Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Review
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 31 July 2012
Received in revised form 11 October 2012
Accepted 24 October 2012
Available online 30 October 2012
Keywords:
Aerodynamic eciency
Flow control
Drag reduction
Innovative congurations
Flow separation technologies
a b s t r a c t
An Air Transport System has become an indispensable part of Europes economic infrastructure. The Commercial Aeronautics Sector is well aware that it has to nd an acceptable balance between the constant
erce competitive pressures upon it and the publics expectations of cheaper fares but reduced environmental impact including community noise around airports and global warming. In order to achieve such
a balance in the future, a strategy is required for competitive excellence dedicated to meeting societys
needs.
The realization of this vision cannot be achieved without signicant technology breakthroughs in the
area of aerodynamics and other disciplines such as materials and structures. Improved aerodynamic designs and the introduction of new aerodynamic technologies should play not only a key role in improving
aircraft performance but, also, contribute strongly to product cost and operability. Substantial R&T exploration and development require to be conducted in order to provide the required technologies.
In this work, a review of those technologies which show a potential to deliver breakthrough improvements in the aerodynamic performance of the aircraft is shown. The focus of this report is on new aircraft
congurations to reduce induced drag and noise, laminar and turbulent drag reduction technologies and
ow control devices, which aims to improve the performance of the airplane under separated ow conditions of unsteady nature, and to reduce the complex high-lift devices. Most of these works have been
exposed in previous KATnet conferences (Key Aerodynamic Technologies for Aircraft Performance Improvement), although a general overview of the current status of these technologies is included.
2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aircraft conguration technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Blended wing body (BWB) and boundary layer ingestion (BLI) .
2.2.
High aspect ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Engine concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Forward swept wings (FSW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drag reduction technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Drag reduction by extended laminar ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Laminar ow technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Laminar ow on nacelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.
Hybrid laminar ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4.
Alternative laminar ow technology . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Turbulent skin friction reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Separation control technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Passive ow control devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Active ow control devices (AFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Blowing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2. Vortex generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Other applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System and certication issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Performance and ight handling characteristics . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Industrial issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1270-9638/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2012.10.008
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101
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128
6.
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128
128
129
129
130
1. Introduction
The European societys increasing environmental awareness has
been present always in the aeronautical community; industry; and
research centers. This has had a denite inuence in the way they
foresee the aircraft of the future. In this regard, the ACARE Vision
for 2020, a Group of Renowned Personalities in the aeronautical
eld, formulated a clear set of requirements for civil transport
aircraft operation so that the following specic goals could be
achieved:
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: eusebio.valero@upm.es (E. Valero).
Preliminary design studies of New or Non-Conventional congurations have shown that a step change in cruise L/D and noise
are possible but that step is only about half that required.
Therefore, it will be necessary to investigate new technologies which could be applied to such congurations and which
might deliver the additional improvements in performance required to meet the target.
Cruise drag.
To deliver the required step change in cruise drag, the focus of
future research and development efforts must be on technologies aimed at delaying laminar to turbulent boundary layer
transition and at manipulating turbulent ow structures close
to the aircraft surface. The timescales involved in maturing
these technologies, particularly the ability to manipulate turbulent ow structures, are extremely aggressive and carry a
high risk.
Flow control.
Flow control technology describes a variety of techniques by
which aerodynamic performance can be enhanced to levels
beyond those which can achieved by changes to the external shape alone. The change in aerodynamic performance may
take the form of enhanced lift; reduced drag; controlled unsteadiness; and reduced noise or delayed transition. Alternatively, benets for the same levels of performance may be
accrued through reduced system complexity; less weight; less
maintenance or reduced life cycle costs.
In addition to the work on ow control technologies, work on
reducing aircraft weight including high lift and other control
surfaces is of prime importance since this has a direct effect on fuel burn through reducing overall aircraft weight. This
means that technologies to control separation must be developed also.
Besides the environmental goals, other major objectives are the
reduction of lead time and the provision of robust solutions with
improved quality. In that context, it is important to exploit any opportunity provided by enhanced or new classes of tools such as
e.g. high delity Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and powerful High Performance Computing (HPC) capabilities. Also, improved
wind tunnel technology provided by new measurement techniques
(e.g. Pressure Sensitive Paint) or model material and manufacturing processes must be exploited.
KATnet has served as a forum to expose the technology advances of both industry and academia in the above mentioned
areas. A series of conferences and workshop were organized with
great success. These conferences exposed the most recent advances
of the main aeronautic stakeholders and showed the industrys
growing interest in these topics. This review aims to describe the
102
Table 1
Aerodynamic objectives.
Environmental goals
Reduce emissions
Reduce drag
Reduce weight
Reduce community noise
Reduce source noise
Increase airport capacity
Improve affordability
Management/elimination of unsteady ow
separations + turbulent source noise
X
X
Laminar ow promotion
Adaptive sections
Table 2
Design concepts.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
main conclusions and works presented in these series of conferences. However, the paper tries not to be limited to KATnet and,
in taking advantage of this forum, it will give a general overview
of the recent developments in these technologies. In any case, this
paper does not aim to describe separately each of these technologies in detail. Outstanding reviews can already be found in the
literature [24,38,91,98] and, although it is always possible to update those works (some of them are more than 10 years old), a
detailed and throughout description of all those technologies illustrated in KATnet is beyond the objectives and the extension of this
work. Also, the authors wish to point out that this review is biased unavoidably in favor of KATnet activities. As such, we may
have omitted unintentionally important studies pertaining to ow
control technologies. It is important, also, to highlight the diculty
associated with this task. Most of these works were presented only
in series of KATnet conferences and internal reports, and we found
no further publications in journals or international conferences.
Whenever possible, we included the reference to a journal paper
or conference proceedings but, many times, the work which is exposed here, is unpublished.
2. Aircraft conguration technologies
This general topic comprises of two main different strategies.
On the one hand, there are small modications in the geometry
which produce substantial improvements in drag reduction (friction and wave) and reduce detached areas. Small ow control devices as synthetic jets or vortex generators belong to this category.
These technologies will be described with detail in Section 4. On
X
X
X
X
X
X
the other hand, there are large geometrical modications over classical aircraft conguration or other innovative congurations which
are aimed at improving aircraft performances substantially by reducing drag and/or weight. This section is dedicated mainly to this
point.
Different lines of action can be addressed.
2.1. Blended wing body (BWB) and boundary layer ingestion (BLI)
In 1994, NASA sponsored one of the rst attempts to study
the feasibility of BWB congurations (Fig. 2). Liebecks preliminary results [63,64], showed potential savings in: fuel burn (27%);
takeoff weight (15%); operating empty weight (12%); total thrust
(27%); and a higher lift/drag (20%). The study was performed in
a 800 passenger BWB for a 7000 miles design range compared to
a conventional aircraft. Despite these promising results, an important number of drawbacks had to be solved in order to make this
aircraft technically viable. A new eld of study, related to fuselagewing integration, is identied: structural integration; aerodynamic
stability; the elimination of the conventional empennage; and the
presence of a non-circular fuselage etc.
Additionally, the engines in the considered conguration are
mounted near the trailing edge on the upper surface of the wing.
Initially, aircraft designers used pylon-mounted nacelles to avoid
problems of surface integration and inlet ow distortion resulting
from ingesting the incoming boundary layer. However, recent studies indicate that boundary layer ingestion (BLI) offers additional
benets including reduced ram drag, lower structural weight and
less wetted area than a pylon mounted conguration. Because of
103
that boundary layer ingestion, nacelles started to attract the scientic communitys attention [91].
Boundary layer ingestion means taking the fuselage boundary
layer ow through the engines for the purpose of improving fuel
eciency. The idea comes from re-energizing the aircraft wake
which enables less kinetic energy to be wasted. Comparing the situation with a typical podded engine, it can be proved that, for a
given thrust force, less power needs to be added to a ow entering
the engine with a lower velocity. Consequently, due to boundary layer ingestion, the lower inlet velocity means that the same
propulsive force can be achieved with less power. However, the
gain is not without drawbacks, the incoming ow to the engines is
highly non-uniform and produces loss of performance, additional
stress and fatigue to the blades. Moreover, the aerodynamic blockage, associated with the fuselage boundary layer, is much larger
than that due to the duct boundary layer. Therefore, it has a major
role in the achievable ow rate and the increase in fan pressure for
a given thrust. The non-uniformity affects, also, the nozzle exit momentum ux, and the degree to which this occurs in much larger
than typically associated with civil engines. This effect can be alleviated by careful design of the input S-duct to the compressor and
the use of active or passive ow devices which energize the input
boundary layer in order to avoid detached ow and ow distortion
problems.
In order to reduce the ow pressure distortion at the fan entrance, the detailed design of the input duct, has been studied by
[77], who considered variations of the inlet duct offset; curvature
of the two bends; area ratio and scalloping of the pre-compression
region ahead of the intake. It was found that duct offset was the
most important parameter governing the strength of the secondary
ow and impacted on intake recovery. In these studies, authors
demonstrated, also, that strong pressure distortion could eliminate
the power saving related to the BLI effect.
The lack of numerical and experimental data available to compare and validate new methods and tools is an important obstacle
in the development of the BWB. In this line, Carter et al. [19,20]
conducted a series of numerical and experimental test cases on
the Boeings BWB-450-1L model. These focused on the determination of the effectiveness of the trailing edge devices (elevons,
drag rudder and winglet rudders), tested at various angles of
attack; sideslip angles; and Mach numbers. The computational
work focused on particular cruise condition of Mach = 0.85 and
Re = 75 millions. Besides, in the range of Mach = 0.2 to 0.88 and
Re = 2.4 to 75 millions, four different congurations (no nacelles;
pylon-mounted nacelles; BLI nacelles; and redesigned BLI nacelles
[19]) were studied.
2.2. High aspect ratio
In large transport aircrafts, during cruise ight in a still air conguration, drag is mainly due to friction drag (about 47%) and
induced drag (about 43% see Fig. 3).
Several strategies to reduce the friction drag of conventional aircraft are under examinations and will be reviewed hereafter.
The induced drag which is the other big source of drag depends on the span and the lift distribution along the wing span. In
104
Fig. 4. Spiroid loop (left) and downward pointing (right) wing tip devices from [42].
conventional large transport aircraft, the lift distribution is so optimized that no signicant reduction seems possible in the future
within the current design approaches. An alternative approach, for
a given lift, is obtained through adopting a high aspect ratio wing
or a wing tip device. Extensive literature can be found on this topic
covering the theoretical background underlying the induced drag
prediction and methods to reduce it [57]; the link between the
wingtip shapes and the induced drag [16]; and studies of different
wingtip devices [1,27,55,97].
ONERA, Airbus and Technische Universitat at Braunschweig [42]
carried out an interesting study within the M-DAW Project (Modeling and Design of Advanced Wing Tip Devices). Two different
and innovative congurations were analyzed and optimized: the
spiroid loop; and the downward pointing wingtip devices (Fig. 4).
Both concepts can have better structural characteristics related to
the wing root bending moment. For reference, we considered the
wing of a generic long haul aircraft. We compared the new solutions and the new designs with a standard blended winglet. The
modications were limited to 4% of the wingtip and the height of
the ground vehicles limited the downward device extension (see
Fig. 5). The wing was designed for cruising at Mach = 0.85.
Previous studies of the spiroid winglet [39] showed drag gains,
for a slightly lower root bending moment, of the same order of
standard wingtip devices. However, it suffers high-transonic interactions in the loop. A specic optimization to alleviate this effect was carried out. The optimization was based on 45 design
variables (sweep; maximum thickness; twist; and camber). Some
shape design variables were prescribed (spiroid size; minimum
chord length; minimum aerofoil relative thickness (5%); and thickness law with the same span extension and wetted area of the
equivalent blended winglet). Although slightly more eciency at
high CL in keeping the same root bending moment, the comparison showed a discouraging drag reduction of about 86% of the
blended winglet drag reduction. On the contrary, a detailed study
of the downward pointing winglet, which considered high and low
speed, root bending moment and lateral stability, showed some
benets without incurring any major redesign of the wing box. We
obtained promising gains of about 13% in range over a long-ight
scenario and an improvement of 46% in low speed L/D.
Another line of research was related to the box-like wing concept, which, theoretically, produced the minimum induced drag for
a given lift (Prandtl [79]). The following conditions are satised:
same lift distribution and same total lift on each of the horizon-
Fig. 6. Span eciency for various optimally loaded non-planar systems from [58].
tal wings; and buttery shaped lift distribution on the vertical tip
wings. Following these ideas, Kroo [58] showed a numerical comparison between the eciency of different non-planar conguration (induced drag of planar wing/induced drag of the non-planar
system of the same span and lift Fig. 6) for several non-planar
geometries. Each of the geometries permitted a vertical extent of
20% of the wing span. Such designs may be of interest because of
their potential for lower vortex drag at a xed span which is a key
constraint for many aircraft including very large commercial transport concepts.
This unconventional non-planar conguration provides the
technology breakthrough necessary to obtain substantial gains in
drag vortex reduction. Between these solutions, the wingtip device,
already implemented in commercial aircraft, and the joined wings
are probably the ideal Prandtl wing solution.
The practical application of a box-wing can be seen in the
Joined-Wing concept (Fig. 7). First proposed by J. Wolkovitch [107],
this kind of conguration increases substantially the high aspect
ratio with a theoretical induced drag reduction of up to 40% [35,
96]. However, several non-aerodynamics issues must be studied including the effects on stability and control, characteristics of wake
vortices or structural implications. Frediani et al. [35] carried out
a practical implementation of this concept on a modied A380.
The project focused on stability and structural issues. After an optimization procedure, they found that the rear wing could not be
connected to the rear fuselage but had to be positioned over the
fuselage itself and connected to it by means of two ns (Fig. 8).
This conguration proved to be stable in cruise ight; and, the
lift was distributed equally on the front and rear wings giving the
maximum L/D improvement. From the structural point of view, the
fuselage is equivalent to a doubly supported beam; the supports
being the front and the rear wing and, then, bending stresses in
the fuselage are close to zero in the front and rear wing roots.
The eigenmodes of the aircraft are completely different from a
conventional one; in particular, the lateral bending modes of a conventional fuselage are not longer present. The damping moment
and the moment of inertia along the pitch axis are higher than
its equivalent conventional aircraft; hence, the ight qualities are
105
106
Fig. 12. Open rotor conguration studied in NACRE. Acoustic interaction between
the CROR and an U-tail conguration.
for ight in the vicinity of the speed of sound, it was found that
sweeping the wings provided the most effective technique of increasing the drag divergence Mach number. Aerodynamically, the
same effect can be obtained regardless of the direction of sweep.
However, current aircraft designs favor the use of aft sweeping
in order to avoid the phenomenon of structural divergence, inherent in FSW operating at a high dynamic pressure condition,
which cannot be solved through metallic structures without a wing
weight penalty. Today, technology advances in composite materials
are providing a promise of eliminating this problem with little or
no wing weight penalty.
Some of the benets of FSW include spin resistance; extended
high angle of attack and lateral control; and lower transonic maneuvering drag. Generally, The FSW separation pattern starts from
the root and propagates gradually outboard. This allows attached
ow to be maintained over the outboard wing, and retains aileron
effectiveness at high angles of attack where, in lateral control, conventional (backward) wings may exhibit degradation in lateral control. Other additional benets of FSW are theoretical lower prole
drag due to lift and induced drag (for the same lift) [105]. Between the disadvantages, larger trailing edge sweep can strengthen
separation problems at inner wing, (worse with turbulent ow),
leading to pitch up, which can be avoided by using vortex generators, wing fence, vortilons (under-wing fences) or slotted airfoil.
There is a tendency for static divergence, provoking an unfavorable gust behavior which can be alleviated by aero-elastic tailoring
and unfavorable root mid size effect for laminar pressure distribution.
More recently, one of the main motivations for using FSW resides in the fact that transition on swept wings is strongly affected
by leading edge sweep angle. Turbulence transition at lower leading edge angles can be dominated by TollmienSchlichting (TS)
waves, whereas higher sweep angles by cross ow instabilities
(CF). Different studies have investigated the regimes and effect of
sweep on wing turbulent transition. One the main conclusion is
that transonic FSW, because of its lower leading edge sweep angle for the same 50% chord line angle (the typical location of the
shock (Fig. 13)) presents less CF [84], which theoretically can delay transition until 25% of chord at a Mach = 0.8 conguration,
doubling the laminar extension for its equivalent backward swept
wing (Fig. 14).
In this line, an optimization study of forward swept wings
(FSW) was performed as part of the novel conguration work
package in NACRE activities. The design point was dened for a
civil aircraft of 180 pax of payload; 3000 nm of range; and cruise
Mach number 0.76 at 35.000 ft (Reynolds = 23.7 millions). After
107
Fig. 13. Scheme of the main aerodynamic differences between a BSW and a FSW.
Fig. 14. Dominan laminar turbulent transition effect for FSW and BSW. Because of its lower leading edge sweep angle FSW conguration presents less CrossFlow instabilities.
108
Fig. 16. TELFONA PATHFINDER Model in ETW wind tunnel test section from [99].
HARLS congurations and studied the application of NLF to Forward Swept Wing conguration (already discussed in the previous
section). TELFONA (Testing for Laminar Flow on New Aircraft) developed the tools to design and test an NFL wing and to be able to
predict the in-ight performance standard of an NLF aircraft.
Different activities, carried out in the TELFONA project, included:
Laminar Flow Control (LFC) achieved by Boundary Layer Suction. In highly swept wings t which, usually, are required for
ight at high subsonic and supersonic speeds, only suction
can control sweep-induced crossow disturbances which promote boundary-layer transition. Average suction velocity ratios
of 103 104 were proven to reduce amplitude growth from
e 26 to e 5 for a at plate boundary layer [87].
Hybrid Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) is a combination of leading edge suction and pressure gradient/shaping. Generally, suction is applied near the leading edge of a swept wing in order
to control contamination and cross ow instabilities. Appropriate shaping of the pressure distribution stabilizes mid-chord
TS. Its applicability was demonstrated by a Boeing 757 HLFC
Flight Test in 1990 and on an Airbus A320 n in 1998.
More specic approaches, that discussed here also, are active
control of transition by wave superposition [86] and span-wise
periodic distributed roughness elements (DRE) [86,87].
3.1.1. Laminar ow technologies
Delaying boundary layer transition is a well-known method for
reducing drag. To this end, signicant work has been done on Laminar Flow research with different prototypes ying already. These
are:
The Piaggio P180 aircraft or the 757 HLFC ight program [40].
Recently, the need to reduce operating expenses for new commercial aircraft has led to a renewed interest in laminar-ow technology to reduce drag in cruising. In this context, the HARLS Low
Sweep wing conguration optimized for fuel burn rather than operating costs, and the idea was discovered that, using a low sweep
wing, might unlock the option of laminar ow. Two European FP6
projects explored this concept. NACRE (New Aircraft Concepts Research) has performed multi-disciplinary assessment of turbulent
The calibration of transition tools for the ETW (European Transonic Wind Tunnel);
The investigation of the impact of noise and free stream turbulence on transition location in a 2D ow in the TsAGi wind
tunnel;
A receptivity study of traveling CF vortices to free stream turbulence and of stationary CF vortices to the surface roughness;
and
The windtunnel test of a performance NLF wing in the ETW.
These activities were structured around the design, manufacturing, testing and analysis of two wing concepts. These were
the pathnder wing, which serves to calibrate transition prediction methods for the ETW, and the performance wing, which has
to demonstrate the capacities of the HARLS NLF conguration by
Reynolds ight number. For the pathnder wing (Fig. 16), the relevant test ow conditions were:
The wing has been designed by CIRA, DLR and ONERA using
a 3D inverse optimization algorithm with linear stability analysis. The Euler equations of gas-dynamics; the laminar boundarylayer equations for compressible ows on innite swept wings;
and the linear Parabolized Stability Equations (PSE) were solved
in order to analyze the evolution of convectively unstable disturbances. Laminar-turbulent transition was assumed to be delayed
by minimizing a measure of the disturbance kinetic energy of a
chosen disturbance which was computed using the PSE. The shape
gradients of the disturbance kinetic energy were computed based
on the solutions of the adjoints of the state equations [5]. The design point was chosen at Mach = 0.734; Reynolds number Re = 6.5
millions; and angle of attack = 2.1875 . The method showed improvements in the viscous drag, which was reduced by six drag
counts. The design obtained a pressure distribution which gave
Fig. 17. TELFONA PATHFINDER Model in ETW wind tunnel test section from [99].
Fig. 18. ETW and numerical results for pressure distributions and stability analysis
at = 0.33 from [99].
109
Mach = 1.6;
Reynolds = 51.8 millions;
Length = 6.27 m;
Wing Area 50.0 m2 ;
CL = 0.182;
CM = 0.05; and
Maximum trailing edge angle 6 and minimum leading edge
radius 0.15 mm.
110
Fig. 19. Anti-contamination devices studied in SUPERTRAC. Lower, mesh details. Upper, ow details from [56].
Fig. 21. The measured transition locations at various experimental conditions LV6
airfoil model (semi-bold symbols transition onset; bold symbols end of transition)
from [24].
111
Fig. 25. Stream-wise transition as a function of the suction velocity for different test
cases from SUPERTRAC project in [45].
Direct stabilization of secondary instability of crossow vortices by pin-point suction reveals itself successfully with relatively low suction rate (optimal for xed vortices).
Very few studies of supersonic velocities are available. In SUPERTRAC the laminar control by suction of CF-dominated laminarturbulent transition was studied at Mach 2. After a preliminary
numerical analysis, a windtunnel model was built based on a
symmetric arc-shaped airfoil with relative thickness of t /c = 0.13;
a sharp leading edge; and a chord length of c = 300 mm. The suction panel was located between 5% and 20% of the chord. The hole
diameter was 17 m. The model was mounted in the windtunnel
test section at zero angle of attack and a sweep angle of 20 and
30 (Fig. 24). The suction pressure ranged between 1.2 and 4.8 bar
for Reynolds numbers between 6 and 24 millions. The experiments
were conducted in the Ludwieg Tube Facility (RWG) at DLR. As
shown in Fig. 25, a signicant delay of laminar turbulent-transition
can be obtained (typically from 20% to 60% of the chord). It was
observed, also, that, beyond a certain level of suction velocity, no
further improvement was obtained.
The HISAC project investigated the application of laminar ow
technology for a business supersonic jet. The aircraft was a swept
wing monoplane. The wing and horizontal tail were tailored in order to keep the ow laminar over a large portion of the wing/tail
area. The wing design beneted from an imposed negative pressure gradient over the largest possible length of local chords. The
laminar wings were tested in the ONERA-S2MA wind tunnel at
Mach = 1.6 and Re = 7 millions. By using suction and cooling,
112
shown, also, that, although critical N-factors for linear PSE analysis differed little from classical theory for standard experimental
datasets, when the effect of the leading edge curvature was taken
into account, a different picture emerged. In this case, the leading
edge modes were inuenced positively by the curvature and, compared to the HLFC for the same design, resulted in a reduction of
24 suction mass ow rate and an increased benet of 9% without
curvature effects.
As a nal remark concerning the Hybrid Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) technology demonstration, a test ight was planned in
the framework of the JTI-SFWA project. The new outer wing elements of the A340 wing incorporating HLFC could be ight tested
in 2014.
Fig. 26. Applications of NLF & HLFC concept on a supersonic test (HISAC project).
the laminar studies focused on high-sweep wings. The main results showed that Natural Laminar Flow should be achievable on
the outboard wing, which could be enhanced by using laminar
ow cooling, whilst suction and the use of anti-contamination devices were needed to maintain laminar ow on the inboard wing
(Fig. 26). The orders of magnitude of the suction rate were between 0.0005 and 0.001 at the upper side and 0.001 at the lower
side, giving a 50% upper surface transition location and an estimated viscous drag reduction of 28.5% (7.2 dc) [70]. The main
diculties, in maturing the concept, were the design of high-lift
devices and the development of de-icing system compatible with
the laminar ow concept.
The City University London [8] employed Parabolized Stability
Equations (PSE) to consider the effect of Mach and Reynolds numbers on the stability of boundary layers (Fig. 27). They showed
that the critical N-factors decreased faster as the Mach number
and Reynolds number increased. This corrected the previous stability analysis which did not consider the compressibility. To obtain a comprehensive idea, a typical decrease of N-factor from
5.8 to 4 suggested an increase in the suction mass ow rate of
9% and an increment in the pump pressure ratio from 2.0 to 2.5
which decreased by 9% the expected benets in drag reduction of
HLFC (after deducting system weight and power penalties). It was
Fig. 27. Critical N-factor for TS wave as a function of the Mach and Reynolds numbers from [8].
113
Fig. 31. Visualization of boundary layer transition for the NLF(2)-0415 airfoil at Re =
2.2 millions. Left uncontrolled, right controlled.
Fig. 29. Flight measurements carried by W. Saric with painted LE et DRE concept.
strated that the DRE could increase laminar from 30% to 60% of
the chord at Re = 8.1 millions; sweep angle of = 30 and velocity of 92 m/s (Mach 0.28). The experiments were performed
on the Swept Wing In Flight Tests (SWIFT) (Fig. 28) mounted in
a Cessna O-2A Skymaster at the Texas A&M Flight Research Laboratory. A detailed computational study was performed in advance.
The design obtained a pressure minimum between x/c = 0.7 to
0.8, making the boundary layer subcritical to TS instability whilst
destabilizing crossow waves. The nose radius was restricted to
Re < 100, making an attachment-line subcritical to instabilities
and contamination. Finally, the Cp distribution was optimized by
crossow control. The computation was performed on the Euler
and NavierStokes equations for Cp and boundary layer calculations; OrrSommerfeld for stability; and Parabolized NavierStokes
for nal assessment [44].
Stability calculations veried that the 4.5 mm wavelength was
extremely un-stable and that s = 2.25 mm was the candidate to
control crossow. Two layers of DRE were placed at 1% x/c on the
inboard pressure row, and 1.3% x/c on the outboard pressure row.
The DREs were 2.25 mm spacing, 1 mm of diameter and 30 microns high. For this conguration the transition of the chord moves
from 30% to 60% (Fig. 29).
SUPERTRAC and HISAC projects and, within the UK national
AERAST project for transonic congurations, studied, also, micronsized roughness elements for supersonic congurations. In SUPERTRAC [6], in a swept wing with a strong ow acceleration, the
transition was triggered by CF instabilities. Controlling this type
of instability required the knowledge of the target mode of the
most amplied natural vortices. Then, theoretically, a killer mode
generated articially by MSR and arranged along the leading edge
could interact with the unsteady mode resulting in a more stable
evolution. The success of this approach depended on the pressure
gradient and on the choice of the killer wavelength [88]. In SUPERTRAC, a row of MSR were implemented on the wing leading
edge, using rows of roughness elements of 10 m height and 0.2
or 0.15 mm in diameter; Reynolds from 3 to 7 millions; and sweep
angle from 15 to 30 (Fig. 30). Unfortunately, no clear positive ef-
114
about the properties of TollmienSchlichting waves. Another important issue is the design of a robust control system capable of
managing more realistic congurations.
Other alternatives for laminar ow control come from heat
transfer and plasma actuation. In the past, controlling the temperature of the wing skin was found to be relatively inecient.
However. with micro fabricated lms and sensors, it may be possible to control the heat transfer using relatively small amounts
of energy which could make this solution more attractive. The
HISAC project considered the new approaches and could be applied to nacelles in the future.
The application of a near wall direct current to create a corona
discharge can delay the laminar-turbulent transition by generation
a body force [52] which accelerates the boundary layer ow in the
stream-wise direction. Theoretical estimations [49] revealed some
benecial effects of this method in drag reduction if the boundary
layer included both laminar and turbulent parts [53,54,59]. A relatively simple device employs two thin electrodes, separated by a
dielectric barrier (Fig. 33). Alternating voltage is applied between
two electrodes ionizing the air and creating plasma. The movement
of the ions transfers global momentum to the neutral air which is
perceived macroscopically as a body force on the ow. However,
the design of the experiments is not trivial, and it is important to
know the parameters of the plasma actuators (dimensions; current
strength; applied voltage; etc.), which can inuence the boundary
Even if laminar ow control is successful, a signicant proportion of skin friction drag due to turbulence remains. This section
discusses the different technologies: riblets and dimples or surface
actuation which aim to reduce the turbulent drag.
Riblets are small surface protrusions, aligned with the direction
of ow, which confer an anisotropic roughness to a surface. They
are one of the few techniques which have been applied successfully to the reduction of the skin friction in turbulent boundary
layers, both in the laboratory and in full aerodynamic congurations. From an aerodynamic perspective riblets were identied as
a mature technology which could provide modest reductions (7
8% skin friction drag reduction for riblet spacing of approximately
15 wall units) in aircraft drag. Flight tests conrmed total drag reduction of 1.6% (5% of Cd on 66% of the wetted surface) for an
A320 model (proved in the S1MA Onera Wind Tunnel). The current development of riblets is in line with a better understanding
of the physics and the application of surface technologies like the
aerodynamic evaluation of riblet material for turbulent skin friction reduction. A current analysis of the status of this technology
can be found in [18,25,104]. The physical mechanism of the riblet
drag reduction effect is caused by a protrusion height between the
virtual origin, seen by the stream-wise shear ow and some mean
surface location. This offset would result in a greater separation
between the wall and the turbulent stream-wise vortices, reducing
the exchange of momentum at the wall [10,46]. The correct explanation of the underlying physics is still a topic of research. In
this line Garcia-Mayoral and Jimenez [36] found that the groove
cross section A +
g , expressed in wall units, was a better characterization of this breakdown than the riblet spacing, with an optimum
1/ 2
( A+
11 (Fig. 34). However, the drag reduction was affected
g)
greatly by the riblet spacing and size or orientation which, in some
cases, could produce drag increase. Other non-aerodynamic issues
were maintenance of riblet shape and adhesive over operational
life (hydraulic uid, dirt, deformation by hail and maintenance); visual appearance, and time required to install, remove and re-apply
riblets.
Dimples are regular arrangements of surface depressions distributed along the wall. Dimples are a well-known measure to
increase the heat-transfer from a wall [21]; however, they can be
useful for drag reduction. Compared to riblets, they can be advantageous since they are composed of macroscopic structures which
are less sensitive to dirt and mechanical degradation. Despite its
expected interest, very few works could be found in the literature,
e.g. only two articles about dimples were presented at the last
49th Aerospace Sciences Meeting of 2011, and some preliminary
studies [65] were somewhat discouraging by showing very complex structures inside the dimple and little or no improvements in
turbulent drag reduction. These made them unattractive due to the
costs associated with their operation.
115
116
Fig. 36. 0.2 (0.8 right)-high vane-type counter-rotating VGs at 10 h (6 h-right) upstream of baseline separation from [66].
Fig. 37. Flap separation controlled by VG. Stow inside the ap well.
117
an angle of attack of 18 was performed on a NACA23012C aerofoil a modication of the NACA 23012. The model was equipped
with a span-wise array of 15 air jets of 4.8 mm diameter circular orices, located at 12% chord and spaced equally with 45
mm between the jet centers. The upper surface was connected
to the lower surface at 4% of the chord. The air jet orices were
designed with 30 pitch angle and 60 skew angle to the local
aerofoil surface and free-streamow direction. Experimental validation was performed at the City University T2 Low speed wind
tunnel. For the CFD study, a commercial 3D time marching Navier
Stokes (NS) ow solver with the SpalartAllmaras, and the ke
and kw (SST) turbulence models were employed. The passive air
jets were found to increase maximum CL by 14% compared to the
baseline conguration and to delay the onset of trailing edge separation by 2 . The occurrence of stall, indicated by maximum CL,
was found to be delayed from 1516 to 1819 , whilst, similarly,
pitching moment stall was seen to be delayed 2 . These effects
were the same than would be expected using actively blown air
jets operating at an equivalent blowing momentum coecient C
(see denition in (1)) but were achieved by a natural process with
no active energy input.
Another important issue is related to the numerical tools which
were used in the computations for the design and validation of
these devices. Different scales of accuracy can be used. Because of
the turbulent unsteady nature of this ow, usually, detailed LES
simulations are necessary. This solution is very computationally
demanding and, currently, unfeasible to use in an industrial design
loop. The second option is to partially resolve the ow features.
Here, the devices are modeled by surface and volume sources
which generate structures resolved within the mesh (3D). At this
stage, reduced order models are considered also [95]. The third and
less expensive solution is to represent the device in a RANS average model. This is a statistical approach whereby no structures are
resolved and requires the same computational cost as for a RANS
computation [103]. One of the most renowned models is the BAY
Vortex Generator model, based on the lifting-line theory, which
was developed originally by Bender et al. [11]. This model suggests a correlation between a force over a nite lifting surface and
Fig. 40. Sketch of the OA209 airfoil nose showing the leading edge extruded vortex
generators from [47].
118
C =
R
mV
1 /2 U S
VR =
Uj
U
F+ =
f e Xe
U
(1)
Pulsed AJVG injection was supposed to achieve the same aerodynamic performance gains (same VR and jet geometry) and steady
air jets but at considerably reduced mass ows (C ). However, the
authors gave no additional details supporting this fact. In the same
context, the 2nd EUROPEAN FORUM on FLOW CONTROL (Poitiers,
2006) [94] proposed to study the effects of different uidic actuators on the same NACA0015 airfoil. The competition was followed by different groups in Poitiers; Monash; Florida; Tel Aviv;
and Manchester Universities. The NACA0015 model had a chord of
0.35 m and a span of 2.4 m. The analysis was conducted at a freestream velocity of 40 m/s and a Reynolds number of 0.96 millions.
Table 3 summarizes the mode and means of deployment; jet orientation; position and number of orices.
The following conclusions were obtained:
119
Fig. 41. Eciency of blowing methods to avoid the ow detachment for different values of the blowing momentum coecient. Experiment performed by The City University
on a 35 swept wing, RAE5225 aerofoil section.
Table 3
Range of parameters studied in the 2nd European Forum on Flow Control (Poitiers, 2006).
Steady angled jets (1 mm diameter)
Steady normal jets (1 mm diameter)
Steady normal jets (0.5 mm diameter)
Normal ZNMF jet (1 mm diameter)
Mode of deployment
Means of deployment
Continuous
Pressurized cavity
Piezo-electric
Jet orientation
30 pitch 60 skew
Normal to surface
of Uj = 340 m/s. A CLmax as high as 3.4 at AoA of 22 was obtained compared with the original 2.5 at 15 .
Within the turbo-machinery eld, one important goal is the reduction of the number of vanes or compressor stages. The design
of a stator with Coanda surface makes it possible to increase the
vane spacing; and, thereby, reducing the number of total vanes.
The idea is to design a curved surface, near the trailing edge, which
promotes the Coanda effect. This effect can be increased further
by blowing. The Institute of Turbomachinery and Fluid Mechanics of Leibniz University performed a study concerning this issue.
The new stator was slightly shorter; had the maximum thickness
shortly downstream; and a trailing edge thicker than the original
one. The new stators internal plenum was designed carefully to
avoid losses (Fig. 45). The designs were carried out by a numerical
optimization making use of the NavierStokes equations. The new
Position (x/c)
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Number of orices
44
51
64
56
120
121
Fig. 47. Oil ow picture leading edge actuation (lower side) from [106].
Fig. 45. Internal design of the Coanda stator to avoid loss in the air discharge phase.
momentum oriented effect makes possible, also, activation by different sources such as air compressor; thermal (spark jets); and
electromagnetic (plasma actuator) or mechanical (synthetic jets).
From the point of view of applications, in a similar way to continuous blowing VG, they aim to enhance the stall characteristic
of proles or high-lift devices, or even to eliminate the necessity
of these devices (slatless congurations). The main reason of using
pulsed VG is that some previous studies about detached ows [4,
38,72] showed that steady blowing could require more momentum
input for reattachment and separation prevention than an equivalent periodic excitation. Although, in general, these technologies
are well understood, there is a need for further research before
being deployed in an aircraft, and, in particular, there is a need to
understand the role of the different parameters involved in their
eciency. Some of the most remarkable studies are given below.
The German Flow Control Network, conducted by the DLR
Braunschweig, Technical University of Berlin, Braunschweig and
Stuttgart, carried out different experiments on the control of the
separation in the wing and the ap of a DLR F15-model [106].
The DLR-F15 is a modular wind tunnel model for two-dimensional
testing of different high-lift congurations. The model has a chord
length of 600 mm and the span varies from 2400 mm to 2800 mm,
depending on the test cross section of the wind tunnel. For the
two-element conguration, the ap deection angle can be adjusted within the range 30 49 . The experiments were conducted
at Mach = 0.10.2 and Re = 1.42.8 millions in the DNW NWB
wind tunnel of Braunschweigs facilities. In order to avoid stall by
laminar separation bubble burst, the transition was triggered at the
leading edge.
For the main wing, the actuators were located at the lower and
upper leading edges and at the 25% of the upper wing (Fig. 47).
Pressurized air at a maximum delivery rate of 10 m3 /min and
12 bar was supplied by tubes into the model air ducts up to a fast
switching solenoid valve. This valve could operate at a maximum
frequency of 300 Hz. Fig. 48-left shows the lift coecient over the
angle of attack without actuation and with an actuation at a pressure of 5 bar; frequency 100 Hz; and a duty cycle of DC = 85%. In
this case, the ap deection was set to 45 . The major effect was
seen to be a delay of separation towards higher angles of attack
by approximately 5 . In the linear range, the actuation reduced
slightly the lift coecient.
In the case of the ap, Fig. 48-right shows the lift curves for a
ap deection angle of 49 without and with active ow control
on the ap shoulder at 20% of the ap chord. For the unexcited
case, a large separation area occurred starting at about 35% ap
chord (not shown here), and was present for the whole range of
angles of attack. Exciting the ow with a frequency of 225 Hz; a
duty cycle of 50%; and a duct pressure of 8 bar led to a reattachment of the ow on the ap, which resulted in an enhancement
of the lift coecient of up to 10% in the linear region of the presented lift polar. The corresponding momentum coecient was, on
average, about C = 0.25%.
122
Fig. 48. Control of separation by pulse actuation. Left-main wing, right-ap from [106].
Fig. 49. Schematic drawing of the airfoil PS03-8.27 with the actuation setup and
CAD close up of the Nose. The airfoil was equipped with alternately oriented slots
5 0.2 mm2 , skew angle 45 from [89].
In the same way, Scholz et al. [89] investigated a PS03-8.27 airfoil equipped with a total of 80 individual slots with a relative
distance between them of y /c = 0.0375 and a skew angle of
45 (Fig. 49). The optimal orientation; distance; and setup for the
span-wise array were optimized carefully [48]. Free stream velocity
of 50 m/s and a Reynolds number of 1.3 millions were considered
in this study. The laminar separation bubble, typical at this low Re,
was avoided by using a proper transition tripping at x/c = 0.3%.
Two different positions for the actuator were studied; one at
the suction side of the prole and the second at the pressure side.
For the suction side (Fig. 50-left), the actuation inuenced the separation in a positive manner but it was unable to prevent it. The
optimum conguration was found at a duty cycle (dened in the
gures as ) of 25% and F + 1, with an improvement in the
maximum normal force of 0.12 and maximum AoA of 19 , around
5 higher than the clean conguration. However, clearly observed
in the picture, an area of retarded ow appeared behind the slots,
which embedded into a boundary layer provoked a small separation area and hence smaller normal forces before stall than in the
clean conguration. After the stall, the actuators could introduce,
now, some positive periodicity improving the global performances
at high AoA. When the actuators were located in the pressure side
(Fig. 50-right), the setup resulted in a successful vortex generator jet for separation control; the stall was delayed and an almost
continuous lift curve resulted. The maximum AoA was increased
by 2.5 and the maximum normal force by 0.15. As a drawback,
the amplitude was required to delay separation which was an order of magnitude larger than the amplitude required to control
the separated ow with the suction-side setup. As a nal remark,
it was observed that the maximum normal force and the maximum AoA for the clean congurations differed slightly for the two
setups (pressure/suction side). This was explained in [89] as the
effect on the unsealed slots in the different positions.
In the same context, Haucke et al. [43] investigated the effect
of the position and jet angle of the pulsed VG and their effectiveness to improve the performance of a Fowler ap (Fig. 51). Two
different setups were studied: the VG located at the 10% of the
ap chord, with blowing angle normal to the ap surface; and at
the 20% of the chord with jet angle of 30 . As in other experiments, the Reynolds number was millions, and the boundary layer
was force to turbulence by a rough strip located on the leading
edge. Other studied parameters were: ap gap and ap overlap;
angle of attack; ap deection angle; and excitation parameters
such as frequency; duty cycle; and supplied air pressure (equivalent to blowing momentum coecient).
The main conclusions are shown in Fig. 52. As noted already by
other authors, very small dependence of the lift with the frequency
was observed. On the contrary, C affected greatly the actuations
performance; higher values of C produced higher values of lift
with almost no penalty in terms of drag. As a nal conclusion, ow
excitation, with a wall jet perpendicular to the aps upper surface,
resulted in lift enhancements of up to 8%. Pulsed blowing, at a position further downstream closer to the time averaged separation
line with an inclined periodic wall jet, was more effective than
normal blowing. The improvements in lift coecients depended
on each conguration and reached values of up to a maximum of
50%.
The extension to more realistic 3D test cases was performed,
also, by Petz et al. [76]. The mentioned model consisted of the
fuselage and a three-element wing containing the slat; main wing;
123
Fig. 50. Effect of duty cycle and C on performance of airfoil PS03-8.27. Left, actuator located at the suction side with for xed F + = 0.6. Right, actuator located at the
pressure side with F + = 1.44. From [89].
Fig. 51. Principal actuator system tested in the slatless conguration of [43].
Fig. 52. Effect of pulse frequency and blowing momentum coecient in slatless conguration studied by [43].
124
and ap. There was a sweep angle of 30 and a nite wing span
(Fig. 53). The investigations showed a substantial improvement in
lift and drag resulting in a lift-to-drag ratio enhancement of about
15% in the 3D case, compared with 20% to 25% in the equivalent
2D-case. Apart from these promising results, the 3D test case was
more complicated than appeared at a rst glance. In the 3D case,
the separation process was different due to sweep effects and nite
wing span. In the separation, longitudinal vortices were generated
in addition to stream-wise vortices. The rst test mimicking the 2D
parameters resulted in almost a 20% degradation of lift and drag
for the 3D case (Fig. 54-left). A second experiment was carried out
by moving the excitation slot downstream by only a fraction of the
ap chord and tilted in the direction of the ow. The results in
Fig. 54-right show a strong sensitivity of the ow with the parameter involved in the active ow. This is something which must be
studied further.
Kim [51] performed a thorough numerical study of different
slatless congurations was performed by Kim in a NACA23012
with 20% of ap. The author considered four different congurations: (a) a synthetic jet at 12% of chord; (b) at 81% of chord,
only in the deected ap; (c) a combination of two SJ with droop
nose device; and (d) deected ap and an array or SJ at two dif-
ferent locations of 12% and 30% of the chord. All of them had an
inclined angle of 23 with respect to the local tangential airfoil
surface (Fig. 55).
Simulations were carried out using the following conditions:
free-stream velocity of 35.7 m/s; and a chord Reynolds number
of 2.19 millions. Three different jet velocities (13 times the external velocity) and three different frequencies F + = 1, 2 and 5 were
considered. The characteristic length, used in the non-dimensional
frequency, was the distance between the trailing edge and the jet
slot. A suction/blowing planar boundary condition was adopted in
this work to model a synthetic jet actuator. The base conguration
(a) showed a detached ow starting at the trailing edge at around
18 . At 22 the ow was detached completely, a large stall region
dominated the suction wing side.
As expected, for the controlled case, the enhancement of lift
and drag was proportional to the amplitude of the synthetic jet
velocity (C ). At lower angles of attack, higher momentums were
necessary to overcome the stall at the trailing edge. At higher angles of attack (22 ) the three tested jet velocities produced the
desired effect and the three tested frequencies were irrelevant in
all cases. At an angle of attack of 22 , the maximum lift coecient
was enhanced about 7.3%. In this case, the separation point was
very near the synthetic jet slot.
The conditions for the maximum lift enhancement can be summarized as follows: the approximate non-dimensional frequency
was 1; the location of the synthetic jet slot was equal to the baseline separation point; and the jet velocity was large enough to perturb the surrounding separated ow. For the case of the plain ap
separation (b), similar effects were observed and the synthetic jet
performed well at higher velocities and as long as it was located
close to the detached point. When the wing ow was detached
completely (above 16 ) the ap was immersed completely into the
detached region and the SJ lost their effectiveness.
Although no signicant differences in performance between the
frequencies were observed, the ow features were completely different. The low frequency jet (F + 1) produced a periodic shedding of small vortices which moved along the suction surface and
penetrated into the large leading edge separation vortex. As a
result, the size of the leading edge separation vortex decreased
substantially. For high frequencies, the small vortex did not grow
enough to penetrate into the large separation vortex because the
period of synthetic jet motion was too short. Instead, the ow near
the synthetic jet slot was attached rmly and, as a result, a more
stable ow structure was developed on the suction surface (Fig. 56,
also, these patterns were observed experimentally in [37]).
Fig. 54. Left, preliminary results in 3D conguration. Right, after adjustment of the position of the actuator from [76].
125
Fig. 57. Lift coecient for different congurations (ff: fowler ap, pf: plain ap, led:
leading edge droop) from [51].
The question about which was the best actuation frequency remained open. When the actuation frequency F + was O(1) the
characteristic (shedding) frequency of the airfoil the natural receptivity of the separating shear layer to this frequency resulted in
a Coanda-like tilting of the shear layer towards the surface of the
airfoil and, therefore, in partial restoration of the lift. The forcing
modulated the evolution of vortical structures within the separated
shear layer and promoted the formation of concentrated lifting
vortices which interacted with trailing-edge vortices and, thereby,
altered the global stalled ow. In a certain range of post-stall angles of attack and actuation frequencies, the ow became periodic
and was accompanied by a signicant lift enhancement. Although
this was the most extended application, it could lead to time periodic vortex shedding from the top surface of the airfoil which
could give up to 20% oscillations in the lift coecient. In contrast, the suppression of separation at higher actuation frequencies
[i.e., F + = O(10)] was marked by the absence of organized vortical structures along the ow surface [2,4]. The mechanism which
led to the suppression of separation was unassociated with the
stability of the separated shear layer and resulted in more steady
structures. Also, it was investigated that pulse modulated with
high frequencies could achieve better performances at lower momentums [3].
Finally, the eciency of a leading edge droop, deected at 20 ,
was studied in conguration (c). The plain ap was deected at
30 , and the synthetic jet velocity was triple the free-stream velocity. An interesting comparison is summarized in Fig. 57. The
maximum lift of the airfoil with a 30 , deected ap was almost 33.4% higher than that of the airfoil without ap deection
(baseline); however, the stall angle was about 2 , lower. For the
126
Fig. 58. Left, lift augmentation due to distributed ow control simple hinge ap. Central, effect of AFC application on each element of the conventional high-lift wing section
(representative takeoff conguration, = 24). Right, AFC for advanced wing section (landing conguration, = 50). From [93].
Fig. 59. Low speed ow control devices considered in the European project AVERT.
Fig. 60. Micro uidic actuators (MEMS technology from LPMO) on AFV ap in ONERA F1 wind tunnel (AEROMEMS project).
NASA and Boeing applied the same kind of control for high lift
wings (with and without gaps between the different wing components). Since 1999, studies of wings with and without gaps
were undertaken and showed that the loss of performance, due
to gap suppression between main body and ap, could be reduced
greatly thanks to pulsed jets actuators (Sellers et al. [92]). Similarly Seiferts work (Pack et al. [73]) demonstrated the success of a
ow control on a high lift aerofoil with no gap deected slat and
ap. Several kinds of jets and synthetic slots allowed signicantly
increased performance of such aerofoils by suppressing boundary
layer separation.
To our knowledge, no ight demonstration has been performed
in the USA for representative aircraft (lack of high authority synthetic jet actuator). Nevertheless, in the USA, a ight demonstra-
127
Fig. 61. Droop nose device with AFC tested by ONERA in the European project AVERT. Droop nose conguration, with a standard ap of a GARTEUR high-lift landing
conguration is considered as reference. Left continuous blowing. Right pulse blowing.
128
5.1. Safety
Flow control technologies should operate when they are commanded to do so. They should not operate when not commanded
to do so. They must not be susceptible to single point failures and,
in any case, failures must be preceded by degradation. It would become necessary for the aircrafts systems to be able to test that the
AFC devices are working properly. This requires that many systems
must be doubled and checked often on the ground.
5.2. Performance and ight handling characteristics
Acceptable vehicle performance and handling margins should
be maintained under all likely ight conditions and ow control
system operational states. A system control must be implemented
which acts automatically. This involves a reliable detection of the
proximity of stall and a closed loop system.
5.3. Environment
A ow control system should not generate unacceptable contributions to overall aircraft noise and emissions. Often, the tested
ow control devices introduced additional noise sources during
their operation. SJA and slot type devices, tested in laboratory conditions, operated at audible frequencies. In order to avoid these
problems, it is possible that AFC devices may have to operate in an
ultrasonic range. This is something still under research. From practical implementation of these systems the following issues must
addressed. Generally, these systems are deployed at low altitudes
and when the aircraft is on the ground. Therefore, the ow control
devices must be resistant to the effects of contamination including
ice, water and insects. It is recalled that one of the main reasons
why riblets for turbulent drag reduction were not pursued, following ight trials in the 90 s, was the unacceptably high cost of
cleaning. For actuator concepts which involved the use of an orice, Hybrid Laminar Flow Control orices tend to be of the order
of 0.05 mm and can be cleaned by reversing the suction system by
blowing through compressed air. However, AFC actuators orices
are an order of magnitude larger, around 1 mm. This relative large
size increases the possibility of allowing contaminants to enter the
systems. Provision of a suitable orice closure system may be essential. One possibility is to use Electro Active Polymer Technology
(EAP). Typically, EAP actuators are silicone elastomer sheets incorporating compliant electrodes. Activation of the electrodes causes
a compressive force to be placed on the sheet, which is forced to
displace out of the plane (Fig. 63).
5.4. Industrial issues
Direct Fluidic actuators are the simplest to implement. However, these are open issues with the weight; volume of piping
required; and the poor energy eciency associated with engine
bleed.
Some conclusions, obtained from the AVERT project, were as
follows:
129
130
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