Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
echanics II
Prepared by Tilahun Tesfaye, Ph.D.
NOTICE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
This module has four major sections
The first one is the INTRODUCTORY section that consists of five parts vis:
1.
2.
3.
TIME REQUIRED: It gives you the total time (in hours) you require to complete
the module. All self tests, activities and evaluations are to be finished in this
specified time.
4.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Here you will find the list of materials you require to
complete the module. Some of the materials are parts of the course package you
will receive in a CD-Rom or access through the internet.
Materials
recommended to conduct some experiments may be obtained from your host
institution (Partner institution of the AVU) or you may acquire borrow by some
other means.
5.
MODULE RATIONALE: In this section you will get the answer to questions like
Why should I study this module as pre-service teacher trainee? What is its
relevance to my career?
OVERVIEW: The content of the module is briefly presented. In this section you
will fined a video file (QuickTime, movie) where the author of this module is
interviewed about this module. The paragraph overview of the module is followed
by an outline of the content including the approximate time required to complete
each section. A graphic organization of the whole content is presented next to
the outline. All these three will assist you to picture how content is organized in
the module.
7.
8.
The third section is the bulk of the module. It is the section where you will spend more
time and is referred to as the TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITIES. The gist of the nine
components is listed below:
9.
10.
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES: This is the heart of the module. You
need to follow the learning guidance in this section. Various types of activities are
provided. Go through each activity. At times you my not necessarily follow the
order in which the activities are presented. It is very important to note:
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
I. MECHANICS II
BY TILAHUN TESFAYE ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY ETHIOPIA
Fig. 1 when
the wheel of a bike is spinning the axle turns about the suspension
point so that the plane of rotation of the wheel remains vertical.
III TIME
This module can be completed in 120hrs.
IV MATERIALS
The following list identifies and describes the equipment necessary for all of the activities
in this module. The quantities listed are required for each group.
1. Computer: - A personal computer with word processing and spreadsheet software
2. String and Ball: - Rotational motion experiment
3. Meter Stick: -Rotational Motion Experiment.
V MODULE RATIONALE
Physics is a study of Energy and its transformations. One of the ways of energy
transformation happens when objects are set in motion. Description of motion has been
studied in Mechanics I module. The emphasis on mechanics I was on the kinematic and
dynamic description of particles motion.
This module extends the kinematics and dynamics of particle motion to dynamics of a
system of particles; rotational motion rigid bodies and Gravitation. Hence ability solve
problems using the equation of motion of a rotating rigid body when the motion is about
any fixed axis, as well as when the motion is abut a principal axis will be developed.
Furthermore the learner will be able to calculate the kinetic energy of rotation of a rotating
rigid body and use this as an additional form of kinetic energy in solving problems using
the conservation of energy.
VI OVERVIEW
The central concepts of this module (Mechanics II) are dynamics of a system of particles,
rotational motion and Gravitation. The module begins with the study of impulse of a force
and its relation with momentum.
The second activity is the kinematic and dynamic descriptions of rotational motion. New
quantities to describe rotational motion are introduced and used. It will be show that the
equations of motion that describe linear motion possess a rotational counterpart.
The third activity is on Gravitation Up to now we have described various forces from an
entirely empirical point of view. To gain a more unified understanding of such forces and
to achieve greater predictive power, we shall now examine two of the four fundamental
forces which are ultimately responsible for all other forces. Thus in the third activity well
discuss the gravitational force which accounts for the interaction between all astronomical
bodies, the motion of the planets and the moon, the trajectories of space vehicles, the
occurrence of the tides, and the weights of objects.
6.1 OUTLINE
1 Dynamics of a system of Particles
2 Rotational Motion
(40 hours)
(35 hours)
3 Gravitation
(25 hours)
4 Relativity of Motion
(20 hours)
Relative velocity.
Uniform relative translational motion.
The Galilean transformation.
A. Dynamics of
systems of particles:
Mechanics
II
B. Rotational Motion:
D. Relativity of Motion:
Relative Velocity
Content
1.
Dynamics of a system of
Particles (40 hours)
Learning objectives
After Completing this section you
should be able to:
3.
4.
Relative velocity.,
Uniform relative translational motion,
The Galilean transformation
29.4 m / s
(c). 60 m / s
(d).
14. The vertical speed of the above projectile after 3s is approximately
9.8 m/s
(a).
(c). 29.4 m/s
60 m/s
20 m/s
(b).
(d).
15. Which of the following projection angles will result in the greatest range?
0
37 0
(a).
(c). 48
200
600
(b).
(d).
16. A 10kg block is lifted 20m above the ground in a gravitational field. The work done by
the field is
(a).
Negative
(c).Positive
(b).
Equal to the final potential
(d).
A vector quantity
energy
17. A body in equilibrium may not have
(a).
Momentum
(c). Acceleration
(b).
Velocity
(d).
Kinetic energy
18. Watt-sec is a unit of
(a).
Momentum
(c).Energy
(b).
Force
(d).
Power
19. The 2.5kg head of an ax exerts a force of 80kN as it penetrates 18mm into the trunk
of a tree. The velocity of the axe head when it strikes the tree is
(a).
1.2m/s
(c). 3.4m/s
(b).
34m/s
(d).
107m/s
20. A 50 kg mass has a PE of 4.9kJ relative to the ground. The height of the mass above
the ground is
(a).
10m
(c).960m
(b).
98m
(d).
245m
1. A, C, D
6. D
11. B
16. A
2. A, B, C, D
7. B
12. C
17. C
3. B, C
8. C
13. A
18. C
4. C, D
9. C
14. C
19. C
5. B
10. B
15. C
20. A
A Final Word..
Physics is not so much a collection of facts as a way of looking at the world. The author of
this module hopes that this course will not only teach you mechanics, but will also
improve your skills in careful thinking, problem solving, and precise communication. In
this course you will gain lots of experience with qualitative explanations, rough numerical
estimates, and careful quantitative problem solving. When you understand a phenomenon
on all of these levels, and can describe it clearly to others, you are "thinking like a
physicist" (as we like to say). Even if you eventually forget every fact learned in this
course, these skills will serve you well for the rest of your life.
Resource #1
Title: Motion of Centre of Mass
URL: http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/Dynamics/CM/CMApplet.html
Screen Capture:
Description: Applet shows the motion of the centre of mass of a dumbbell shaped object.
The red and blue dots represent two masses and they are connected by a mass
less rod. The dumbbells projection velocity can be varied by using the velocity and
angle sliders. The mass ratio slider allows shifting of centre of mass. Here m1 is
the mass of the blue object and m2 is the mass of red object. Check boxes for
path1 and path2 can be used to display or turn off the paths of the two masses .
Rationale: This applet depicts the motion of centre of mass of two balls (shown in red and
blue colour). The applets speed and angle of projection can be varied...
Description: Advanced description of the topics discussed in mechanics I and II of the AVU
Physics module.
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the mechanics courses.
The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book. The PDF version is also
available.
In these cases, the notion of linear momentum and impulse, in addition to the conditions
under which linear momentum is conserved, will allow us to make predictions of the
speed and direction of the movement after the interaction.
The scalar quattities work and energy have no directions associated with them. When two
or more bodies interact with one another, or a single body breaks up into two or more
other bodies, the various directions of motion cannot be related by energy
consideerations alone. The vector quatities called linear momentum and impulse are
important in anlyzing such events.
1.1:
In the mechanics I, the concepts of work and energy were developed from Newtons laws
of motion. We shall see next how the concepts of linear momemtum and impulse also
arize from these law.
r
r
Consider a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v . Suppose a const force F acts
along the line of motion, then
r r r
v vo at multiply both sides of this equation by m we obtain
r
r ur
mv mv 0 Ft
r
r ur
mv mv 0 F .t
ur ur
p Ft
The linear momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass and its linear
velocity
r
r
r
P = mv valid only for v << the speed of light c
= mv x ; p y = mv y ; p 2 = mv 2
The impulse of a force is defined as the product of a force and the time during which it
acts i.e.
r
r
J p
Interms of these two newly defined quantities
ur ur ur
p J F .t
Note that the above equation holds independently for components. i.e
px J x Fx .t
p4 J 4 F4 .t
p2 J 2 F2 .t
Linear momentum of a particle can also be related to the net force acting on the particle
as follows
r
r
r
r
dv d r dp
F = ma = m
= (mv) =
dt dt
dt
r r
dp = Fdt
Integrating the last expression, the change in momentum of a particle is
tf
u
r
u
r
u
r
ur
p pfi p F.dt
ti
tf
The quantity
ur
ur
F .dt is called the impulse of the force F for t f ti
ti
tf
ur
I F .dt p
ti
Since the force can generally vary in tire, it is convenient to define a time averaged force
ur 1 t f ur
F F .dt
t ti
r ur
I p F t
1.2:
Consider two particles that can interact each other but are isolated from the surrounding
Let
F12 the force on particle 1 due to particle 2
F21 the force on particle 2 due to particle 1
Applying Newton's 2nd law
dp
F12 1 , and
dt
dp
F21 2
dt
These forces could be of any origing (i.e. gravitational, electromagnetic etc.) Since the
two are action reaction pairs
F12 F21 0
r uur
dp1 dp2 d uu
( p1 p2 ) 0
dt
dt
dt
r
r r
total momentum (p) p1 p2 constant.
pix p fx
piy p fy
piz p fz
The statement the total momentum of the system remains constant is referred to as the
law of conservation of momentum.
Example 1.1: Linear momentum and impulse
A child bounces a super ball on a side walk. The linear impulse delivered by the side
walk to the super ball is 2 N.s during 1/800 sec of contact. What is the magnitude of
the average force exerted on the super ball?
Solution
Given: I 2Ns and t
1
sec.
800
By definiton:
I Fav t
Therefore the average force exerted on the superball is, Fav
2
1
800
1600N.
Example 1.2: A 3kg steel ball strikes a massive wall with a speed of 10m/s at an angle of
600 with the angle as shown. If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.2 sec what is the
average force exerted on the ball by the wall.
Solution:
p
Fav
t
p f 2 pi 2 pi p f
t
0.02
260 N . in the horizontal direction.
ur
r d
r
F ma (mv )
dt
ur
dP
dt
m is constant
ur
r
This form of 2nd law is preferred to F ma because it is generalized to complex
systems, and because momentum turns out to be more fundamental than m or v
separately.
Here we define some of the terms used in this module
A system:- is a set of objects or substances which are interdependent and governed by
physical laws, forming a whole. eg. Solar system is governed by Gravitational
law, mass-spring system
Closed System: - is a system that does not interact with its surrounding.
External force: - is a force exerted on or a part of a system by some body or agency
outside the system
Consider a system of N interacting particles with masses m1 , m2 , m3 ... mN . The
ur
ur
position of the j th particle is rj , the force on the j th particle is f j and its momentum is
r
r
p m r&
j
j j
f
f
ext
j
int
j
By Newtons 3rd law, the forces between any two paricles are equal and opposite. The
internal forces in the system of particles cancel in pair.
ur
ur
d p
ext
Therefore f j F ext
dt
ur
d
p j Q derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.
dt
ur
Denoting p j p the total momentum of the system the last equation becomes
ur
ur
dp
F ext
dt
The total external force acting on a system of particles is equal to the time u
rate
r of change
of the total momentum. This is true irrespective of the details of interaction F ext could be a
single force acting on a single particle, or it could be the resultant of many ting
interactions
If a particle with mass m1 has a position of x1 and a particle with mass m 2 has a position
of x 2 , then the position of the center of mass of the two particles is given by:
m x m2 x 2
x cm 1 1
m1 m 2
Thus the position of the center of mass is a point in space that is not necessarily part of
either particle. This phenomenon makes intuitive sense: connect the two objects with a
light but rigid pole. If you hold the pole at the position of the center of mass of the objects,
they will balance. That balancing point will often not exist within either object.
Center of Mass for Two Particles beyond One Dimension
The concept of the center of mass can be extended to velocity and acceleration: taking a
simple time derivative of our expression for x cm we see that:
m v m2v2
v cm 1 1
m1 m 2
Differentiating again, we can generate an expression for acceleration:
m a m2a 2
a cm 1 1
m1 m 2
With this set of three equations we have generated the necessary elements of the
kinematics of a system of particles.
From our last equation, however, we can also extend to the dynamics of the center of
mass. Consider two mutually interacting particles in a system with no external forces. Let
the force exerted on m 2 by m1 be F21 , and the force exerted on m1 by m 2 by F12 . By
applying Newton's Second Law we can state that F12 m1a1 and F21 m 2 a 2 . We can now
substitute this into our expression for the acceleration of the center of mass:
F F21
a cm 12
m1 m 2
However, by Newton's Third Law F12 and F21 are reactive forces, and F12 F21 Thus
a cm 0 Thus, if a system of particles experiences no net external force, the center of
mass of the system will move at a constant velocity.
But what if there is a net force? Can we predict how the system will move? Consider
again our example of a two body system, with m1 experiencing an external force of F1
and m 2 experiencing a force of F2 We also must continue to take into account the forces
between the two particles, F21 and F12 . By Newton's Second Law:
F1 F12 m1a1
F2 F21 m 2 a 2
Substituting this experession into our center of mass acceleration equation we obtain
F1 F2 F12 F21 m1a1 m 2 a 2
F1 F2 m1a1 m 2 a 2 m1 m 2 a cm
external
m1 m 2 a cm
Ma cm
This equation bears a striking resemblance to Newton's Second Law. The overall
acceleration of a system of particles, no matter how the individual particles move, can be
calculated by this equation. Consider now a single particle of mass M placed at the
center of mass of the system. Exposed to the same forces, the single particle will
accelerate in the same way as the system would. This leads us to an important
statement:
The overall motion of a system of particles can be found by applying Newton's Laws as if
the total mass of the system were concentrated at the center of mass, and the external
force were applied at this point.
Systems of More than Two Particles
A simple extension of our two particle equations to an n particle system will show the
total mass of the system M is
M m1 m 2 m 3 L m n
With this definition we can simply state the equations for the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the center of mass of a many particle system, similar to the two-particle
case. Thus for a system of n particles:
1
x cm
mn x n
M
1
v cm
mn vn
M
1
a cm
mn a n
M
Fext Ma cm
These equations require little explanation, as they are identical in form to our two particle
equations. All these equations for center of mass dynamics may seem confusing,
however, so we will discuss a short example to clarify.
Consider a missile composed of four parts, traveling in a parabolic path through the air. At
a certain point, an explosive mechanism on the missile breaks it into its four parts, all of
which shoot off in various directions, as shown below.
What can be said about the motion of the system of the four parts? We know that all
forces applied to the missile parts upon the explosion were internal forces, and were thus
cancelled out by some other reactive force: Newton's Third Law. The only external force
that acts upon the system is gravity, and it acts in the same way it did before the
explosion. Thus, though the missile pieces fly off in unpredictable directions, we can
confidently predict that the center of mass of the four pieces will continue in the same
parabolic path it had traveled in before the collision.
Such an example displays the power of the notion of a center of mass. With this concept
we can predict emergent behavior of a set of particles traveling in unpredictable ways. We
have now shown a way to calculate the motion of the system of particles as a whole. But
to truly explain the motion we must generate a law for how each of the individual particles
react. We do so by introducing the concept of linear momentum in the next section.
ur ur ur
ur
p p1 p 2 L p n
r
r
r
m1 v1 m2 v 2 L mn v n MVcm
Total momentum of
a system of particles
total mass of
The velocity of the center
M
Macm
dt
dt
r
r
dP
Fext
0, when no external force acts on the system
dt
When the resusltan external force acting on a system is zero, the total vector momentum
of the system remains constan. This is the principleof conservation of momentum..
i.e.
M
v
M-m
v+v
x
t
t
; [( M M )(v v ) Mu ] [ Mv]
v
M
M
[u (v v)]
t
t
as t 0
dM
dM
dM
Fext M
v
u
dt
dt
dt
Note:- this equation is reduced to the familiar law of conservation of momentum.
Example 1.3: A grenade flying horizontally with a velocity of 12 m/s is explodes in to
two fragments with masses of 10 kg and 5kg. The velocity of the larger fragment is
25m/sec and forms an angle of 330o with the horizontal. Find the magnitude and direction
of the velocity of the smaller fragment.
Solution: The given situation looks like the figure below
r
r
r
(15 12)i=(250 cos 30 + 5 v cos )i ( 250sin 30 5v sin ) j
0 5v sin =125
vsin =25
180 =216.5 + 5v cos vcos =-7.3L (2)
26m / s
sin 6 sin106.28
Example 1.4: A 4N weight rests on a smooth horizontal plane it is struck with a 2N blow
that lasts 0.02 sec. Three seconds after the start of the first blos a second blos of -2N is
delivered. This lasts for 0.01 sec. What will be the speed of the body after 4 sec?
Solution The forces in this problem are
For any t>3.01 sec is the sum of the two areas
i.e
0.02 N .sec
4
(v 0) v 0.049m / s
9.8
Example 1.5 A stream of water with cross-sectional area 2000 mm 2 and moving 10m/s
horizontally, strikes a fixed blade curve as show. Assuming the speed of the water relative
to the blade is constant (no friction is considered), determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the force of the blade on the stream of water.
Solution
o
ur uu
r
v ' v '' , but directions are different
Fx 341.4 N ; Fy 141.4 N
Example 1.6
v0 sin 45
L (1)
g
v0 sin 45
) L (3)
3
the
g
g
xtot x1 x2
i.e
[1 2]
g
g
g
3v 2 0 sin 45cos 45
1.055 105 ft
g
Discuss the following questions with your colleagues or on the discussion forum of AVU
1. Why does a gun recoil?
2. Suppose you catch a baseball, and then someone invites you to catch a bullet
with the same momentum or with the same kinetic energy. Which would you
choose?
3. It is not the fall that hurts you; it is the sudden stop at the bottom. Discuss?
Formative Evaluation 1
1. Blocks A and B have a mass of 10 kg and 20 kg, respectively. If they are
travelling with the speeds shown, determine their common velocity if they
collide and become coupled together
2m/sec
4m/sec
A
10kg
a. 2m/s to right
b. 2m/s to left
c. 3.33m.s to left
d. 4m/sec to left
2. Suppose the entire population of the world gathers in one spot and, at the
sound of a prearranged signal, everyone jumps up. While all the people are in
the air, does the Earth gain momentum in the opposite direction?
a. No; the mass of the Earth is so large that the planets change in motion
is imperceptible.
b. Yes; however, because of the much larger mass of the Earth the
change in the planets momentum is much less than that of all the
jumping people.
c. Yes; the Earth recoils with a change in momentum equal to and
opposite that of the people.
d. It depends
3. Suppose rain falls vertically into an open cart rolling along a straight
horizontal track with negligible friction. As a result of the accumulating water,
the speed of the cart:
a. Increases
6. A 1000 kg car traveling at 9 m/s, east, strikes a stationary 2000 kg truck. They
interlock as a result of the collision and move off as one. What is their speed?
What is their velocity?
7. A 15,000 kg rocket launcher holds a 5000 kg rocket. The rocket exits the
launcher at +450 m/s. What is the recoil velocity of the launcher?
8. A 100 g ball traveling to the right at 2 m/s strikes a 200 g ball traveling to the
left at 4 m/s. After the collision, the 100 g ball has a velocity of 8 m/s, left. What
is the velocity of the 200 g ball?
9. A 1200 kg car moving at 8m/s, north, strikes a 2000 kg truck moving at 4 m/s,
south. The velocity of the car is 6 m/s, south. What is the velocity of the truck?
10. A 1325 kg car traveling north at 27 m/s collides with a 2165 kg car moving
east at 17 m/s. As a result of the collision, they stick together. What is their
velocity after the collision?
11. A sticky ball with a mass of 200 g is moving to the west at 6 m/s. It collides
with another sticky ball with a mass of 300 g moving north at 5 m/s. The sticky
balls stick together as a result of the collision and move off as one. What is
their velocity?
12. A 6 kg object A moving at 3 m/s, right, collides with a 6 kg object B at rest.
After the collision, A moves at 1.6 m/s, 30. What is the velocity of B after the
collision?
13. A stationary 0.14 kg ball is struck by a 0.23 kg ball moving east at 2 m/s.
After the collision, the 0.14 kg ball has a velocity of 0.9 m/s, 30. What is the
velocity of the 0.23 kg ball?
14. A 0.50 kg ball at rest is struck by a 0.30 kg ball moving west at 5 m/s. After
the collision, the 0.30 kg ball has a velocity of 3 m/s, 200. What is the velocity
of the 0.50 kg ball?
15. A 2 kg object moves at 4 m/s, south. It strikes a 3 kg object at rest. After the
collision, the 2 kg object has a velocity of 2.5 m/s, 300. What is the velocity of
the 3 kg object?
16. Hockey puck A moves to the right at 50 m/s. It strikes an identical hockey
puck B that is stationary on the ice. After the collision, the velocity of A is 35
m/s, 27.6. What is the velocity of B? Ans: 24.97 m/s, 40.52 below the
horizontal
17. A 600 g billiard ball moving to the right at 2 m/s collides with an 800 g ball at
rest. After the collision, the 600 g ball is deflected at an angle of 37 above its
original direction at a rate of 0.5 m/s. What is the magnitude and direction of
the 800 g balls velocity? Ans: 1.22 m/s, 10.85 below the horizontal
18. A 6000 kg truck traveling north at 5 m/s collides with a 4000 kg car traveling
west at 15 m/s. The two remain locked together after the collision. What is their
velocity after the collision? Ans: 6.71 m/s, 26.6 north of west
19. A 1200 kg car traveling east at 60 km/h collides with a 3000 kg truck
traveling north at 40 km/h. After the collision, they remain joined. What is their
velocity? Answer in km/h. Ans: 33.3 km/h, 59
20. A 10 kg ball travels west at 4 m/s. It strikes a 12 kg ball at rest. After the
collision, the velocity of the 10 kg ball is 2.5 m/s, 40 below the horizontal.
What is the 12 kg balls velocity? Ans: 2.20 m/s, 142.4
strong parallelism between linear and angular quantities. Hence the equations of motion
for rotational quantities are similar in form to that of equations describing angular
quantities.
parts are called radians. Thus 90o corresponds to 2 radians, 45o corresponds to 4
radians etc. Therefore we define and use the radian measure to handle real rotation
problems.
2.1:
Rotational Kinematics:
Angular Variables:
Angular displacement :
r S
S C 2 r
2
Conversion: 360o 2 radians
Angular velocity
The angular speed is defined just like ordinary speed: an object which moves from an
angle i to an angle f has average angular speed :
f i
o
t
t
Instantaneous angular speed is obtained by taking t small. An object moving 45
revolutions per minute (rpm) has 90 radians/sec . As it is seen from the definition of
the radian measure of an angle an object moving in a circle at constant speed travels
a distance 2 radian per revolution. Moreover, one revolution corresponds to 2
radians. Thus the speed v is related to the angular speed by the simple formula:
o v r
This formula is only valid if is expressed in radians. Notice that radians really aren't
a unit, in the sense that v is still measured in m/s or mph or whatever: we don't need
to put a radian. Now we can write centripetal acceleration as:
v2 2r 2
o ac
2r
r
r
Notice that centripetal acceleration is directed perpendicular to the velocity at evry
point of the path and is responsible for the change of direction of the velocity. Not the
magnitude!
Angular acceleration :
The direction of centripetal acceleration and force is inward (radial). If there's an
acceleration tangential to the circle, then the angular speed must change. Angular
acceleration is defined asthe time rate of change of angular velocity:
Kinematic Relations
Once we define the angular quantities, we can easily do the kinematics of angular motion,
just like we did the kinematics of linear motion in Mechanics I. From the definition of
angular speed, we see that for constant angular acceleration,
o t
All the linear formulas have angular versions. You can easily notice the similarity of the
above equation with v vo at For example, to find the angular position of a particle
undergoing a constant angular acceleration, you can use:
1
ot t 2
2
The other equations also apply if you replace x with , v with and a with
Example 2.1: The angular speed of a helicopter blade increases from 1 rad/s
to 64 rad/s in 3 seconds with constant angular acceleration. What angle has
the blade turned through in this time? What is the angular acceleration?
Solution -:
The average angular acceleration is given by:
64 rad/s -1rad/s
21rad/s
t
3s
To get the angular displacement, use
1
ot t 2 98rad ; 15revolutions.
2
Example 2.2: On a bicycle, the gears next to the petal are a radius r1 , and on the back
wheel, they are a radius r2 . The wheel is a radius rw Relate the linear speed v of the
bicycle to the angular speed at which you pedal.
Solution -:
A bike is built so that the front gears go at the same angular speed as the petals, while
the back gears go at the same angular speed as the wheel when you are pedaling. (If you
stop pedaling, the gears disengage from the wheel.) The chain connects the front gears
to the back gears, so the chain must have the same linear velocity at both the front and
the back gears. Call this linear velocity vchain then we have
vchain petal r1
For the front gear, and
vchain wheel r2
Combining the two means that petal r1 wheel r2 now we need to get the speed of the bike.
The linear speed of the bike is related to the angular speed of the wheels by:
v wheel rw
Thus
v petal
rw r1
r2
Changing the gears on the bike changes the ratio r1 r2 changing to a smaller gear in the
front, or a larger one in back, (i.e. decreasing r1 r2 ) makes it easier to petal. The reason is
for a fixed angular speed petal it makes v smaller. The lower v , the less work youre
doing.
Example 2.3: Linear momentum and impulse
A ceiling fan is rotating at 0.90 rev/s. When turned off, it slows uniformly to a stop in 2.2
min. (a) How many revolutions does the fan make in this time? (b) Using the result from
part (a), find the number of revolutions the fan must make for its speed to decrease from
0.90 rev/s to 0.45 rev/s.
Solution
The ceiling fan rotates about its axis, slowing down with constant angular acceleration
before coming to rest.
Use the kinematic equations for rotation to find the number of revolutions through which
the fan rotates during the specified intervals. Because the fan slows down at a constant
rate of acceleration, it takes exactly half the time for it to slow from 0.90 rev/s to 0.45 rev/s
as it does to come to a complete stop.
(a)
1
1
o t 0 0.90rev/s 2.2 min 60sec/ min 59rev
2
2
(b)
1
1
o t 0.45 0.90rev/s 1.1min 60sec/ min 45rev
2
2
2.2:
Rotational Dynamics
Moment of Inertia:
Moment of inertia (I) is the rotational analogue of mass. The greater the moment of inertia
of a body the greater is its resistance to a change in its angular velocity. The value of the
moment of inertia I of a body about a particular axis of rotation depends not only upon the
bodys mass but also upon how the mass is distributed about the axis.
Torque
You might have noticed that its hard to open a door if you push close to the hinges. The
farther you are from the hinges, the easier it is. i.e. it requires more force to give the door
the same angular speed if youre pushing near the hinges than if youre at the other end.
Similarly, if youre using a wrench, it takes less force to loosen the bolt if youre pushing
the wrench farther away from the bolt.
F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude. Which Force produces a better turning effect? F1 or F2?
Therefore we need to introduce something beyond force, to understand rotation fully and
to take into account the eect of dierent radii.
The idea behind a torque is that applying forces can cause rotation. In other words, just
like applying a force causes linear acceleration, applying a torque causes an angular
acceleration. To dene torque, consider applying a force a distance r from the center of
rotation. The magnitude of torque is then
FT r
FT is the component of the force perpendicular to the radius (also referred to as tangential
force). The reason we need to only include the tangential component of the force is fairly
obvious. Torque is a vector and has direction. You need to be aware that the direction of a
torque is taken care by assigning a positive or negative sign to it. Just like for linear
motion the sign of the velocity meant the direction of the motion, for rotation, the sign of
the torque indicates the direction of rotation. By convention, we choose a counterclockwise rotation to be positive torque, and clockwise rotation to be negative torque.
Notice that the torque depends on the tangential force. Thus the torque is completely
unrelated to the centripetal force. The centripetal force is what keeps the object moving in
a circle. The torque is related to whether the angular speed is increasing or decreasing.
Another thing to notice about torque is that the larger the radius, the larger the torque.
Angular Momentum
A particle of mass m and velocity v has linear momentum p mv . The particle may also
have angular momentum L with respect to a given point in space. If r is the vector from
the point to the particle, then
r r r
L rp
The angular momentum is always a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the
r
r
r
vectors r and p (or v ). For example, if the particle (or a planet) is in a circular orbit, its
angular momentum with respect to the centre of the circle is perpendicular to the plane of
the orbit and in the direction given by the vector cross product right-hand rule, as shown
below.
r
dL
d r r
d r r
r p m r v ,
dt
dt
dt
r
r
where p has been replaced by mv and the constant m has been factored out. Using the
product rule of differential calculus,
r
r
d r r
dr r r dv
r v v r
dt
dt
dt
r
r
r r
In the first term on the right-hand side, dr dt is simply the velocity v , leaving v v . Since
the cross product of any vector with itself is always zero, that term drops out, leaving
r
r dv
d r r
r v r
dt
dt
r
r
Here, dv dt is the acceleration a of the particle. Thus, if both sides of the above equation
r
are multiplied by m , the left-hand side becomes dL dt and the right-hand side may be
r
r
r
r
written r ma . Since, according to Newton's second law ma ,is equal to F , the net force
acting on the particle, the result is
r
dL r r
rF
dt
The above equation means that any change in the angular momentum of a particle must
r
be produced by a force that is not acting along the same direction as r .
One particularly important application is the solar system. Each planet is held in its orbit
by its gravitational attraction to the Sun, a force that acts along the vector from the Sun to
the planet. Thus the force of gravity cannot change the angular momentum of any planet
with respect to the Sun. Therefore, each planet has constant angular momentum with
respect to the Sun. This conclusion is correct even though the real orbits of the planets
are not circles but ellipses.
r
r r
The quantity r F is called the torque . Torque may be thought of as a kind of twisting
force, the kind needed to tighten a bolt or to set a body into rotation. Using this definition,
the above equation may be rewritten
r
r r r dL
rF
dt
This equation means that if there is no torque acting on a particle, its angular momentum
is constant, or conserved.
Suppose, however,
that some agent applies a force Fa to the particle resulting in ar torque
r r
equal to r Fa . According to Newton's third law, the particle must apply a force Fa to
r r
the agent. Thus there is a torque equal to r Fa acting on the agent. The torque on the
r r
particle causes its angular momentum to change at a rate given by dL dt r Fa
r
r r
However, the angular momentum L a of the agent is changing at the rate dL a dt r Fa
Therefore, dL a dt dL dt 0 , meaning that the total angular momentum of particle plus
agent is constant, or conserved.
This principle may be generalized to include all interactions between bodies of any kind,
acting by way of forces of any kind. Total angular momentum is always conserved. The
law of conservation of angular momentum is one of the most important principles in all of
physics.
Example 2.4 Moment of Inertia of a Rod of Uniform Mass Density, Part I
Consider a thin uniform rod of length and mass . In this problem, we will calculate the
moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the rod that passes through the center of
mass of the rod. A sketch of the rod, volume element, and axis is shown in below.
Solution:
Choose Cartesian coordinates, with the origin at the center of mass of the rod, which is
midway between the endpoints since the rod is uniform. Choose the x axis to lie along
the length of the rod, with the positive x -direction to the right, as in the figure.
Identify an infinitesimal mass element dm dx , located at a displacement x from the
center of the rod, where the mass per unit length m L is a constant, as we have
assumed the rod to be uniform. When the rod rotates about an axis perpendicular to the
rod that passes through the center of mass of the rod, the element traces out a circle of
radius r x We add together the contributions from each infinitesimal element as we
go from x L 2 to x L 2 . The integral is then
Icm
L2
dm
L 2
body
m L2
L 3
x
2
m L 2
L
3
x3
dx
3
L2
L 2
1
mL2
12
By using a constant mass per unit length along the rod, we need not consider variations
in the mass density in any direction other than the x - axis. We also assume that the
width is the rod is negligible. (Technically we should treat the rod as a rectangle in the
x y plane if the axis is along the z axis. The calculation of the moment of inertia under
this assumption would be more complicated.)
2
MR 2
3
Answer:
2
(b) k
R
5
inertia relative to its rotational axis, with its density no uniformity properly incorporated, is
quite accurately given by the formula
M R2
I E E
3
Compare kinetic energies of the projectile and the Earths rotation. The projectile mass
can be taken be m 106 kg .
Formative Evaluation 2
1) A 45-kg, 5.0-m-long uniform ladder rests against a frictionless wall and makes an
angle of 60with a frictionless floor. Can an 80-kg person stand safely on the ladder,
2.0 m from the top,without causing the ladder to slip if a second person exerts a
horizontal force of 500 N toward the wall at a point 3.5 m from the top of the ladder?
(Note: All distances are measured along the ladder.)
2) The combination of an applied force and a frictional force produces a constant torque
of 36.0 N m on a wheel rotating about a fixed axis. The applied force acts for 6.00 s,
during which time the angular speed of the wheel increases from 0 to 10.0 rad/s. The
applied force is then removed, and the wheel comes to rest in 60.0 s. Find (a) the
moment of inertia of the wheel, (b) the magnitude of the frictional torque, and (c) the
total number of revolutions of the wheel. (38.)
3) A 48.0-kg diver stands at the end of a 3.00-m-long diving board. What torque does the
weight of the diver produce about an axis perpendicular to and in the plane of the
diving board through its midpoint?
4) Two children sit on a seesaw such that a 400-N child is 2.00 m from the support (the
fulcrum). Where should a second child of weight 475 N sit in order to balance the
system if the support is at the center of the plank?
5) The 400-N child of Problem 4 decides that she would like to seesaw alone. To do so,
she moves the board such that its weight is no longer directly over the fulcrum. She
finds that she will be balanced when she is 1.5 m to the left of the fulcrum and the
center of the plank is 0.50 m to the right of the fulcrum. What is the weight of the
plank?
6) A dormitory door 2.50 m high and 1.00 m wide weighs 250 N, and its center of gravity
is at its geometric center. The door is supported by hinges 0.250 m from top and
bottom, each hinge carrying half the weight. Determine the horizontal component of
the forces exerted by each hinge on the door.
7) A racing car has a mass of 1600 kg. The distance between the front and rear axles is
3 m. If the center of gravity of the car is 2 m from the rear axle, what is the normal
force on each tire?
8) An iron trapdoor 1.25 m wide and 2.00 m long weighs 360 N and is hinged along the
short dimension. Its center of gravity is at its geometric center. What force applied at
right angles to the door is required to lift it (a) when it is horizontal and (b) when it has
been opened so that it makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal? (Assume that the
force is applied at the edge of the door opposite the hinges.)
9) A 4.50-kg ball on the end of a chain is whirled in a horizontal circle by an athlete. If the
distance of the ball from the axis of rotation is 2.50 m, find the moment of inertia of the
ball, assuming it can be considered as a point object.
10) What torque must the track star exert on the ball of Problem 9 to give it angular
acceleration of 2.00 rad/s2?
11) (a) Find the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of mass 1.50 kg and radius 30.0 cm
about an axis through its center. (b) Repeat for a solid sphere of the same mass and
radius about an axis through its center.
12) The cylinder of Problem 11(a) is rotating at an angular velocity of 2.00 rev/s. What
torque is required to stop it in 15.0 s?
13)An automobile tire, considered as a solid disk, has a radius of 35.0 cm and a mass of
6.00 kg. Find its rotational kinetic energy when rotating about an axis through its
center at an angular velocity of 2.00 rev/s.
14) An automobile engine part is in the shape of a thin rod of mass 100 g and length 5.00
cm. When the rod is rotating at an angular velocity of 3.00 rad/s, find its kinetic energy
when (a) rotating about an axis through a point 2.50 cm from each end. (b) Repeat
when it is rotating about an axis through one end.
15) If the system of masses shown in the fig below is set into rotation about the x axis
with an angular velocity of 2.5 rad/s, (a) find the kinetic energy of the system. (b)
Repeat the calculation for the system in rotation at the same speed about the y axis.
the necessity fo finding the physical source of the force that causes thae acceleration
toward the center of the circle.
ACTIVITY 3: Gravitation
You will require 25 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are guided with a
series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self assessment questions
and problems. You are strongly advised to go through the activities and consult all the
compulsory materials and use as many as possible useful links and references.
m1
and
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important..
Reading 7: Orbital Motion:.
Complete reference: Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force field
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL: http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m102.pdf
Accessed on the 23rd April 2007
Abstract:
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for
the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar system,
Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion
and motion of satellites are discussed...
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 8: Gravitational Phenomena:
Complete reference: Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force field
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL: http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m107.pdf
Accessed on the 23rd April 2007
Abstract:
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for
the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar system,
Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion
and motion of satellites are discussed...
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
determine the escape and orbital velocities by varying different parameters of the
projectile.
Description: This is a good collectionn of theory and historical account of the newtons low of
universal gravitation.
Rationale: The site provides a detailed description and solved problems on the topic. .
Date Consulted: - April 2007
Useful Link #4 From The physics Class room
Title: Universal Gravitation and Planetary Motion
URL: http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/circles/u6l3c.html
Screen Capture:
Description: Lecture notes and discussion forum from the physics class room.
Rationale: Reach in discussion topics and interactive problems.
Useful Link #5 Wikipedia
Title: Gravitational Field
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field
Screen Capture:
Description: Gravitational field, its meaning in classical mechanics, and its meaning in general
relativity are described in this section.
Rationale: Useful for the one who needs to compare many references.
Useful Link #6 Geostationary Orbit
Title: Geostationary orbit
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary
Screen Capture:
Description: This link Explains geostationary orbit. The animated graphics helps visualization.
Rationale: This supplements the theory given in Activity three...
3.1:
Sir Isaac Newton thought that celestral and terrestrial motions might obey the same law
i.e the centripetal acceleration of the moon in its orbit and the downward acceleration g
of a falling apple must have the same origin. His arguments and calculations are as
follows:
Assuming the nooms orbit to be circular and knowing the distance of the moon
from the earth ( R 3.84 108 m ) and its period of rev ( T 27.3d ) Newton calculated
a as follows
v 2 (2 R / T ) 2 4 2 R
2.72 103 m / s 2
R
R
T2
g 9.8m/s 2
1
a
g 3606
a
radius of earth (R E )
1
, he observed
radius of moon's orbit (R) 60
a1 RE
gRE2 a R 2
g R
The acceleration of a body and hence the force is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the center of the earth
This led Newton to postulate gravitational force obays the inverse square law. He went
nd
nd
a step further and argued Fg : m1m2 by 2 and 3 law
Any two particles of matter anywhere in the universe attract each other with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them; the direction of the force being along the line
joining them
uur
Gm1m2
F12
r12
r2
uuu
r Gm m
uur
Gm1m2
1 2
F21
r
F12
21
12
r2
r2
G = Gravitational constant
r
r
Q r 21 r12
Gravitational forces between two particles are an acriton- and- reaction pair
G is universal.
Force of gravitational interaction between two bodies is independent of the
presence of other bodies or the properties of the intervening space. i.e. no gravity
screen
The gravitational force obeys the law of superposition i.e. the force due to a
collection of particles is the vector sum of the foresees exerted by the particles
individually.
The gravitation force of a sphere of radius R is
ur
Mm
F G 2 r
r
0
if r R
if r R
dW Fdr
r
GmM
dr GmM
r2
S Fdr
1
dr
r2
1
GmM
GmM
r
r
Thus PE
GmM
r
Note (i) We can use the above equation to compute the amount of work done against the
gravitational force of mass M to move the mass m from position r1 to r2
1 1
r1 r2
W U GmM
If r1 r2 W will be positive
r1 r2 W will be negative
Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential V , at point the gravitational field a mass is defined as the work
done in moving a unit mass from infinity to that point. Thus is m 1
V
GM
r
R
3
0
R
3R
for : < r
2
3
4
R
0 for : < r R
8
3
R
,
4
R 5R
,
and 2R
2
6
Gm GpV
2
r2
r
4
3
G 0 R 4
3
g R 4
G 0 R
2
3
R 4
R
5R
1
3
3
3
R 3 R 2 R 2
2
G 0
2
3
( R / 2)
1
2
3
1
G 0 4 3 R 1 3 1 2 4
2
2
4
G 0 R 2 1 27 1 8 0.432 G 0 R
3
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
R 3 3R 4 R 3 5R 6 3R 4
4
2
8
G 0
2
3
( R / 2)
0.48 G 0 R
1
1
3
3
3
3
Similarly g(2R)=G 0 4 3 R 1 3 3 4 1 3 1 3 4 4
2
8
0.1 G 0 R
Example 3.2: Gravitational Potential
Prove that there is no gravitational field due to mass of a spherical shell inside .
Solution:
Let
Consider two cones, with theis apices at P, intercepting small areas S and S on the shell
as shown draw a plane x-y through , 1 the diareter through p
S r 2 .
S ' r '2 .
S cos r 2
S cos r '2 w
mass of S = r 2 / cos
mass of S = r '2 / cos
intensity at p due to S=
r 2
G
G
2
cos r
cos
and
intensity at P due to S' =
r'2
G
G
2
cos r '
cos
These two intensities at P being equal and opposite, their resultant is zero. Similar is the
care for all other, pairs of comes on opposite sides of xy in to which the shell may be
divided so that the resultant intensity or field at p due to the whole shell zero.
Example 3.3: Gravitational torque
For a body of mass M , and pivoted at o as shown, show that the gravitational torque
acts on it as if the entire mass is concentrated at the center of mass.
Solution
Let us consider the body as being made up of a large number of point masses and one
such mass be mi
u
r
ur
ur
i ri mi g ( mi ri ) g Q g is constant
By defintion of center of mass
r ur
ur
m
r
R
m
i
cm
uri
i Rcm M
R cm the position vector of the center of mass
Using the above two expressions it follows.
ur
ur
=R cm (mg )
Thus we find that the torque gets as if the entire mass M of the body were conc at its cm.
3.2:
All planets move in elliptical orbits, the sun being at one focus. We may for simplicity
consider the orbits to be very nearly circular, with the sun at the centre. The centripetal
force required for the circular attractions. Even though both the bodies revolve around
their common centre of mass, if one is of much greater mass than the other, the heavier
body may be considered to be at rest. This may be applied also to the case of the earth
and the artificial satellites.
If M is the mass of the heavy body at the centre of the circle of radius r , and m the mass
of the lighter body,
GM
GM
m 2 r or
2r
2
r
r2
GM
4 2
2
r2
T2
From this, we may deduce the period of the planet or the satellite.
4 2 2
T2
r
GM
Keplers Law
Johannes Kepler culminated his 30 years of research with the publication of the last of his
three laws of planetary motion. The three laws of planetary motion can be stated as:
1. The path of a planet is an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one of its foci.
2. The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.
3. The square of the planets period is proportional to the cube of the semi major axis
of its orbit.
Orbital Velocity
If a satellite is to keep moving in a circular orbit round the earth, at a distance h from the
surface of the earth,
mv0 2
GM
( RE h) 2 ( RE h)
where RE is the radius of the earth
v0
GM
( RE h)
If h RE , v0 gRE
The amount of work required to move a body from the earth to infinity is given by the
formula
GE Mm
RE
This is about 0.6 107 joules/kg. If we could provide a projectile more than this energy at
the surface of the earth, it would escape from the earth. The critical initial speed v0 called
escape velocity is given by the formula
1 2 GM Em
mv0
2
RE
v0
2GM E
11.2 km/second
RE
One method of calculating this magic distance is to use Newtons law of gravity and his
second law of motion. i.e. putting period to be 24hours and using the equation
( RE h)3
T 2 r
86400seconds.
GM
h may be calculated. It is about 22,700 miles above the earths surface.
Example 3.4: Acceleration due to gravity high above the surface of Earth.
Find the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude of 1000km.
Solution::
The gravitational force of the earth on an object of mass m at a distance r from the
earths center is equal to the objects weight mg at that distance,
GM E m
GM E
mg
g
2
r
r2
At the earth's surface, wher g=g o 9.8m/s 2 and r rE 6400km
From these fromulas for g and g o we find that, at the distance r from
the earth's center, the acceleration of gravity is
rE 2
g=
go
r
using r=rE +h=6400km + 1000km =7400km
Thus g=7.3m/s 2
Formative Evaluation 3
1) Why do a gram of weight and a quintal of weight, released simultaneously from the top
of a tower reach the ground at the same time?
2) If you jump off a chair, you accelerate towards the earth. Does the earth also
accelerate towards you? Explain.
3) What would happen if the force of gravity were to disappear suddnely?
4) The earth is constantly acted upon by the gravitational attraction of the sun. Then why
does not the earth fall into the earth.?
5) A body is taken from Nairobi (Kenya) (very close to the equator of the earth) to South
Africa. What will be the effect on its weight? On its mass?
6) In uninformed discussions of satellites, one hears questions such as what keeps the
satellite moving in its orbit? and What keeps the satellite up? How do you answer
these questions?
7) Are your answers to the above question applicable to the moon? Explain.
8) A 4 N force acts on a 3 kg object moving at 8 m/s for 10 sec. What is the object's
change in momentum? What impulse acts on the object? What is the object's final
speed?
9) A rocket has a mass of 2.0 104 kg of which half is fuel. Assume that the fuel is
consumed at a constant rate as the rocket is fired and that there is a constant thrust of
5.0 106 Newtons. Neglecting air resistance and any possible variation of g , compute
a) the initial acceleration and
b) the acceleration just as the last fuel is used
1
and its radius is about a quarter of the earths radius.
81
What is the accelreation due to gravity on the surface of the moon?
11) Find the accelration the moon towards the earth assuming that the moon is situated at
a distance which is 60 times earths raduius being measured from the centre of the
earth.
12)If R 1 and R 2 be the radii of two planets and 1 and 2 their mean densities show that
values of acceleration due to gravity on the two planets will be in the ratio R11 : R 22
The origin of a coordinate system is needed to describe the velocity of a body just like its
position. Ordinarily this origin is taken to be fixed in some other body, but this second
body may be in motion relative to a third and so on. Thus when we speak of the the
velocity of an object we usually mean its velocity relative to the earth. But the earth itself
is in motion relative to the Sun and the Sun is in motion relative to some other star, and so
on.
For observers moving in two different reference frames, no mechanical force can
distinguish which observer is at rest and which observer is moving Einstein extended this
to all physical phenomena.
The laws of physics are the same in all relatively inertial reference frames; In particular,
Einstein extended the Galilean principle of relativity to electromagnetism and optics which
describe the theory of light
Galilean transformation also called Newtonian Transformation, is a set of equations in
classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates of two systems moving at a
constant velocity relative to each other. Adequate to describe only low-speed phenomena,
Galilean transformations formally express the ideas that space and time are absolute; that
length, time, and mass are independent of the relative motion of the observer.
Complete reference :
From html version of Simple Nature, by Benjamin Crowell.
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch02/
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract :
This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available at www.lightandmatter.com
the part given here the relevant section for this activity.
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on linear momentum. The motion of center of mass
is treated at the end. It provides another way of looking at the theories of collision and
momentum conservation.
4.1:
Relative Velocity
Have you observed out of the window of a fast moving bus or train? The countryside
appears to flash past the window. Although you already know that the countryside is not
moving, it appears to be moving relative to you inside a moving bus or train.
Consider two cars A and B travelling with a velocity of v A and v B as shown in figure 4.1a.
Car A overtakes B. The dirver in A sees car B apparently moving towards west. However,
a passanger in the back of car B sees car A is catching up with her car
Figure 4.1a
The velocity of A relative to B is the velocity which A appears to have to an observer who
is moving with B. Thus the velocityh of A relative to B is effectively the resultant velocity of
A when when B is made stationary and the same retarding force is applied to A.
Suppose a long train of flatcars is moving to the east along a straight level track, and that
the two automobiles are moving on the flat car as shown in figure 4.1b.
VBF
Figure 4.1b
VFE
In figure 4.1, VFE represents the velocityof the flatcar relative to the earth E and VAF the
velocity of the automobile A relative to the flat car. The Velocity of the flat car relative to
earth is the sum of the velocities of automobile A relative to the flatcar and that of the
flatcar relative to ther earth.r Thus:
r
o VAE VAF VFE
This same equation holds for the relative velocity of automobile B relative to the flatcar
and that of the flatcar
r relative
r to rthe earth
o VBE VBF VFE
Notice that the speed of automobile A relative to the earth is the sum of the two velocities
where as the speed of automobile B relative to the earth is the difference of the two
velocities.
Example 4.1: An automobile driver A, travelling relative to the earth at 75 km/hr on a
straight level road is ahead of a motor cyclist. B travelling in the same direction at
90 km/hr . What is the velocity of B relative to A.
Solution: r
We have VAE 75 km/hr,
r
r
VBE 90 km/hr and we wish to find VBA . From the above
V1
V2
this gives
Here were following Newtons assumption of one universal time. We will refer to
equations relating quantities in primed and unprimed references as the Galilean
Transformations.
Formative Evaluation 4
1) A package is dropped out of an airplane in level flight. If air resistance could be
neglected, how would the motion of the package look to the pilot? To an observer on
the ground?
2) If an artificial earth satellite has a period of exactly one day, how does its motion look
to an observer on the rotating earth?
3) A passenger on a ship travelling due east with a speed of 18miles observes that the
stream of smoke from the ships funnels makes an angle of 20o with the ships wake.
The wind is blowing from south to north. Assume that the smoke acquires a velocity
(with respect to the earth) equal to the velocity of the wind, as soon as it leaves the
funnels. Find the velocity of the wind.
4) A river flows due north with a velocity of 2m/s. A man rows a boat across the river, his
velocity relative to the water being 3m/s due east .
a) What is his velocity relative to the earth?
b) If the rivere is 1000m wide, how far north of his starting point will he lreach the
opposite bank?
c) How long a time is required to cross the river
5)
a) In what diretion should the rowboat in the aboe problem be headed in order to
reach a point on the opposite bank directly east from the start?
b) What will be the velocity of the boat relative to the earth?
c) How long a time is required to cross the river?
The change in momentum of a body in any time interval equals the impulse of the
net force that acts
r ron the
r body during that interval:
o
J P2 P1
The momentum of a body equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest to its
present speed.
3. Internal Force: An internal force is a force exerted by one part of a system on
another. An external force is a force exerted on a part of a system by something
outside the system. An isolated system is one with no external forces.
4. Total Momentum:- The total momentum of a system of particles A , B , C , K is the
vector sum of the
particles:
r momenta
r
r
rof the individual
r
r
r
o P PA PB PC L m Av A mBv B mCv C L
5. Conservation of Momentum: In any system of two or more particles in which the net
force on each particle is due only to interactions with the other particles of the
system, the total momentum (vector sum of the momenta of the particles) is constant
or conserved.
6. Elastic Collision: A collision in which total kinetic energy is conserved is called an
elastic collision. When kinetic energy is not conserved, the collision is inelastic.
7. Center of Mass: - The center of mass of a system is the average position of the mass
of the system. Its motion under given forces are the same as though all the mass
were concentrated at the center of mass.
8. Rigid Body: A rigid body is a body with a definite and unchanging shape and size.
9. Angular Displacement ( ): -is the measure of change in angular position of a
rotating object.
dt
11. Angular Acceleration : is the time rate of change of angular velocity
d
dt
12. Moment of Inertia I : Is the rotational analog of mass. the greater the moment of
inertia of a body, the greater its resistance to a change in its angular velocity.
Moment of inertia of a body about a particular axis of rotation depends not only upon
the bodys mass but also upon how the mass is distributed about the axis.
13. Torque : The torque exerted by a force on a body is a measure of its
effectiveness in turning the body about a certain pivot point. The moment arm
of a force F about a pivot O is the perpendicular distance L between the line of
action of the force and O. The torque excreted by the force about O has
the magnitude: Force Moment arm
14. Kinetic Energy of Rotation.: The kinetic energy of a body of moment of inertia I and
angular velocity (in rad/s) is
KE
1 2
I
2
15. Rotational Work (W):- The work done by a constant torque that acts on a bodyh
while it experiences the angular displacement in rad is
W
16. Angular Momentum: is the equivalent of linear momentum in rotational motion. The
angular momentum L of a rotating body has the magnitude
L moment of inertia angular velocity
I
17. Law of Universal Gravitation: States every body in the universe attracts every other
body with a force that is directly proportional to each of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
mm
Graviataional Force F G 1 2 2
r
G 6.67 1011 Nm 2 /kg 2
18. Gravitational Field: The Newtonian theory of gravity is based on assumed force
acting between all pairs of bodies--i.e., an action at a distance. When a mass
moves, the force acting on other masses has been considered to adjust
instantaneously to the new location of the displaced mass. The field theory of
electrical and magnetic phenomena, has met empirical success so that most modern
gravitational theories are constructed as field theories. In a field theory the
gravitational force between bodies is formed by a two-step process: (1) One body
produces a gravitational field that permeates all surrounding space but has weaker
strength farther from its source. A second body in that space is then acted upon by
this field and experiences a force. (2) The Newtonian force of reaction is then viewed
as the response of the first body to the gravitational field produced by the second
body, there being at all points in space a superposition of gravitational fields due to
all the bodies in it...
19. Gravitational Potential Energy: - Potential energy arises in systems with parts that
exert forces on each other of a magnitude dependent on the configuration, or
relative position, of the parts. In the case of an Earth-ball system, the force of gravity
between the two depends only on the distance separating them. The work done in
separating them farther, or in raising the ball, transfers additional energy to the
system, where it is stored as gravitational potential energy. Gravitational potential
energy near the Earth's surface may be computed by multiplying the weight of an
object by its distance above the reference point.
20. Gravitational field Strength: - is the gravitational force acting on a unit mass at a
given point in space. It is just acceleration due to gravity and is given by:
GM Earth
g
r2
21. Galilean Transformation: also called Newtonian Transformations, set of equations in
classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates of two systems moving
at a constant velocity relative to each other. Adequate to describe only low-speed
phenomena, Galilean transformations formally express the ideas that space and
time are absolute; that length, time, and mass are independent of the relative motion
of the observer; and that the speed of light depends upon the relative motion of the
observer
Abstract :
This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available at
www.lightandmatter.com the part given here the relevant section for this
activity.
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on linear momentum. The motion of
center of mass is treated at the end. It provides another way of looking at the
theories of collision and momentum conservation. The examples drawn from
nature, like comet, are interesting and educational reading materials.
Reading 2: Momentum Conservation and Transfer.
Complete reference : Momentum Conservation and Transfer
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL : http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m15.pdf
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract :
In this article, momentum is defined for a single and a system of particles.
Using Newtons laws and the definition of momentum it is shown that the
momentum of an isolated system of particles remain unchanged with time (i.e.
conserved)
Rationale:
This article gives another way of looking at the theories of collision and
momentum conservation. Further the sample tests and exercises given at the
end provide good opportunity to use the theories and principles exercised from
different perspectives.
Abstract :
In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acceleration,
producing angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational kinematics
are treated.
Rationale:
This article covers the contents of this activity. It gives another way of looking
at the theories of collision and momentum conservation. Further the sample
tests and exercises given at the end provide good opportunity to use the
theories and principles exercised from different perspectives.
Reading 4: Momentum in One Dimension.
Complete reference : Conservation of Momentum
From html version of Simple Nature, by Benjamin Crowell.
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch04/ch04.html
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract :
This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available at
www.lightandmatter.com the part given here the relevant section for this
activity.
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on angular momentum. Theories of
angular momentum in two dimensions and in three dimensions is well
developed. Further there is a good deal of theory on rigid body rotation.
Reading 5: Torque and Angular Momentum.
Complete reference : Torque and Angular Momentum in circular motion
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL : http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m34.pdf
Accessed on the 24th April 2007
Abstract :
In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acceleration,
producing angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational kinematics
are treated.
Rationale:
This article covers topics on torque and angular momentum, system of
particles, conservation of angular momentum, nonplanar rigid bodies. The
problem supplement and the model exam at the end makes this site popular.
Reading 6: Universal Gravitation:.
Complete reference : Newtons law of Universal Gravitation
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL : http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m101.pdf
Accessed on the 23rd April 2007
Abstract :
In this article, historical account on the discovery of the law, the center of
mass and effects of extended objects are discussed. Determination of G is
described in three ways..
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important..
Abstract :
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for
the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar systerm,
Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion
and motion of satellites are discussed..
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 8: Gravitational Phenomena:.
Complete reference : Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force field
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL : http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m107.pdf
Accessed on the 23rd April 2007
Abstract :
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for
the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar system,
Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion
and motion of satellites are discussed..
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 9: Velocity and Relative Motion
Complete reference :
From html version of Simple Nature, by Benjamin Crowell.
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch02/
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract :
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on linear momentum. The motion of center of mass
is treated at the end. It provides another way of looking at the theories of collision and
momentum conservation.
Description: Applet shows the motion of the centre of mass of a dumbbell shaped object.
The red and blue dots represent two masses and they are connected by a mass
less rod. The dumbbells projection velocity can be varied by using the velocity and
angle sliders. The mass ratio slider allows shifting of centre of mass. Here m1 is
the mass of the blue object and m2 is the mass of red object. Check boxes for
path1 and path2 can be used to display or turn off the paths of the two masses .
Rationale: This applet depicts the motion of centre of mass of two balls (shown in red and blue
colour). The applets speed and angle of projection can be varied...
Description: Advanced description of the topics discussed in mechanics I and II of the AVU
Physics module.
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the mechanics
courses. The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book. The PDF version
is also available.
Useful Link #2 Tutorial on torque from university of Guelph
Title: Torque
URL: http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/torque/index.html
Screen Capture:
Description: This is a good collectionn of theory and historical account of the newtons low of
universal gravitation.
Rationale: The site provides a detailed description and solved problems on the topic. .
Description: Lecture notes and discussion forum from the physics class room.
Rationale: Reach in discussion topics and interactive problems.
Description: Gravitational field, its meaning in classical mechanics, and its meaning in general
relativity are described in this section.
Rationale: Useful for the one who needs to compare many references.
Useful Link #6 Geostationary Orbit
Title: Geostationary orbit
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary
Screen Capture:
Description: This link Explains geostationary orbit. The animated graphics helps visualization.
Rationale: This supplements the theory given in Activity three...
8. A square and a rectangle of the same mass are cut from a sheet of metal. Which
has the greater moment of inertia about a perpendicular axis through its centre?
9. A solid cylinder and a hollow cylinder of the same mass and diameter, both initially
at rest, roll down the same inclined plane without slipping.
a. Which reaches the bottom first?
b. How do their kinetic energies at the bottom compare?
10. Strings are wound around a shaft and a sheave of equal mass and a load is
attached to the end of each string (the loads have equalled mass). Which of the
two loads will descend with a greater acceleration and which of the rotating
objects, the shaft or the sheave, has a greater angular acceleration?
c. 0.2 s
d. 0.002 s
5. An irom sphere whose mass is 50 kg has the same diameter as an aluminium
sphere whose mass is 10.5 kg. The spheres are simultaneously dropped from a
cliff. When they are 10 m from the ground, they have identical
a. Acceleration
b. Momenta
c. Potential energies
d. Kinetic energies
6. If a car is to gain momentum it must
a. Lose inertia
b. Accelerate
c. Move rapidly
d. Lose weight
7. If the collision in problem 16 is completely elastic, the speed of the 20 kg cart after
collision will be approximately
a. 3m/s
b. 6m/s
c. 4m/s
d. 2m/s
8. A bomb dropped from an aeroplane explodes in air. Its total
a. Momentum decreases
b. Momentum increases
c. Kinetic energy increases
d. Kinetic energy decreases
9. When an aeroplane loops the loop, the pilot does not fall down because
a. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary centripetal force
b. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary force against gravity
c. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary centrifugal force
d. All the above.
10. A thin circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with a constant
angular velocity . Two objects each of mass m , are attached gently to the
opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. The wheel now rotates with an angular
velocity.
a. M ( M m)
b. M ( M 2m)( M 2m)
c. M ( M 2m)
d. ( M 2m) M
11. The co-efficient of restitution is
a. A number which varies from -1 to 1
b. A negative number which varies from 0 to -1
c. A positive number which varies from 0 to 1
d. A positive number
12. If the polar ice caps melts, the length of the day will
a. Increase
b. Decrease
a. 4 m/s
b. 20 m/s
c. 3 m/s
d. 10 m/s
22. A point on the edge of a rotating disc of radius 8 m moves through an angle of 2
rad. The length of the are described by the point is
a. 0.25 m
b. 4 m
c. 16 m
d. 4 rad
23. A quantity not directly involved in the rotational motion body is
a. Mass
b. Torque
c. Moment of inertia
d. Angular velocity
24. A full circle contains
a. /2 radians
b. /4 radians
c. radians
d. 2 radians
25. Wheel with angular momentum of 10 kg m 2 / s has a moment of inertia equal to 6.5
kg m 2 . Its angular speed is
a. 5 rad/s
b. 20 rad/s
c. 40 rad/s
d. 0.02 rad/s
26. An object swings the end of a string in uniform circular motion. Which of the
following changes would not case an increased centripetal force?
a. A longer string a
b. A greater linear speed
c. A shorter string
d. A larger mass
27. In a rigid body undergoing uniform circular motion, a particle that is a distance R
from the axis of rotation
a. Has a angular velocity inversely proportional to R
b. Has an angular velocity proportional to R
c. Has a linear speed proportional to R
d. Has a linear speed inversely proportional R
28. The unit for the moment of inertia in the M.K.S. system is
a. kg m3
b. kg m 2
c. kg /m2
d. kg m
29. An object is travelling in a circle with a constant speed. Its acceleration is constant
in
a. Magnitude only
b. Both magnitude and direction
c. Direction only
d. Neither magnitude nor direction
30. Which of the following formulae for the moment of inertia (M.I.) of some simple
cases is not correct?
a. The M.I. of a uniform rod of mnss M and length l about an axis through its
centre and perpendicular to its length is I M l 2 /12
b. The M.I. of a uniform circular disc of Mass M and radius r about
perpendicular to the plane of the disc is I 1/ 2 Mr 2
c. The M.I. in case of (b) about the axis through one end and perpendicular to
its length is I M l 2 / 4
d. The M.I. of a sphere of mass M and radius r about any diameter is
I 2 / 5Mr 2
31. For a rigid body rotating about an axis, if I ane be its moment of inertia and the
angular speed respectively, its angular momentum L about the given axis is given
by
a. L I
b. L / I
c. L I /
d. L I
32. If the mass of a rotating body moves towards the axis of rotation, in moment of
intertia
a. Remains the same
b. Decreases
c. Increases
d. May increases of decreases
33. When milk is churned, the cream separates from it due to
a. Gravitational forces
b. Centrifugal forces
c. Cohesive forces
d. Frictional forces
34. When a ball on a string moves in a vertical circle, the tension on the string is
greatest when
a. String is made longer
b. Speed of the all is increased
c. The ball is at the highest point
d. Speed of the ball is decreased
35. One revolution is equivalent to
a. 57.3 radians
b. 6.28 radians
c. 57.3 degrees
d. 6.28 degrees
36. When a car is travelling at constant speed around a circular track, a quantity that is
constant but not zero is its
a. Acceleration
b. Angular velocity
c. Velocity
d. Angular acceleration
37. When the angular position of the swing is 450 , its linear velocity is
a. Negative and increasing
b. Positive and decreasing
c. Positive and increasing
d. Negative and decreasing
38. A solid lead cylinder of radius R, a hollow lead cylinder of radius R/2, and a solid
lead sphere of radius plane at the same time. The one that reaches the bottom first
is the
a. Solid aluminium cylinder
b. Hollow lead cylinder
c. Solid lead cylinder
d. Solid lead sphere
39. Due to redistribution of a mass of rotating body if its moment of inertia increases
then its angular velocity
a. Decreases
b. Remains unchanged
c. Increases
d. None of the above
40. If I and E are the moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy of body
respectively then its angular momentum L is calculated form
2E 2
a.
2I
b. 2E 2 I
c.
2EI
d. 2EI
41. Physical quantity not directly involved in rotatory motion is
a. Moment of inertia
b. Mass
c. Angular velocity
d. Torque
d 2x
42. Vibration of a body is given by the differential equation
2x 0
dt 2
The amplitude and time period are
a. 6cm and 10
b. 8cm and 10
c. 10cm and 0.2 sec
d. 14cm and 2 sec.
43. The acceleration of a body rolling down an inclined plane is given by
g sin
a.
k2
1 2
R
g sin
b.
R2
1 2
K
g sin
c.
k2
R2 2
R
g sin
d.
k2
K2 2
R
44. If the earth stopped rotating, the weight of objects at the equator would
a. Be greater
b. Be the same as before
c. Be less
d. Vary with latitude
45. The man in exercise 3 could have reached the same destination if he had headed
in. What is single direction from the start?
a. 450 east of north
b. 220 east of north
c. 500 east of north
d. 630 east of north
46. A satellite travels in a circular orbit at a speed of 20, 000 km/hr to stay at a constant
altitude. To escape from the earth, the speed would have to be increased to
a. 28, 000 km/hr
b. 21, 000 km/hr
c. 40, 000 km/hr
d. 64, 000 km/hr
47. The gravitational force with which the earth attracts the moon
a. Is less than the force with which the moon attracts the earth
b. Is the same as the force with which the moon attracts the earth
c. Is more than the force with which the moon attracts the earth
d. Varies with the phase of the moon
48. If the earth stopped rotating, the weight of objects at either pole would
a. Be less
b. Be greater
c. Be the same as before
d. Vary with latitude
49. The gravitational constant is 6.67 1011 N .m 2 / kg 2 . What is the gravitational force
between two 4 kg balls separated by 0.2m ?
a. 1.33 108 N
b. 2.67 108 N
c. 5.34 107 N
d. 6.67 108 N
50. The value of the universal gravitation constant G in the M.K.S. system is
a. 6.67 1011 N .m 2 kg 2
b. 2.81 2011 N .m 2 kg 2
c. 5.68 1011 N .m 2 kg 2
1
2
2
d. 3.00 10 1 N .m kg
51. The gravitational force between bodies does not depend upon
a. The product of their n asses
b. Their separation
c. The sum of their masses
d. The constant of gravitation
52. When a space ship is twice of earth radial distant from the center of the earth, its
gravitational acceleration is
a. 9.8m / sec 2
b. 19.6m / sec 2
c. 4.0m / sec 2
d. 2.45m / sec 2
53. A satellite is orbiting close to the earth. In order to make it move to infinity, its
orbital speed is to be increased by
a. 20%
b. 10%
c. 41.4%
d. 100%
54. A 100kg astronaut releases 1g of gas from a special pistol at a speed of 50m/s. As
a result, he moves in the opposite direction at
a. 50 cm / s
b. 5 cm / s
c. 0.5 cm / s
d. 0.05 cm / s
55. Kepler modified the Copernican system by showing that the planetary orbits are
a. Ellipses
b. Circles
c. Combinations of circles forming looped orbits
d. The same distance apart from one another.
56. If there were no atmosphere, the duration of the day on the earth will:
a. Decrease
b. Remain the same
c. Increase
d. Depend upon the weather.
57. If the earth had another satellite at twice the distance of the moon , its period would
be
a. 28days 22 / 3
b. 28days 22 / 3
c. (28days )3/ 2
d. (240, 000)3/ 2
58. An imaginary planet has twice the mass and twice the radius of the earth. The
acceleration of gravity at its surface is
a. 4.9m / sec 2
b. 19.5m / sec 2
c. 9.8m / sec 2
d. 39.2m / sec 2
59. If the earth were three times farther from the sun than it is now, the gravitational
force exerted it is now, the gravitational force exerted on it by the sun would be
a. Nine times as large as it is now
b. Three times as large as it is now
c. One third as large as it is now
d. One ninth as large as it is now
60. An artificial satellite is moving in a circular orbit about the earth. If R is the radius of
the earth and h the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth, then which
of the following formulae is used for the orbital velocity of the satellite?
1/ 2
g
a. v R
( R h)
g
b. v R
( R h)
g
c. v R
( R h)
d. 29.6 m / s
61. A weight is suspended from the middle of a rope whose ends are at the same
level. In order for the rope to be perfectly horizontal, the forces applied to the ends
of the rope
a. Must be greater than the weight
b. Must be equal to the weight
c. Might be so great as to break the rope
d. Must be infinite
62. A hliow metal sphere is filled with water and is hung by a long thread. It flows
through a small hole in the bottom, how will the period of oscillation be affected?
a. The period will go on decreasing till the sphere is empty
b. The period will go on increasing till the sphere is empty
c. The period will remain unchanged throughout
d. The period will first increases, then it will decrease will it is empty and the
period will be finally same as when the sphere was full of water
63. What must the volume of a bottom be if it is to support total mass of 10000 kg at a
point where the density of air is 1.2kg / m3 ? (The total mass includes that of the
bottom and the helium with which it is filled, as well as the payload)
a. 833 m3
b. 1200 m3
c. 85 m3
d. 29.6 m / s
64. The minimum velocity of projection to go out from the earths gravitational field is
known as
a. Projectile velocity
b. Escape velocity
c. Angular velocity
d. Terminal velocity
65. The square of a satellite time of revolution round the earth is
a. Directly proportional to the cube of radius of orbit
b. Inversely proportional to the cube of radius or orbit
c. Directly proportional to radius of orbit
d. Inversely proportional to radius of orbit
66. The earth retains its atmosphere because
a. The earth is sphere
b. The mean speed of molecules
c. The earth has population
d. The escape velocity is more than the mean speed of molecules
67. To find time the astronaut in the earth satellite should use:
a. A spendulum clock
b. A watch having spring to keep it going
c. Either of these two
d. None of the above
68. To hit the target, one has to point his rifle
a. Higher than the target
b. Lower than the target
c. In the same direction
d. Vertically upwards
69. The ratio of orbital velocity and escape velocity is
a. 1: 2
b. 2 :1
c.
2 :1
d. 4 :1
70. Acceleration due to gravity is not affected by which one of the following?
a. Latitude
b. Altitude
c. Longitude
d. Depth
71. A rocket can go vertically upwards earths atmosphere because
a. Of gravitational pull of the sum
b. It is highter than air
c. It has a fan which displaces more air per unit time than the weight of the
rocket
d. Of the force exerted on the rocket by gases ejected by it
72. The escape velocity for a body projected vertically upwards from the surface of the
earth is 11.2 km/s. If the body is projected in a direction making an angle of 450
with the vertical. The escape velocity will be:
a. 11.2 2km / s
1
km / s
2
c. 11.2 2km / s
d. 11.2 km / s
b. 11.2
XVII. References:
This is a compiled list of the references, like standard reference books for the discipline, used in the development of the
module. (Not for the learner do not have to be copyright free) Atleast 10 in APA style
Mechanics II.doc
Name of all other files (WORD, PDF, PPT, etc.) for the module .
Compulsory readings MechanicsII.pdf
Abstract: the eight compulsory readings proposed for this module are compiled in one PDF file. .
Read_me.txt
Abstract: In this file you will find information about the other files included in the Readings
Directory (Folder).