us check the dimensional accuracy of the
equation of motion,
1
=
s ut + at 2
2
Dimensional of different terms are
[ s] = [ L]
[T ] [ L ]
=
[ut ] LT 1=
1 2
2
2
[ L ]
at=
LT T=
2
As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the

same dimensions, so the given equation is dimensionally
correct.
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b) To convert a physical quantity from one system of

units to another: It is based on the fact that the
magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same,
whatever may be the system of units. If u1 and u2 are the
units of measurement of a physical quantity Q and n1 and
n2 are the corresponding numerical values, then
Q = n1u1 = n2u2
Let M1, L1 and T1 be the sizes of fundamental units of
mass, length and time in one system; and M2, L2, T2 be
corresponding units in another system. If the dimensional
formula of quantity Q be Ma Lb Tc, then
Substituting these dimensions in eqn. (i), we get

T = [M]a [L]b [LT2]c
or M0L0T1 = MaLb + cT2c
Equating the exponents of M, L and T on both sides, we get
a = 0, b + c = 0, 2c = 1
1
1
On solving, a = 0, b = , c =
2
2
0 1/ 2 1/ 2
l g
K
=
T Km=
Therefore T = 2
and u2 = M 2a Lb2 Lc2

a
M L T
or n2 = n1 1 1 1 .
M 2 L2 T2
This equation can be used to find the numerical value in
the second or new system of units.
Example. Let us convert one joule into erg.
Joule is SI unit of energy and erg is the CGS unit of
energy. Dimensional formula of energy is ML2T2.
a = 2, b = 2, c = 2.
SI
CGS
M1 = 1 kg = 1000 g
M2 = 1 g
L1 = 1 m = 100 cm
L2 = 1 cm
T1 = 1 s
T2 = 1 s
n1 = 1 (joule)
n2 = ? (erg)
a
M L T
n2 = n1 1 1 1
M 2 L2 T2
1
100 100 1
= 1

1 1 1
1 103 104 =
107
=
1 joule = 107 erg.
l
g
From experiments, K = 2 .
u1 = M 1a L1b L1c
n1 M 1a L1b L1c =
n2 M 2a Lb2 Lc2
l
.
g
Limitations of dimensional analysis:

(a) The method does not give any information about the
dimensionless constant K.
(b) It fails when a physical quantity depends on more than
three physical quantities.
(c) It fails when a physical quantity e.g ., =

s ut +
1 2
at
2
is the sum or difference of two or more quantities.

(d) It fails to derive relationship which involve trigonometric,
logarithmic or exponential functions.
(e) Sometimes, it is difficult to identify the factors on which
the physical quantity depends. The method becomes more
complicated when dimensional constants like G, h, etc. are
involved.
ERRORS
Some important terms

Error in a measurement: The error in a measurement is
equal to the difference between the true value and the
measured value of the quantity.
Different types of errors:

To derive the relationship among physical quantities.
True value: If a1, a2, a3, an be the n measured values a
By making use of the homogeneity of dimensions, we can
physical quantity, then its true value, a is given by the
derive an expression for a physical quantity if we know
arithmetic mean,
the various factors on which it depends.
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an 1 n
=
a or amean =
ai .
n
n i =1
Example: Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached
(a) Absolute error: The magnitude of the difference between
to a string, that oscillates under the action of the force of
the true value of the quantity measured and the individual
gravity. Suppose that the period of oscillation of the simple
measured value is called absolute error.
pendulum depends on mass m of the bob, length l of the
If we take arithmetic mean a as the true value, then the
pendulum and acceleration due to gravity g at the place. Drive
absolute errors in the individual measured values will be
the expression for its time period using method of dimensions.
Solution.
Let
us
assume
that
a1 = a a1
a2 = a a2
c)
T m a l b g c or T =
Km a l b g c
... (1)
a3 = a a3
an = a an
where K is a dimensions of various quantities are

[T] = T, [m] = M, [l] = L, [g] = LT2
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The a calculated above may be positive in certain cases and

negative in some other cases. But absolute error |a| will
always be positive.
(b) Mean or final absolute error: The arithmetic mean of the
positive magnitudes of all the absolute errors is called mean
absolute error. It is given by
a1 + a2 + ... + an 1 n
=
a
=
ai
n
n i =1
Thus the final result of the measure of a physical quantity can
be expressed as a = a a.
(c) Relative error: The ratio of the mean absolute error to the
true value of the measured quantity is called relative error.
Relative error, a =
A p Bq
Z=
Cr
Taking logarithms, we get
log Z = p log A + q log B r log C
On differentiating both sides, we get
dZ
dA
dB
dC
= p
+q
r
Z
A
B
C
Writing the above equation in terms of fractional errors.
Z
A
B C
Z
A
B
C
The maximum permissible error in Z is given by
Z
A
B
C
= p
+q
+r
.
Z
A
B
C
a
(d) Percentage error: The relative error expressed in percent is
called percentage error.
Percentage error
=
100%
a
COMBINATION OF ERRORS
(a) Error in the sum or difference of two quantities: Let
A and B be the absolute errors in the two quantities A
and B respectively. Then
Measured value of A = A A
Measured value of B = B B
Consider the sum Z = A + B or difference Z = A B,
The error Z in Z is then given by
or Z = A + B
Hence the rule: The maximum possible error in the sum
or difference of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
(b) Error in the product or quotient of two quantities: Consider
the product,
Z = AB or Z = A/B
The maximum fractional error in Z is
Z A B
=
+
Z
A
B
Hence the rule: The maximum fractional error in the product
or quotient of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional errors in the individual quantities.
(c) Errors in the power of a quantity:
If Z =
A p Bq
, then maximum fractional error in Z is given by
Cr
Z
A
B
C
= p
+q
+r
Z
A
B
C
The percentage error in Z is given by
Z
A
B
C
100= p
100 + q
100 + r
100
Z
A
B
C
Derivation of general rule using differentiation.
We have
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VECTORS
Component of a vector
Representation of a vector (Arrow over letters or bold letters)
AB = AB = P = P
Component of a vector A along a

direction making an angle with it is
A cos .
Rectangular component of a vector
Let a vector A makes an angle of with positive direction of

x- axis. Then,
X-component of A = A cos
Y-component of A = A sin
We can write A in the unit vector notation as
=
A A cos i + A sin j
Note: A is tail and B is

tip (or head) of AB =P
Magnitude of a vector (with modulus or without bold)
AB = |AB| = P =|P | = AB = P
Note: Magnitude is the length of the vector.
Unit Vector
A vector whose magnitude is unity (1 unit) is called a unit
vector. Generally it is represented by cap over letter. e.g.,
i, j , k , n etc.
Unit Vector in the direction of a given vector A
A = A
A
Magnitude and direction of vector (when given in unit vector

form in 2D)
Let a vector in unit vector form as
A= xi + y j
Unit Vectors along coordinate axes:

y
Unit vector along X-axis = i

Unit vector along Y- axis = j
Unit vector along Z- axis = k
i
Clearly, =
Here, x = x-component of vector A
y = y-component of vector A
=
j k= 1
The magnitude (or length) of this vector is
=
A A
=
x2 + y 2
z
Representation of a position vector in unit vector form (3D)
Angle with positive direction of x-axis (Use trigonometry)
y
(x, y, z)
Suppose the coordinates of tip of position vector r is (x, y, z),

then that vector is represented in unit vector form as
r = xi + y j + zk
Here, x = x-component of vector r
y = y-component of vector r
z = z-component of vector r
The magnitude (or length) of this vector is
r = r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Page |7
= tan 1
y
x
Vector Addition
Method 1 : Analytically
A1 = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k
A = a i + b j + c k
2
...........
An = an i + bn j + cn k
Then,

R = A1 + A2 + ... + An
R = (a1 + a2 + ... + an )i + (b1 + b2 + ... + bn ) j + (c1 + c2 + ... + cn )k.
Here, R = resultant (i.e., vector sum of all vectors)
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Vector Addition
Vector Addition
Method 2: Triangle law of vector addition (when tail of one

vector is on the head of another vector)
Method 3: Parallelogram law of vector addition (when two

vectors are placed tail to tail i.e., co-initial vector)
Statement: It states that if two vectors are represented in

magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in
the same order, then the resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite
order.
Statement: It states that if two vectors acting simultaneously

are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram taken in the same order, then the
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.

Clearly, AB + BC =
AC (See graphical method for
explanation)

R= P + Q

R= P + Q
Magnitude of R
Magnitude of R :
R = R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos
R = R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos

Note is the angle between vectors P & Q
Q sin
Angle which R makes with P : tan =
P + Q cos
P sin
Angle which R makes with Q : tan =
Q + P cos
Clearly, + =

Note is the angle between vectors P & Q
(Explained in class)
Angle which R makes with P :

tan =
Q sin
P + Q cos
Proof is same as that of triangle law of vector addition.
Proof of triangle law of vector addition

C
Case 1: Maximum magnitude of resultant

M
Draw a perpendicular CM on AB. Clearly

BC = Q cos and CM = Q sin .
Now using Pythagoras theorem in right angled triangle

ACM, we have
Special cases of vector addition
NOTE: In general, we should use parallelogram /triangle law

for adding two vectors only. For addition of more than two
vectors we should use analytical method.
AC 2 =AM 2 + CM 2 =( AB + BM ) + CM 2
R = R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos
Clearly R is maximum when cos is maximum. Maximum

o
value of cos is 1 when = 0 .
Rmax = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ = ( P + Q ) =P + Q
2
R 2 = ( P 2 + Q 2 cos 2 + 2 PQ cos ) + ( Q 2 sin 2 )
Rmax =+
P Q when two vectors lies in same direction.
P
Case 2: Minimum magnitude of resultant
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2 ( cos 2 + sin 2 ) + 2 PQ cos
R = R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos
R 2 = ( P + Q cos ) + ( Q sin )
2
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos
( cos
1)
+ sin 2 =
Again, in right angled triangle ACM

perpendicular CM
CM
tan
=
= =
base
AM AB + BM
Q sin
tan =
P + Q cos
Page |8
Q
Clearly R is minimum when cos is minimum. Minimum value
o
of cos is 1 when = 180 .
Rmin = P 2 + Q 2 2 PQ =
( P Q)
= P Q
Rmin =P Q when two vectors are in opposite direction.
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Case 3: When two vectors have equal magnitude
Cross Product or Vector Product
If P = Q, then parallelogram will be a rhombus. We know that

diagonal of a rhombus is equally inclined to each sides.

A B =
| A || B | sin n
Therefore, = =
Cross product gives a vector

quantity.
Here, n is a unit vector

perpendicular to both A & B.

Clearly, direction of A B is

along n , i.e., perpendicular to both A & B.

Direction of A B is obtained by using Right hand thumb
rule.
Vector subtraction
P Q = P + Q
( )
i.e. vector subtraction is obtained by taking negative of

another vector and adding it to first vector.
For example: To subtract Q from P, we take negative of
vector Q by reversing its direction. Then add P and Q by
parallelogram law or triangle law.
Shortcut:
Angle between P and Q =
Therefore, angle between P and Q =

P Q =
P + Q
( )
P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos ( )
P 2 + Q 2 2 PQ cos

P Q=
Cross product of two vectors (in unit vector form):
A = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k &
B = a i + b j + c k
2
Important points
Let us consider two vectors
A = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k & B = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k
1.
They are parallel if
a1 b1 c1
= =
a2 b2 c2
P 2 + Q 2 2 PQ cos
Angle which R makes with P : tan =
Q sin
P Q cos
Dot Product or Scalar Product

A B =
| A || B | co s
i
j k

A B =
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2

A =
B i ( b1c2 b2 c1 ) j ( a1c2 a2 c1 ) + k ( a1b2 a2 b1 )
(Dot product)
where is the angle between A and B.

Dot product of two vectors gives a scalar quantity.
Using definition of dot product we can find the angle
between two vectors.

A B
(Angle between two vectors)
cos =
| A || B |
2.

They are perpendicular, if A B =
0
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 =
0

A B
3. A unit vector perpendicular to both A & B is .
| A B |
1.
2.

A B
Component of A along B =
B

A B B
Vector form: Component of A along B =

B B

Physical meaning of A B

A B = area of parallelogram
Dot product of two vectors (when given in unit vector form):
A = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k
B = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k
Page |9

A B= a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
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KINEMATICS
Distance
Actual length of the path
Denoted by s or r
Scalar
S.I. unit: m
Displacement
Shortest distance between two points

Denoted by s or r .
Vector
S.I. unit: m
Average Speed (between two instants of time)
Distance travelled per unit time
Denoted by v
s
distance
v =
avg speed =
t
time
We can use this formula for constant speed also.
Scalar
S.I. unit: m/s
Instantaneous Speed (at a particular instant of time)
Denoted by v
s
ds
=
=
v lim
v
t 0 t
dt
NOTE: Speed means instantaneous speed. This is main
formula for speed. We can use this formula for any case of
speed.
Average Velocity (between two instants of time)
Displacement per unit time
Denoted by v
r
displacement
v =
avg velocity =
t
time
We can use this formula for constant velocity also.
Vector
S.I. unit: m/s
Instantaneous velocity (at a particular instant of time)
Denoted by v
dr
r
=
v lim
=
v
t 0 t
dt
NOTE:
Velocity means instantaneous velocity. This is main
formula for velocity. We can use this formula for any
case of velocity.
Velocity is tangential to path
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity = instantaneous
speed v = v
P a g e | 10
Average Acceleration (between two instants of time)

Change in velocity per unit time
Denoted by a
v
change in velocity
a =
avg acceleration=
t
time
We can use this formula for constant acceleration also.
Vector
2
S.I. unit: m/s
Instantaneous Acceleration (at a particular instant of time)
Denoted by a
dv
v
=
=
a lim
a
t 0 t
dt
We can also use
dv
dv
=
a = v
dt
dr
NOTE: Acceleration means instantaneous acceleration. These
are main formulae for acceleration. We can use these
formulae for any case of acceleration.
Graphs
Case 1: Average value (From slope of chord)
x
Form: y =
t
x
Suppose y = and you want y between two instants
t
t1 and t2 graphically. Draw a chord AB between t1 and t2 .
Suppose this chord (sometimes after extension of chord)
makes an angle with positive t axis. Then slope of this
chord gives average of y i.e. y between t1 and t2 .
y =tan
B
A
t1
t2
Using this method we can find

average speed from distance time graph
average velocity from displacement time graph
average acceleration from velocity time graph
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Case 2: Instantaneous value (From slope of tangent)

dx
Form: y =
dt
dx
Suppose y =
and you want y at an instant t graphically.
dt
Draw a tangent at t . Suppose this tangent (sometimes after
extension of chord) makes an angle with positive t axis.
Then slope of this tangent gives instantaneous value of y at
t.
y = tan
Uniformly accelerated motion: a = constant

1.
v=
u + at
a=
dv
dt
dv =
u
adt = a dt [v ]u = a [t ]0
v
v u = a (t 0)
v = u + at
2.
...(i)
1
=
s ut + at 2
2
From (i), we have
v=
u + at
ds
v =
dt
ds
=u + at
dt

instantaneous speed from distance time graph
instantaneous velocity from displacement time graph
instantaneous acceleration from velocity time graph
3.
Case 3: Change in value (From area)

Form:
y2
t2
y1
t1
dy= xdt y
Suppose
y2
t2
y1
t1
y1=
We know that
t2
xdt
dv
dv
= v
dt
ds
dv
a =
v
ds
=
a
t1
dy= xdt y
y1=
s
t
t2
s
t
ds = ( u + at ) dt [ s ]0 = u [t ]0 + a
2 0
0
0
1
s = ut + at 2
...(ii)
2
2
v=
2
u 2 + as
t2
xdt
and you want y2 y1
t1
between two instants t1 and t2 graphically. Draw two lines AB

and CD parallel to x axis at t1 and t2 . Then area of the
region between curve, AB, CD and t axis gives instantaneous
y2 y1 between t1 and t2 .
ads = vdv a [ s ]0
s
v2
v2 u 2
= as =
2 2
2 u
v = u + 2as
2
...(iii)
t2
y2 y1 =
xdt
4.
Distance travelled in nth second
t1
area of the region between curve, AB, CD and t axis
From (i) v= u + at
s
B
t1
D
t2
ds
=u + at ds = ( u + at ) dt
dt
n 1
0
t2
s
n
[ s ]0= u [t ]n 1 + a
2 n 1
1
2
s = u n ( n 1) + a n 2 ( n 1)
2
1
s = u + a ( 2n 1) ...(ii)
2

change in velocity from acceleration time graph
change in position (i.e. displacement) from velocity time
graph
distance from speed time graph
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Sign convention
You can take your axis along any side at your will. All the
physical quantities which are along that axis are positive and
quantities opposite to axis direction are negative.
u
H
Motion in a plane (when acceleration is constant)

Motion in a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with constant
acceleration along two perpendicular directions.
Along x axis
v=
u x + ax t
x
1
=
x u x t + ax t 2
2
2
2
v
=
u x + 2ax x
x
1
=
y u yt + ayt 2
2
2
2
2a y y
v=
u
+
y
y
Note we have assumed that acceleration is constant.

Motion in a plane (when acceleration is not constant)
Projectile motion
Equation of trajectory:
=
y x tan
Maximum height: H =
u 2 sin 2
2g
Horizontal Range: R =
u 2 sin 2
g
x
gx 2
2u 2 cos 2
2u sin
g
Data to be used:
Initial velocity:
u at an angle with horizontal (x-axis)
x component of initial velocity: u x = u cos
v=
u y + ayt
y
Along y axis
dy
v y =
dt
dv y
dv y
=
ay = vy
dt
dy
To prove:
Time of Flight: T =
Along y-axis
Along x axis
dx
vx =
dt
dvx
dv
=
ax =
vx x
dt
dx
y component of initial velocity: u y = u sin

Acceleration:
a = g
( acceleration due to gravity along negative y -axis )
x component of acceleration:
ax = 0
( no acceleration component along x-axis )
y component of acceleration: a y = g
Position at time t : ( x, y )
y component of velocity at maximum height: vy = 0
Equation of trajectory:
y x tan
=
1 gx 2
2 u 2 cos 2
Along x axis
1
=
x u x t + ax t 2
2
=
x u cos =
t
and ax 0 )
( ux u cos=
x
...(1)
t =
When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earths surface,
u cos
it moves along a curved path. Such a particle is called a
projectile & its motion is called projectile motion. Its motion
Along y axis
is an example of 2D motion. We shall break equation of
1
y u yt + ayt 2
=
motion along x and y axes.
2
Some points to note about projectile motion
1
u sin t gt 2
y=
( u y =u sin
Acceleration in y direction, ay = g (Negative g,
2
because g is opposite to our +ve y axis.)
2
x 1 x
Acceleration in x direction ax = 0 (because there is no =
g
y u sin
u cos 2 u cos
acceleration in x direction).
Velocity in x direction, vx = u cos is always same
x
from (i)
t =
(because ax = 0); i.e., vx does not change with time.
u cos
At maximum height H, velocity is parallel to x-axis

1 gx 2
y x tan
=
(because velocity is tangential to path). Therefore, y
2 u 2 cos 2
component of velocity at maximum height, vy = 0
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and a y =
g )
...(A)
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u 2 sin 2
2g
At maximum height H, velocity is parallel to x-axis (because
velocity is tangential to path). Therefore, y component of
velocity at maximum height, vy = 0.
Along y axis
2
v=
u y 2 + 2a
y
yy
Maximum height: H =
=
02
( u
( u sin )
2 gH
= u sin , y = H for max height and a y = g )
u 2 sin 2
H =
2g
u 2 sin 2
g
Also from Trigonometry,
We know that R =
=
sin 2 sin (1800 2 )
sin 2= sin 2 ( 900 )

Therefore there are two angles and 900 for same range.
For upward motion upto maximum height:
2u sin
g
For time of flight we should use y = 0 and t =T, because
displacement along y axis for complete motion is zero.
1
y u yt + ayt 2
=
2
Let the required time be t1. We have,

uy =
u sin , a y =
g , vy =
0
Now we have,
v=
u y + ayt
y
=
0 u sin gt1
1 2
gT
( y =0, t =T , u y =u sin and a y = g )
2
1
u sin gT T =
0
2
2u sin
=
T 0 or,=
T
g
u sin T
0=
Neglecting
we get, T
=
T 0,=
Horizontal Range: R =
2u sin
g
u 2 sin 2
g
Putting x = R, ax = 0 , and t = T =
2u sin
along x-axis we
g
get,
1
x u x t + ax t 2
=
2
u cos T
R=
u sin
...(i)
t1 =
g
For downward motion from maximum height to ground:
Let the required time be t2. We have,
u 2 sin 2
uy =
0, a y =
g, y =
H =
2g
Now we have,
1
=
y u yt + ayt 2
2
1
u 2 sin 2
= gt2 2
2g
2
u sin
...(ii)
t2 =
g
Clearly from (i) and (ii), we have t1 = t2.

Hence, time of ascent = time of descent
Relative Motion:
2u sin
u cos
R=
g
2
u ( 2sin cos )
=
u 2 sin 2
2sin cos )
( sin 2 =
g
Condition for maximum range

We know that R =
To prove there are two angles of projection for same range
To prove time of ascent = time of descent
Time of Flight: T =
R=
u 2 sin 2
g
Clearly range will be maximum when

sin 2 =1 2 =900 =450
u2
Therefore, Rmax =
g
Terminology
1=object, 2 = observer
x12 = relative position of particle 1 wrt particle 2
v12 = relative velocity of particle 1 wrt particle 2
a12 = relative acceleration of particle 1 wrt particle 2

General equation

m=
m10 + m02
12

m12 = m10 m20
i.e., Relative motion of 1 wrt 2
= (Relative motion of 1 wrt 0)
(Relative motion of 2 wrt 0)
where O is a third object wrt which we know the motion of 1
and 2.
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Projectile given horizontal projection

u
x
2H
g
For time of flight we should use y = H and t =T, because
displacement along y axis for complete motion is H.
Time of Flight: T =
1
=
y u yt + ayt 2
2
1 2
H=
gT ( y = H , t = T , u y = 0 and a y = g )
2
2H
T =
g
R
y
Data to be used:
Initial velocity:
u in horizontal direction
x component of initial velocity: u x = u
y component of initial velocity: u y = 0
Projection height above the ground: H
Acceleration:
a=g
( y -axis is downward )
Horizontal Range: R = u
Putting x = R, u x = u , ax = 0 , and t = T =
we get,
1
=
x u x t + ax t 2
2
R=
uT
R=
u
x component of acceleration:
ax = 0
( no acceleration component along x-axis )
y component of acceleration: a y = g
Position at time t : ( x, y )
gx 2
Equation of trajectory: y = 2
2u
Along x axis
1
=
x u x t + ax t 2
2
=
x ut
u x u and
=
ax 0 )
(=
x
t =
u
...(1)
2H
g
2H
g
Speed at time t: R = u
2H
g
Along x axis
v=
x u x + ax t
vx =
u
...(i)
Along y axis
v=
y u y + ayt
v y =
gt
...(ii)
Speed at time t
Along y axis
1
=
y u yt + ayt 2
2
1 2
u y 0 and
=
y
=
gt
ay g )
(=
2
2
1 x
x
from (i)
y
g=

t
2 u
u
gx 2
...(A)
y=2
2u
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2H
along x-axis
g
Quick Revision
Laws of Motion
st
Newtons 1 law of motion
If the vector sum of all the forces acting on a particle is

zero then and only then the particle remains
unaccelerated.
a = 0 if and only if F = 0.
Newtons 1st law gives definition of force.
Inertial frame of reference
A frame of reference in which Newtons 1 Law is valid

is called an inertial frame of reference. It is nonaccelerating frame. i.e., a=0.
In simple language, an inertial frame of reference is such
a frame which has no acceleration.
Linear Momentum
Momentum, of a particle is defined to be the product of
its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted by p:
p=mv
Denoted by p or p
Vector
S.I. unit: =kg-m/s
nd
Newtons 2 law of motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts.
According to the Second Law
d p
F
dt
dp
F=
k
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality.
In S. I. system, we choose k = 1. Hence,
d p
F=
dt
For a particle of fixed mass m,
d p dmv
dv
= = m= ma
dt
dt
dt
Thus, Newtons second law can be written as
d p
=
F = ma
dt
nd
A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite

change in momentum is called an impulsive force.
Conservation of linear Momentum
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The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting

particles is conserved.
Isolated system means, net external force acting on the
system is zero.
Newtons 3rd law of motion
There is an equal and opposite reaction to every action.

Conditions for Newtons 3rd Law to hold
1. Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a body A by B is
equal and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
2. There is no cause effect relation implied in the third law.
The force on A by B and the force on B by A act at the
same instant.
3. Action and reaction forces act on different bodies, not on
the same body. Consider a pair of bodies A and B.
According to the third law,
F AB = F BA
(force on A by B) = (force on B by A)
In scalar form F AB = F BA
NOTE:
If you are considering the system of two bodies as a
1.
whole, F AB and F BA are internal forces of the system (A
+ B). They add up to give a null force. Internal forces in
a body or a system of particles thus cancel away in
pairs. This is an important fact that enables the second
law to be applicable to a body or a system of particles
nd
To prove Newtons 2 law is the real law of motion
Newtons 2 law measures force.

Conditions for Newtons 2nd Law to hold
1. Inertial frame for reference
2. Particle or particle like object
3. Speed of particles well below speed of light c
4. The second law of motion is a local relation which
means that force F at a point in space (location of the
particle) at a certain instant of time is related to a at
that point at that instant. Acceleration here and now
is determined by the force here and now.
Impulse
From Newtons 2nd law, we know that
d p
F = Fdt = d p
dt

Fdt =
p2 p1
Here, Fdt is known as impulse which is equal to change

in linear momentum. We can write for a constant force

= F dt = F t = p2 p1
Fdt

F t= p2 p1
st
To prove that Newtons 1st law is contained in

Newtons 2nd law
Newtons 2nd Law states that net external force F exerted
on a particle is equal to mass m times acceleration a of
the particle, i.e., F = ma

If F = 0 then ma = 0 a = 0 , which is Newtons 1st law
i.e., if the net external force acting on a particle is zero
then and only then the particle remains unaccelerated.

a = 0 if and only if F = 0 .
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To prove that Newtons 3

Newtons 2nd law
rd
2. Normal force
law is contained in
When a body presses against a surface, the surface

deforms and pushes on the body with a force N that is
perpendicular to the surface . This force N is called
Normal force.
= rate of change in linear momentum of B, i.e.,
d pB
F AB =
dt
Force on A by B
Normal force comes into existence when there is some

contact between two bodies.
Number of normal forces acting on a body = Number
of contacts.
In general Normal reaction is perpendicular to the surface
of contact.
Let us consider two isolated bodies A and B interacting

with each other only. Now from Newtons 2nd law we
have,
Force on B by A
= rate of change in linear momentum of A, i.e.,
d pA
F BA =
dt
Sum of these forces,
d p B d p A d
F AB + F BA =
+
=
p A + pB
dt
dt
dt
As no external forces acting on our system, rate of

change of total momentum must be zero, i.e,
d
p A + pB =
0.
dt
Hence,
F AB + F BA =
0
F AB =
F BA , which is Newtons 3rd law.
3. Tension
When a cord (or a rope, cable, or other such object) is

attached to a body and pulled taut, the cord pulls on the
body with a force T directed away from the body and
along the cord.
This force T is called as tension force.
Tension can never push a body.
Tension is always pulling in nature.
It means direction of tension is always along the rope
such that it pulls the body (does not push).
Important forces
1.
Weight
Direction of weight is always vertically downwards,

however the orientation of body may be. It originates
from centre of mass of a body.
Tension in all part of the string will be same, only when, the
string is
Massless, and
Inextensible.
Massless means mass of string is negligible compared to mass
of block.
For a massless or frictionless pulley, tension in two parts

of the string will have same magnitude T = T =T , even if
1
the bodies are accelerating. Cord should be massless

and unstretchable.
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Free Body Diagram (F.B.D.)
F.B.D. is nothing, but a diagram showing all the forces

acting on a body.
Static Friction
The magnitude of the static Friction fs is given by
fs sN
s = a constant known as coefficient of static

friction between the body and the surface of
contact. It depends upon roughness of the surface.
More rough the surface is more will be s .
N = Normal force on the object from the surface.
Magnitude of static friction = magnitude of
applied force.
Limiting Friction = Maximum value of Static Friction
Limiting Friction = fs, max = sN.

Kinetic Friction
Lamis Theorem
When three coplanar forces A, B and C act on a particle

such that particle remains in equilibrium, then, Lamis
Theorem states that:
The magnitude of the kinetic friction fk is given by
fk = kN
k = a constant known as coefficient of kinetic
friction between the body and the surface of contact.
It depends
upon roughness of the surface. More
rough the surface is more will be k .
N = Normal force on the object from the surface.
A
B
C
= =
sin sin sin
where A, B and C are the magnitude of forces A, B and C
respectively.
= angle opposite to force A
= angle opposite to force B
= angle opposite to force C
Graph of friction vs. applied force
Pseudo force
To write Newtons law correctly in non-inertial frame we

apply a force ma opposite to the acceleration of frame.
This ma is called as pseudo force. Here m is the mass of
the particle (not the mass of frame) whose FBD we are
drawing in non-inertial frame.
Pseudo force
= (mass of body of interest)
x (acceleration of non-inertial frame)
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From O to A particle remains stationary. Thus static

friction acts in part OA.
Here, static friction = applied force, therefore angle =45o.
Length AB represents maximum friction, i.e., Limiting
friction, fs, max = sN .
After A, point start moving thus in this part kinetic
friction acts.
Length CD represents kinetic friction which is almost
constant; fk = kN in this part.
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Important points
The coefficients of friction depend on the nature of the

surface.
The frictional force is nearly independent of the contact
area between the objects.
The kinetic friction force is usually less than the
maximum static friction force (Limiting friction).
Static friction opposes impending motion. The term
impending motion means motion that would take place
(but does not actually take place) under the applied force,
if friction were absent.
Note that it is not motion, but relative motion that the
frictional force opposes.
f
Mg sin
= = tan
N Mg cos
Since
f = N
f
=
Thus, tan =
Therefore, coefficient of limiting friction is equal to the
tangent of the angle of repose.
Contact Force (R) and Angle of Friction ():
CIRCULAR MOTION
Resultant of friction and

normal force is called
contact force R.
The angle between the
resultant contact force and
the normal is called angle of
friction .
ANGLE OF REPOSE
The angle of repose is defined as the angle of the inclined
plane at which a body placed on it just begins to slide.
Consider an inclined plane, whose inclination with horizontal
is gradually increased till the body placed on its surface just
begins to slide down. If is the inclination at which the body
just begins to slide down, then is called the angle of repose
When a particle moves along a

circular path, its motion is said
to be circular motion.
At any instant of time velocity v
is always tangent to the circular
path. (Why tangent? Because,
velocity is tangent to its path
at each instant of time.)
Therefore, velocity is always
perpendicular to radius during
circular motion.
(Because, from Mathematics, we know that a tangent of a
circle is perpendicular () to radius.)
vR
Acceleration in circular motion
N
f
M g sin
M g cos
Mg
The body is under the action of the following forces:

1. The weight M g of the body acting vertically downwards.
2. The limiting friction f in upward direction along the
inclined plane, which in magnitude is equal to the
component of the weight M g acting along the inclined
plane i.e.
f = M g sin
(i)
3.
The normal reaction N acting at right angle to the inclined

plane in upward direction, which is equal to the
component of weight acting perpendicular to the inclined
plane i.e.
N = M g cos
(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we have
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In a circular motion, when the particles velocity is v,

there is an acceleration a.
This acceleration a has two
components:
Tangential acceleration
(at)
Centripetal acceleration
or Radial acceleration
or Normal acceleration
(ac or an or ar )
Tangential acceleration at
: Its direction is along tangent.
at =
dv
dt
(magnitude of tangential accln )
Centripetal acceleration or Radial acceleration or

Normal acceleration (ac or an or ar )
Its direction along tangent towards the center.
v2
ac =
(magnitude of centripetal accln )
R
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Therefore, net acceleration a,
=
a
(magnitude of net accln )
at 2 + ac 2
at
(direction of a with an )
an
NOTE: Speed v may or may not be uniform.
tan =
Uniform Circular Motion
When a particle moves in a circle with constant speed v,

its motion is said to be uniform circular motion.
It means magnitude of velocity vector v is constant, but
the direction of v changes continuously.
(NOTE: Here speed remains same but velocity changes.)
It means velocity is changing with time (because velocity
is a vector, which changes when either direction or
magnitude changes). It means there is acceleration.
Thus a particle moving in a circle, undergoes an
acceleration.
For uniform circular motion speed, v = constant.
Therefore, tangential acceleration becomes
dv
=
at = 0
dt
Therefore, there is only centripetal acceleration, which is
v2
ac =
R
Thus, net acceleration a is radial acceleration here.
Since, net acceleration direction is towards the centre
here, it has got a special name centripetal acceleration.
Thus, during uniform circular motion,
net acceleration =centripetal (radial) acceleration
v2
=
a a=
c
R
Derivation of centripetal acceleration
v1
v1
r
v2
v1
v2
v
v
Change in velocity v when velocity changes from v1 to v2 is

given by v = v2 v1.
This change in velocity is along the centre of the circle.
s
For small angle we can use =
r
v
Also =
v
From (i) and (ii), we have,
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s
s
=
=
v v
r
v
r
Dividing both sides by time
v v s
=
t
r t
v
s
Now
= v . Hence,
= ac and
t
t
v
ac = .v
r
v2
ac =
r
Angular variables
Angular velocity and angular acceleration
For the time being, it is sufficient to know that angular velocity
represents the change in angle with time and angular
acceleration is the change in angular velocity per unit time.
Physically, if angular velocity is higher means the body rotates
faster.
Relation between linear and angular variables
Linear displacement (l) and angular displacement ()
l
=
R
Linear velocity (v) and angular velocity ()

v = R
Linear acceleration (l) and angular acceleration ()

at = R
SI units of angular variables
v2
SI unit of angular displacement : rad (radian)

SI unit of angular velocity : rad/s
Another unit of is rpm (revolution per minute)
2
1 rpm =
rad/s
60
SI unit of angular acceleration : rad/s2
Centripetal acceleration in terms of

angular velocity
Since, v = R
Therefore, centripetal acceleration,
v2
a=
= 2R
c
R
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Centripetal
Force
Quick Revision
f smg
Kharagpur)
Therefore, f sN www.vidyadrishti.org
Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT
We have just seen that a particle in a uniform circular motion

has centripetal acceleration directed towards its centre.
Thus, from Newtons 2nd law, a force of magnitude F = mac will
act on the particle which will be directed towards the centre.
This force F is known as centripetal force.
Centripetal Force
mv 2
F ma
=
=
= m 2 R
c
R
NOTE: Centripetal force direction is always towards the
centre of the circular path.
Therefore, from (i) & (ii)

mv 2
s mg
R
v2
s
(Condition for safe turn)
Rg
Vehicle moving on a circular track with uniform speed v
Suppose a vehicle is taking a circular level turn of radius

R with uniform speed v. We are assuming vehicle to be a
particle like object.
v2
Therefore, it will have a centripetal acceleration
R
directed towards the centre of the turning.
This centripetal acceleration on the vehicle must be
provided by some external force.
Let us see the forces acting here. Forces are :
N (upward)
mg (downward)
But both of N and mg are in vertical direction. No force
in radial direction.
But from Newtons 2nd law there must be some external
force in the radial inward direction to provide centripetal
acceleration. Which force is this??
This external force is static friction f from the road on
the vehicle. Thus, friction force provides the necessary
centripetal acceleration.
Therefore,
mv 2
=
f ma
=
...(i)
c
R
(ii)
Thus for safe turn, coefficient of static friction s must be

v2
greater than or equal to
.
Rg
In day to day life, when speed of a vehicle taking a turn
increase sufficiently, this condition may be violated.
Therefore, friction force is not very reliable for turning
on a circular road.
This also shows that for a given value of s and R, there
is a maximum speed of circular motion of the car
possible, namely
vmax = s Rg
Banking of roads
The angle through which the outer edge of the road is

raised above the inner edge is called angle of banking.
Banking of road analysis without friction
Let the banking angle of the road be .

Forces are:
mg (downward)
N (perpendicular to road surface)
Now , we have to resolve N into radial and tangential
components.
N cos
N
mg
N sin
ac
ac
f
mg
Condition for safe turn

Static friction force provides the necessary centripetal
acceleration here. Therefore,
f sN .
Also, along verticle direction, N = mg
P a g e | 20
Along radial direction:

Necessary centripetal accln is provided by N sin.
Therefore,
mv 2
N sin =
...(i)
R
Thus, sin component of normal force provides the
necessary centripetal accln to vehicles in this case. This
force is quite greater than friction force. So, banked roads
are safer for vehicles than plane roads during turning.
Along vertical:
N cos = mg (ii)
Dividing (1) by (2), we get:

v2
tan =
Rg
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Quick Revision
v2
=
tan 1
Rg

N cos
fsin
Thus, angle of banking depends upon velocity of the

vehicle and radius of the road.
Banking of road is designed in such a way, that most of
vehicles may go with their average speed safely.
mg
Banking of road analysis with friction
Let us first call the speed of the vehicle as videal when there
was no fiction from road.
Here, we can have two cases:
CASE 1: If the speed is well below a videal, vehicle will
tend to skid downward the road. Therefore, friction f will
act in upward the inclination of the road.
CASE 2: If the speed is well above videal, vehicle will tend
to skid upward. Therefore, friction will f act in downward
the inclination of road.
mg
Now we have to resolve f and N into radial and vertical

components.

mv 2
N sin + f cos =
R
mv 2
N sin + N cos =
R
Now we have to resolve f and N into radial and vertical

components.

mv 2
N sin f cos =
R
mv 2
N sin N cos =
R
(2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get,

1/ 2
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get,

1/ 2
+ tan
v = Rg
tan
1
Hence, maximum speed for safe turn on a banked road is

given by the expression
tan
v = Rg
1 + tan
This is the minimum speed with which a vehicle can take
circular turn on a banked road safely.
Bending of a cyclist
A cyclist provides himself the necessary centripetal force by
leaning inward on a horizontal track, while going round a
curve. Consider a cyclist of weight M g taking a turn of radius
r with velocity v. In order to provide the necessary centripetal
force, the cyclist leans through angle inwards as shown in
Fig. The cyclist is under the action of the following forces:
(a) The weight M g acting vertically downward at the centre
of gravity of cycle and the cyclist.
(b) The reaction R of the ground on cyclist. It will act along a
line making angle with the vertical.
The vertical component R cos of the normal reaction R
will balance the weight of the cyclist, while the horizontal
component R sin will provide the necessary centripetal
force to the cyclist.
Case 2: To find maximum speed
In this case friction will act upward the incline as the

vehicle will have a tendency to move downward the
incline.
Let us draw FBD.
P a g e | 21
... (1)
R cos = Mg
and R sin =
(2)
1/ 2
Along vertical:
N cos + f sin mg =0
N cos + N sin mg = 0 (1)
(because, limiting friction f = N)
+ tan
vmax = Rg
tan
1
ac
ac
N sin
N sin
f cos
Along vertical:
N cos + f sin mg =0
N cos + N sin mg = 0 (1)
(because, limiting friction f = N)
N cos
f cos
Case 1: To find minimum speed

In this case friction will act upward the incline as the
vehicle will have a tendency to move downward the
incline. Let us draw FBD.
fsin
(angle of banking)
Mv
r
... ( 2 )
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we have
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sin Mv 2 / r
=
R cos
Mg
v2
tan =
rg
Work:
When a force F is
applied to a particle, and because of
Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT
Kharagpur)
the
application
of
this
force
if there is a displacement or
VERTICAL
... ( 3)
R cos
R
R sin
Mg
component of net displacement in the direction of applied

force, then we say that force F do work on that particle.
Work done W by a constant force F in a displacement r at
an angle :

=
W F=
.r Fr cos
i.
ii.
Two important conditions about this formula:

Force should be constant.
Valid for particles.
We can apply this for those bodies, which are particle
like. That is when a force is applied to a particle like
object, each part of it moves with a constant velocity. It
means that the body is in pure translation motion. No
rotation is there in any part of the body
Therefore, the cyclist should bend through an angle
= tan 1
v
rg
So as to have the necessary centripetal force while going

round a curved path. It follows that the angle through
which cyclist should bend will be greater, if
(a) the radius of the curve is small i.e. the curve is
sharper and
(b) the velocity of the cyclist is large.
It may be pointed out that for the same reasons, an
ice skater or an aeroplane has to bend inwards, while
taking a turn.
Units of work
Work done is a scalar quantity.

S. I. Unit : joule = J.
1 J = 1 Nm = 1 kgm2/s2.
CGS Unit: erg
1 erg = 1 dyne cm = 1 gcm2/s2
1 J = 107erg.
Work done by a variable force
Work done by a variable force F in displacing a particle from
position vector r1 to r2 is given by
r2

W = F .d r
r1
Work done by spring force
Let us find the work done by spring of spring constant k

If the spring is displaced from
=
x x=
x2.
1 to x
x
2
2
1
2
2
W=
Fdx
=
x
x kx dx = 2 k ( x 1 x 2 )
2
1
Special case: When spring is initially at normal position.

Putting x1 =0 to x2 = x we get
1
1
W=
k ( x 21 x 2 2 ) =
kx 2
2
2
1
2
Spring potential energy: U = - W = kx 2

Energy: The ability to do work is called energy. S. I. Unit of
energy: J
Kinetic Energy(KE or K or T) =The energy due to motion of
a particle or body.
1
K = mv 2
2
where v = velocity magnitude (speed).
Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference.
WORK ENERGY & POWER
P a g e | 22
Work Kinetic Energy Theorem
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It
statesRevision
that work done by all the forces
acting
a body(B.
is Tech., IIT Kharagpur)
Quick
Author:
P. on
K. Bharti
1
U s = kx 2
equal to the change produced in the kinetic energy of the
2
body.
Mechanical Energy: Sum of kinetic energy and potential

Suppose that a body in initially at rest and net force F is
energy is known as mechanical energy.
applied on the body to displace along its own direction. Then,
ME = K + U
work done

=
W =
F .ds F .ds
=
( 0 )
Conservative Field
According to Newtons second law of motion,
F = m a,
where a is acceleration produced (in the direction of force) on
applying the force. Therefore,
=
W
Fds mads
=
F
(=
OR
2. A system where some forces are conservative and some
are non-conservative such that work done by all nonconservative forces = 0.
dv
mv ds ds = mvdv
1 2 1
mv mu 2
2
2
W = K 2 K1
W
=
W = U = (U U )
2
W = U = (U U )
Conservative Field
A force is said to be conservative force if work done by it is
path independent and depends only on net change of position
and not on the particular path followed in reaching the new
position.
or
A force is said to be conservative force if work done by it in a
closed path is zero. Examples of conservative forces are
1.
2.
3.
Gravitational force
Spring force
Electrostatic force
Potential Energy
Energy associated with position or configuration is known as

potential energy. It is denoted by U. Note that the potential
energy is a property of system of two or more particles rather
than of either particle alone.
Gravitational potential energy
As work done by non-conservative forces in a

conservative field is zero, therefore, work done by total
forces in a conservative field is given by
Hence, work done on a body by all forces is equal to the

change in its kinetic energy.
Relation between potential energy and work done in a

conservative field:
When a particle is displaced from position 1 to 2 in a
conservative field by the application of a conservative
force, work done by conservative force is given by
v2
=
W =
mvdv m=
vdv
m

u
2 u
u
v
A field is said to be conservative if:

1. A system where all the forces acting are conservative in
nature
ma )
dv
dv
= v
a =
dt
ds
Therefore, work done by the force in order to increase its

velocity from u (initial velocity) to (final velocity) is given
by
W =
Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a conservative

field:
Suppose a particle is displaced from point 1 to 2 in a
conservative field. Then,
Change in Potential Energy + Change in K.E. = 0
U+ K = 0
U +K =U +K
1
Power
U g = mgh
Average power: Average power is defined as work

done per unit time.
Denoted by P
W
work done
P =
Average Power =
t
time
We can use this formula for constant power also.
Instantaneous Power (Power)
Denoted by P
dW
P=
dt
We have to take reference level in problems where

gravitational potential energy is zero. Gravitational potential
energy above reference level is taken as positive and it is
negative below reference level.
Power is a scalar quantity

S.I. unit: Watt
Another unit: horsepower (hp)
1 hp = 746 W
Spring potential energy
P a g e | 23
Collision
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1.
Elastic
collision. Those collisions,
both
Quick
Revision
Author:inP. which
K. Bharti
(B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)M
1
M2
momentum and kinetic energy of the system are
u2
u
1
conserved, are called elastic collisions.
A
B
The collision between atomic and subatomic particles are
elastic in nature. In daily life, the collisions between two
glass or preferably ivory balls may be taken as elastic
BEFORE COLLISION
collisions.
Characteristics of elastic collisions:
(a) The momentum is conserved.
M1
M2
(b) Total energy is conserved.
2
1
(c) The kinetic energy is conserved.
A
B
(d) The mechanical energy is not converted into any
other form (sound, heat, light) of energy.
AFTER COLLISION
(e) Forces involved during the interaction are of
conservative nature.
As in elastic collision momentum is conserved, we have
2. Inelastic collision. Those collisions, in which the
M1 u1 + M2 u2 = M1 1 + M2 2
momentum of the system is conserved but the kinetic
energy is not conserved, are called inelastic collisions.
(i)
M1(u1 1) = M2(2 u2)
Most of collisions in every-day life are inelastic
Since, kinetic energy is also conserved in an elastic collision,
collisions.
we have
3. Perfectly inelastic collision. Those collisions, in which
1
1
1
1
the colliding particles stick together after the collision
M 1 u12 + M 2 u2 2 = M 1 12 + M 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
and then move with a common velocity, are called
2
2
2
2
M 2 2 u2
... ( ii )
M 1 u1 1 =
perfectly inelastic collision.
Mud thrown on the wall and sticking to it, a bullet fired
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we have
into wooden block and remaining embedded in it, are the
u12 12 u22 22
examples of perfectly inelastic collision.
=
Characteristics of inelastic collisions:
u1 1
u2 2
(a) The momentum is conserved.
u1 + 1 = 2 + u2
(b) The total energy is conserved.
u1 u2 = 2 2
... ( iii )
(c) Loss in the kinetic energy is maximum.
From equation (iii), it follows that in one dimensional elastic
(d) A part of whole of the mechanical energy may be
collision, the relative velocity of approach (u1 u2) before
converted into other forms (heat, light, sound) of
collision
is equal to the relative velocity of separation (2 1)
energy.
after
collision.
(e) Some or all of the forces involved are nonLet us first and velocity of body A after collision. From
conservative in nature.
equation (iii), we have
It may be pointed out that in all types of collisions,
2 = u1 u2 + 1
(a) momentum is conserved;
Substituting for 2 in equation (i), we get
(b) total energy is conserved and
M 1u1 + M 2 u2= M 11 + M 2 ( u1 u2 + 1 )
(c) it is the kinetic energy which may or not be
conserved.
ELASTIC COLLISION IN ONE DIMENSION
The collision between two bodies is said to be head-on or in
one dimension, if the colliding bodies continue to move along
the same straight line after the collision.
Consider two perfectly elastic bodies A and B of masses M1
and M2 moving along the same straight line with velocities u1
and u2 respectively. The two bodies will collide, only if u1 >
u2. The two bodies undergo a head-on collision and continue
moving along the same straight line with velocities 1 and 2
along the same direction. The two bodies will separate after
the collision, only if 2 > 1.
P a g e | 24
M 1u1 + M 2 u2 = M 11 + M 2 u1 M 2 u2 + M 21
( M 1 M 2 ) u1 + 2 M 2 u2 = ( M 1 M 2 )1
( M M 2 ) u1 + 2M 2u2
1 = 1
M1 + M 2
... ( iv )
Again from equation (iii), have

1 = 2 u1 + u2
Substituting for 1 in equation (1.22), we have
( M 2 M 1 ) u2 + 2M 1u1
2 =
... ( v )
M1 + M 2
Let us calculate the final velocities of the two bodies after
collision in the following special cases:
Mb: 7488044834
1.
When
the two bodies are of Author:
equal masses:
Let (B.
us Tech., IIT
(c) Kharagpur)
When the mass of www.vidyadrishti.org
body B is very large as compared to
Quick
Revision
P. K. Bharti
that of A: When M2 > > M1, then in equations (vi) and
consider that
M1 = M2 = M (say)
(vii), M1 can be neglected in comparison to M2 i.e. M1
From equation (iv), we have
M2 M2 and M1 + M2 M2. Therefore, we have
M 2
2M 1
( M M ) u1 + 2Mu2 0 + 2Mu2
u1 = u1 and 2 =
u1 0 ( M 2 >> M 1 )
1 =
1 =
M
M2
M +M
2M
2
1 =
u1
Therefore, when a light body A collides against a heavy
body B at rest, the body A should start moving with equal
velocity in opposite direction, while the body B should
practically remain at rest. This result is in accordance
with the observation that when a rubber ball hits a
stationary wall, the wall remains at rest, while the ball
bounces back with the same speed.
Also, from equation (v), we have

( M M ) u2 + 2Mu1 0 + 2Mu1
2 =
M +M
2M
2 =
1
Thus, if two bodies of equal masses suffer elastic collision
in one dimension, then after the collision, the bodies will
exchange their velocities.
2.
When the target body is at rest: In this case, the body B

is at rest i.e. u2 = 0. Then, substituting u2 = 0 in equations
(iv) and (v), we have
1 =
2 =
( M1 M 2 )
M1 + M 2
u1
2M1
u1
M1 + M 2
... ( vi )
... ( vii )
When the target body B is at rest, let us find the final

velocities of the two bodies in the following subcases:
(a) When the two bodies are of equal masses: Setting M1 =
M2 = M in equations (vi) and (vii), we get
1 = 0 and 2 = u1
Therefore, when body A collides against body B of equal
mass at rest, the body A comes to rest and the body B
moves on with the velocity of the body A. This is
sometimes observed, when one of the two boys playing
with glass balls, shoots a stationary glass ball with a ball
with the help of his fingers; his own glass ball comes to
rest, while the stationary ball of the other boy starts
moving with the same velocity.
(b) When the mass of body B is negligible as compared to
that of A: When M2 < < M1, then in equations (vi) and
(vii), M2 can be neglected as compared to M1 i.e. M1 M2
M1 and M1 + M2 M1. Therefore, we have
2M1
M1
u1 u1 and
u1 2u1
=
1 =
=
2
=
M1
M1
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the
velocity of separation to the velocity of approach of the
colliding particles. It is denoted by e.
According to definition, the coefficient of restitution is given
by
e=
velocity of separation
velocity of approach
The coefficient of restitution can be used to distinguish

between the three types of collision as below:
1. For elastic collision, e = 1
i.e. in an elastic collision, velocity of separation is equal
to velocity of approach.
2. For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
i.e. in an inelastic collision, the two particles possess nonzero velocity of separation, which is always less than the
velocity of approach.
3. For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
i.e. in a perfectly inelastic collision, the two bodies do not
get separated and move with a common velocity.
Therefore, when a heavy body A collides against a light

body B at rest, the body A should keep on moving with
same velocity and the body B will come in motion with
velocity double that of A. Thus, in principle, if a moving
truck (heavy body) collides against a stationary drum,
then the truck would keep on moving with the same
velocity, while the drum would come in motion with a
velocity double the velocity of the truck.
P a g e | 25
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Special
cases:
ELASTIC
DIMENSIONS
Quick
RevisionCOLLISION IN TWO
Author:
P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT
Kharagpur)
(a) Glancing collision. For such collisions,
Consider two perfectly elastic bodies A and B of masses M1

and M2 moving along the same straight line (say X-axis) with
velocities u1 and u2. If the body A is moving with a velocity
greater than that of B i.e. if u1 > u2, then two bodies will
collide. After the collision, the two bodies A and B travel with
velocities making angles 1 and 2 with the incident direction
(X-axis) as shown in Fig.
M2
u1
1 u1
X
B
M2
Y
Since the collision is perfectly elastic, the kinetic energy must
be conserved.
Therefore,
1
1
1
1
... ( i )
M 1u12 + M 2 u22 = M 112 + M 222
2
2
2
2
Momentum is a vector quantity. As the two bodies move along
different directions after the collision, the momentum of the
two bodies is separately conserved along X-axis and Y-axis.
The component of momentum of body A after collision along
X-axis = M1 1 cos 1
The component of momentum of body B after collision along
X-axis = M2 2 cos 2
Applying the law of conservation of momentum along X-axis,
we have
M1 u1 + M2 u2 = M1 1 cos 1 + M2 2 cos 2
(ii)
The component of momentum of body A after collision along
Y-axis = M1 1 sin 1 (along OY)
The component of momentum of body B after collision along
Y-axis = M2 2 sin 2 (along OY)
= M2 2 sin 2 (along OY)
Before collision, the component of momentum of body A or of
body B along Y-axis is zero.
Therefore, applying the law of conservation of momentum
along Y-axis, we have
0 + 0 = M1 1 sin 1 + (M2 2 sin 2)
or M1 1 sin 1 = M2 2 sin 2
(iii)
P a g e | 26
and
2 = 90 .
M1
1 = 0
M1
From equations (1) and (2), we get

u1 = v1 and v2 = 0
1
K.E. of the target particle
= =
m2 v22 0
2
Hence in a glancing collision, the incident particle does
not lose any kinetic energy and is scattered almost
undeflected.
(b) Head-on collision. In such a collision, the target particle
moves in the direction of the incident particle, i.e., 2 = 0o.
Then equations (1) and (2) take forms:
m1u1 = m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 and 0 = m1v1 sin 1
Equation (3) for the kinetic energy remains unchanged.
(c) Elastic collision of two identical particles. As the two
particles are identical, so
m1 = m2 = m (say). By
conservation of K.E. for elastic collision,
1
1 2 1 2
mu12 =
mv1 + mv2 or u12 =
v12 + v22
2
2
2
By conversation of linear momentum,
mu1 =
mv1 + mv2 or u12 =
v12 + v22

u1 .u1 = v1 + v2 . v1 + v2

= v1 .v1 + v1 .v2 + v2 .v1 + v2 .v2

or u12 = v12 + v22 + 2v1 .v2

v12 + v22 = u12
or u12 = u12 + 2v1 .v2

or v1 .v2 = 0.
)(
This shows that the angle between v1 and v2 is 90o.

Hence two identical particles move at right angles to each
other after elastic collision in two dimensions.
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Physics Classes by Pranjal Sir

(Admission Notice for XI & XII - 2014-15)
Batches for Std XIIth
Batch 1 (Board + JEE Main + Advanced): (Rs. 16000)
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About P. K. Bharti Sir (Pranjal Sir)
B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur (2009 Batch)

H.O.D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre
Visiting faculty at D. P. S. Bokaro
Produced AIR 113, AIR 475, AIR 1013 in JEE Advanced
Produced AIR 07 in AIEEE (JEE Main)
Address: Concept, JB 20, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4,
Bokaro Steel City
Ph: 9798007577, 7488044834
Email: pkbharti.iit@gmail.com
Website: www.vidyadrishti.org
Physics Class Schedule for Std XIIth (Session 2014-15) by Pranjal Sir
Sl. No.
Main Chapter
Basics from XIth
1.
2.
Electric Charges and

Fields
Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Topics
Coulombs Law
Electric Field
Gausss Law
Competition Level
Electric Potential
Capacitors
Competition Level
Unit 1 & 2
PART TEST 1
3.
Current Electricity
SUMMER BREAK
4.
Moving charges and
Magnetism
P a g e | 27
Basic Concepts, Drift speed, Ohms

Law, Cells, Kirchhoffs Laws,
Wheatstone bridge, Ammeter,
Voltmeter, Meter Bridge, Potentiometer
etc.
Competition Level
Unit 4
JEE Adv Level
th
3 Mar to 4 Apr 14
5th & 6th Apr
10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
NA
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
NA
5th & 6th Apr

10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
17th & 19th Apr
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
27th & 29th Apr
4th May
NA
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th
May
NA
11th May
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th
May
NA
15th & 16th May
18th May
NA
21st May 2013 to 30th May 2013
Force on a charged particle (Lorentz
31st May, 1st &
force), Force on a current carrying wire,
3rd Jun
Cyclotron, Torque on a current carrying
loop in magnetic field, magnetic
moment
Biot Savart Law, Magnetic field due to a
circular wire, Ampere circuital law,
Solenoid, Toroid
Competition Level
JEE Main Level

rd
Unit 3
PART TEST 2
PART TEST 3
Board level
Vectors, FBD, Work, Energy, Rotation,

SHM
NA
20th May
5th & 6th Apr

10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
17th & 19th Apr
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
27th & 29th Apr, 1st, 3rd
& 4th May
NA
11th May
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th May
15th, 16th, 17th, 18th &

19th May
NA
20th May
31st May, 1st &

3rd Jun
31st May, 1st & 3rd Jun
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
NA
10th & 12th Jun
15th Jun
NA
NA
22nd Jun
10th, 12th, 14th & 15th

Jun
NA
22nd Jun
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5.
Magnetism and Matter
6.
Electromagnetic
Induction
PART TEST 4
7.
th
17 , 19th & 21st

Jun
24th, 26th & 28th
Jun
Not in JEE Advanced

Syllabus
24th, 26th & 28th Jun
NA
29th Jun & 1st Jul
6th Jul
NA
8th, 10th & 12th
Jul
NA
19th & 20th July
NA
13th Jul
8th, 10th & 12th
Jul
15th July
19th & 20th July
29th Jun, 1st, 3rd & 5th

Jul
NA
13th Jul
8th, 10th & 12th Jul
27th Jul
31st Jul & 2nd
Aug
3rd Aug
5th & 7th Aug
9th & 12th Aug
14th Aug
16th Aug
27th Jul
31st Jul & 2nd
Aug
3rd Aug
5th & 7th Aug
9th & 12th Aug
14th Aug
16th Aug
Photoelectric effect etc
9th & 11th Oct
9th & 11th Oct
9th & 11th Oct
Upto Unit 10
12th Oct
12th Oct
12th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
18th & 19th Oct

NA
26th Oct
26th, 28th, 30th
Oct & 1st Nov
2nd & 4th Nov
18th & 19th Oct

21st Oct
NA
26th, 28th, 30th
Oct & 1st Nov
2nd & 4th Nov
9th Nov
NA
9th Nov
8th, 9th & 11th
Nov
16th Nov
18th Nov to
Board Exams
18th Nov to JEE
18th & 19th Oct

21st & 25th Oct
NA
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
NA
8th, 9th, 11th, 13th & 15th
Nov
16th Nov
18th Nov to Board
Exams
18th Nov to JEE
Unit 5 & 6
Alternating current
AC, AC circuit, Phasor, transformer,

resonance,
Competition Level
8.
Electromagnetic Waves
Unit 7 & 8
PART TEST 5
Revision Week
Upto unit 8
st
17 , 19 & 21
Jun
24th, 26th & 28th
Jun
Faradays Laws, Lenzs Laws, A.C.

Generator, Motional Emf, Induced Emf,
Eddy Currents, Self Induction, Mutual
Induction
Competition Level
th
th
15th & 17th July

Not in JEE Advanced
Syllabus
27th Jul
31st Jul & 2nd Aug
3rd Aug
9.
Reflection
5th & 7th Aug
Refraction
9th & 12th Aug
Prism
Ray Optics
14th Aug
Optical Instruments
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
Competition Level
NA
19th & 21st Aug
19th, 21st, 23rd, 24th Aug
th
th
10.
Huygens Principle
26 Aug
26 Aug
26th Aug
th
th
th
th
Interference
28 & 30 Aug 28 & 30 Aug
28th & 30th Aug
st
st
Diffraction
Wave Optics
31 Aug
31 Aug
31st Aug
nd
nd
Polarization
2 Sep
2 Sep
2nd Sep
th
th
Competition Level
NA
4 & 6 Sep
4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 11th Sep
th
th
Unit 9 & 10
PART TEST 6
14 Sep
14 Sep
14th Sep
th
th
REVISION ROUND 1 (For JEE Main & JEE Advanced Level): 13 Sep to 27 Sep
Upto Unit 10
Grand Test 2
28th Sep
28th Sep
28th Sep
Upto Unit 8
Grand Test 1
DUSSEHRA & d-ul-Zuha Holidays: 29th Sep to 8th Oct

11.
Dual Nature of
Radiation and Matter
Grand Test 3
12.
Atoms
13.
Nuclei
X-Rays
PART TEST 7
14.
Semiconductors
15.
Unit 11, 12 & 13

Basic Concepts and Diodes, transistors,
logic gates
Communication System
PART TEST 8
Unit 11, 12 & 13
PART TEST 9
Revision Round 2
(Board Level)
Revision Round 3
(XIth portion for JEE)
30 Full Test Series
P a g e | 28
Unit 14 & 15
Competition Level
Unit 11, 12, 13, X-Rays
Mind Maps & Back up classes for late
registered students
NA
18th Nov to
Board Exams
18th Nov to JEE
Complete Syllabus
Date will be published after Oct 2014
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Quick Revision
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Notes for School Exams

P. K. Bharti, B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Important questions for 1st terminal Examinations

Different type of errors and derivations on product

Triangle law of vector addition and parallelogram

27. Derivation of centripetal acceleration ac =

28. Banking of roads without and with friction

Derivation of Work-Kinetic Energy theorem

36. Derivation of centre of mass of semicircular ring and

Distance covered in nth second

40. Derivation of moment of inertia of simple bodies

Newtons Laws of Motion

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Mechanical properties of solids

Definitions of all types of stress and strains

Variation of pressure with depth in hydrostatic

71. Zeroth law of thermodynamics

98. Types of waves

All the best!

73. Assumptions of Kinetic theory of gases (imp)

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Two more units

Application of dimensional analysis

As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

b) To convert a physical quantity from one system of

Substituting these dimensions in eqn. (i), we get

and u2 = M 2a Lb2 Lc2

Limitations of dimensional analysis:

(c) It fails when a physical quantity e.g ., =

is the sum or difference of two or more quantities.

Some important terms

Different types of errors:

where K is a dimensions of various quantities are

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

The a calculated above may be positive in certain cases and

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Representation of a vector (Arrow over letters or bold letters)

Component of a vector A along a

Rectangular component of a vector

Let a vector A makes an angle of with positive direction of

We can write A in the unit vector notation as

Note: A is tail and B is

Magnitude of a vector (with modulus or without bold)

Unit Vector in the direction of a given vector A

Magnitude and direction of vector (when given in unit vector

Let a vector in unit vector form as

Unit Vectors along coordinate axes:

Unit vector along X-axis = i

Here, x = x-component of vector A

The magnitude (or length) of this vector is

Angle with positive direction of x-axis (Use trigonometry)

Suppose the coordinates of tip of position vector r is (x, y, z),

Here, x = x-component of vector r

R = (a1 + a2 + ... + an )i + (b1 + b2 + ... + bn ) j + (c1 + c2 + ... + cn )k.

Here, R = resultant (i.e., vector sum of all vectors)

CONCEPT: JB-20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec 4, Bokaro

Author: P. K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)