Lab Astro Mannual (Outdoor and Indoor Labs)

Table of Contents
Outdoor Exercises
Number
0-1
O-2
0-3
0-4
O-5
O-6
0-7
0-8
O-9
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
O-16
O-17
0-18
0-19
0-20
Title
Observations of Bright Stars
Impact Features on the Waxing Moon
Maria on the Waxing Moon
Observations of a Total Lunar Eclipse
Observations of a Partial Lunar Eclipse
Visual Observations of the Planet Mercury
Visual Observations of the Planet Venus
Visual Observations of the Planet Mars
Visual Observations of the Planet Jupiter
Visual Observations of the Planet Saturn
Visual Observations of a Comet
Observations of Messier Objects
The Field of View of the Telescope
Aligning a telescope with the polar axis
A Planetary Position
The Magnitude Limit
The Seeing Angle
The Visual Magnitude of a Variable Star
The Distance to a Globular Cluster
Observations of the Sun
Indoor Exercises
Number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-10
1-11
1-12
1-13
1-14
1-15
1-16
1-17
1-18
1-19
Title
Math Review and Scaling
Unit transformations, and Calculators
Web Based Lab Excercises
Introduction to the Telescope
The Height of a Lunar Feature
A Volcano on lo
Planetary Storms
The RA and DEC of M4
The Jupiter-Comet Collision of 1994
The Solar Rotation
The Mass of Jupiter
Photographic Photometry
Some Physical Characteristics of a Distant Star
Magnification
Coordinate System of the Telescope
The Distance Between an Interior Planet and the Sun
The Distance and Proper Motion of Barnard's Star
The Radial Velocity of Barnard's Star
Masses in the Earth-Moon System
Extended Exercises
Number
E-l
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
Title
Celestial Motion of the Sun
Observations of the Sunset Point
Extended Observations of the Moon
Celestial Motion of the Moon
Planetary Motions
Observations of a Meteor Shower
Pages
119-> 120
121
123-> 128
129-4 130
131-> 132
133- 134
Appendicies
Number
A-l
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
Title
How to Build A Simple Quadrant
Constants, Unit Conversions, and Formulae
Finding the radius of a circle given an arc
Planetary Data
Major Moons of the Solar System
Star Charts
Roger Culver
Pages
137-4 141
143-4 144
145-4 146
147
149
151-4 164
Sean Roberts
Outdoor Excercises
Exercise 0-1
Observations of Bright Stars

Introduction:
In tonight's exercise you will locate with your telescope ten of the brightest stars currently visible
in the sky, and carefully record your observations of each.
Measurements and Observations:

Using your telescope, locate each of the stars listed in Table O-l-l on page 4 for the appropriate
season. Star charts are given in Appendix A-6. The 88 constellation names and their abbreviations are
given in Table 0-1-2 on page 5. Once the given star is set at the center of the telescope's field of view,
sketch the field of view, including any and all additional stars which are in the field. Note also the color
of the bright star being observed. Record your observations in the following format:
Star:
Observed Color:
Field of View
As much as possible, arrange the stars you observed in order of decreasing brightness.
Questions:
1. Which color(s) are absent in your survey of bright stars?
2. Which color(s) were the most common in your survey?
3. What fraction of the stars in your sample appear to have companion stars? How do the colors of the
companion stars compare with those of the primary stars?
4. Can you suggest two reasons that stars might have different colors?
Table O-l-l
Bright Stars
BF*
Name
RA
DEC
Mag
Distf
Am*
Sep*
CIass
4h35m55s
5h55m10s
5ft16m41s
2h31m13s
7ft34m36s
7/'45m19s
7ft39m18s
5ft14m32s
6/l45m9s
3ft47m29s
16.30
7.24
46.0
89.15
31.53
28.1
5.14
-8.12
-16.43
24.7
0.9
0.8
0.1
2.5
2.0
1.2
0.3
0.1
-1.5
2.9
68
652
45
1087
45
35
11
>1100
9
652
10.2
10.1
8.0
7.0
1.0
7.7
11.2
7.0
10.1
3.3
121.7"
175.8"
484.6"
18.8"
7.0"
201.1"
80.7"
9.9"
11.9"
117.0"
K5
M2
G8
F8
Al
KO
F5
B8
Al
B7
15ft34m41s
17h14m40s
16''29m25s
14h15m40s
12h29m51s
10h19m59s
13''23m56s
2/l31m13"
10ft8m22s
13/l25mlls
26.43
14.23
-26.26
19.11
-16.31
19.51
54.56
89.15
11.58
-11.9
2.2
3.1
1.1
0.1
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
1.4
1.0
76
>1100
172
36
181
172
88
1087
84
155
.
3.1
5.5
.
4.5
1.5
2.1
7.0
6.5
-
.
5.3"
3.4"
24.4"
4.4"
14.8"
18.8"
176.9"
-
AO
MS
Ml
K2
B9
KO
A2
F8
B7
Bl
18/'36ra56s
19''50m47s
20h41m268
2h31m13s
22''5m47s
21/'31m34s
22ft57m39s
23/l4m46"
23h3m47s
I"9m44'
38.47 +0.0
8.52
0.8
1.3
45.16
89.15
2.5
-0.19
2.9
-5.35
2.9
-29.37 1.2
15.12
2.5
2.6
28.5
2.0
5.36
27
17
?
1087
1087
>1100
23
109
217
76
9.5
8.7
10.4
7.0
7.9
_
57.2"
165.4"
75.5"
18.8"
35.7"
_
7.0
9.7
_
264.2"
90.8"
Spring
aTau
a Ori
a Aur
aUMi
a Gem
j3 Gem
a CMi
/30ri
a CMa
TI Tau
Aldebaran
Betelgeuse
Capella
Polaris
Castor
Pollux
Procyon
Rigel
Sirius
Alcyonne
Summer
a CrB
a Her
a Sco
a Boo
<5 Crv
7 Leo
(UMa
aUMi
a Leo
a Vir
Antares
Arcturus
Mizar
Polaris
Regulus
Spica
Autumn
a Lyr
a Aql
a Cyg
aUMi
a Aqr
/?Aqr
a PsA
a Peg
/3Peg
/3 And
Vega
Altair
Deneb
Polaris
Fomalhaut
AO
A7
A2
F8
G2
GO
A3
B9
M2
MO
* Bayer and Flamsteed designation. A greek letter followed by the constellation abbreviation.
* Distance to the star in Light Years.
Calculated from the stars' parallax angle. D = =^p. Where <j> is in arcseconds.
f For multiple star systems.
Am =$ The difference in magnitude between the two brightest stars in the system.
Sep => maximum separation between the two brightest stars in the system.
3 Spectral Class of the star. The brightest star's class is listed in the case of a multiple star system.
Table O-1-2
The 88 Constellation Names

Abbr.
And
Ant
Aps
Aqr
Aql
Ara
Ari
Aur
Boo
Cae
Cam
Cnc
CVn
CMa
CMi
Cap
Car
Cas
Cen
Cep
Cet
Cha
Cir
Col
Com
CrA
CrB
Crv
Crt
Cru
Cyg
Del
Dor
Dra
Equ
Eri
For
Gem
Gru
Her
Hor
Hya
Hyi
Ind
Name
Andromeda
Antlia
Apus
Aquarius
Aquila
Ara
Aries
Auriga
Bootes
Caelum
Camelopardalis
Cancer
Canes Venatici
Canis Major
Canis Minor
Capricornus
Carina
Cassiopeia
Centaurus
Cepheus
Cetus
Chameleon
Circinus
Columba
Coma Berenices
Corona Australis
Corona Borealis
Corvus
Crater
Crux
Cygnus
Delphinus
Dorado
Draco
Equuleus
Eridanus
Fornax
Gemini
Grua
Hercules
Horologium
Hydra
Hydrus
Indus
Abbr.
Lac
Leo
LMi
Lep
Lib
Lup
Lyn
Lyr
Men
Mic
Mon
Mus
Nor
Oct
Oph
Ori
Pav
Peg
Per
Phe
Pic
Psc
PsA
Pup
Pyx
Ret
Sge
Sgr
Sco
Scl
Set
Ser
Sex
Tau
Tel
Tri
TrA
Tuc
UMa
UMi
Vel
Vir
Vol
Vul
Name
Lacerta
Leo
Leo Minor
Lepus
Libra
Lupus
Lynx
Lyra
Mensa
Microscopium
Monoceros
Musca
Norma
Octans
Ophiuchus
Orion
Pavo
Pegasus
Perseus
Phoenix
Pictor
Pisces
Piscis Austrinus
Puppis
Pyxis
Reticulum
Sagitta
Sagittarius
Scorpius
Sculptor
Scutum
Serpens
Sextans
Taurus
Teles copium
Triangulum
Triangulum Australe
Tucana
Ursa Major
Ursa Minor
Vela
Virgo
Volans
Vulpecula
Exercise 0-2
Impact Features on the Waxing Moon

Introduction:
In this lab you will explore the craters on the moon.

Center the moon's image in your telescope's field of view. Using the photographs on pages 11 and
12, and table O-2-1 on page 8, locate and identify three lunar craters which are located at or near the
moon's terminator. Using a higher magnification eyepiece, focus in on each of the craters you identified
and make a sketch of each one in your lab book, noting as many characteristics (central peaks, ray
systems, etc.) as you can. Repeat this process for three craters which are located away from the moon's
terminator. Indicate the time and date of your observations in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Compare and contrast the structures of the craters you observed along the moon's terminator.
2. Compare and contrast the structures of the craters you observed away from the moon's terminator.
3. How does the general appearance of craters observed along the moon's terminator compare with that
of the craters away from the moon's terminator.
4. Sketch the approximate configuration of the Earth, Sun, and Moon at the time you made your observations. This diagram should be as though you are looking down on the three objects from above the
north pole of the Earth.
Table 0-2-1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Name
Aristoteles
Eudoxus
Mortis
Hercules
Atlas
Endymon
Cassini
Aristillus
Autolycus
Archimedes
Poisonius
Geminus
Romer
Macrobius
Bessel
Julius Caesar
Plinius
Manilus
Agrippa
Delambre
Triesnecker
Ptolemaeus
Impact Features
Phase*
F
F
F
F
F
F
B
B
B
B
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
B
F
F
B
B
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Name
Alphonsis
Arzachel
Hipparchus
Albategnius
Herschel
Purbach
Abulfeda
Werner
Aliacensis
Geber
Theophilus
Cyrillus
Catharina
Piccolomini
Maginus
Walter
Pitiscus
Langrenus
Plato
Le Verrier
Helicon
Delisle
Phase*
B
B
B
B
B
B
F
B
B
F
F
F
F
F
B
B
F
F
L
L
L
L
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Name
Phase*
L
Aristarchus
L
Timocharis
L
Lambert
L
Copernicus
L
Kepler
L
Eratosthenes
L
Lansberg
L
Euclides
L
Parry
L
Mosting
L
Bullialdus
L
Campanus
L
Hainzel
L
Pitatus
L
Tycho
L
Wilhelm
L
Longomontanus
Clavius
L
L
Grimaldi
L
Billy
L
Deslandres
L
Pytheas
In table O-2-1 the phase columns refer to which picture that particular feature can be found on.
F=First Quarter phase page 11
L=Last Quarter phase page 12
B=Both (these features are near the terminator in both pictures)
Exercise O-3
Maria on the Waxing Moon

Introduction:
In this lab you will explore the maria (dark areas) on the moon.

Center the moon's image in your telescope's field of view. As accurately as possible sketch-tile
image of the moon in your lab book and label the maria using the photographs on pages 11 and 12 and
table 0^}_-_l_at the bottom of this page. Indicate^ which of the lunar maria (dark areas) are (a) totally
visible and (b) partlaTIjTvisible. Record your observational results in your lab book. Estimate the total
fraction of the moon's visible surface covered by the maria, and record this estimate in your lab book.
Also note the difference in crater density (number of craters per unit area) between the maria and the
areas outside of the maria. Record this observation in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Which of the visible maria has the largest surface area? Which has the smallest? Estimate the ratio of
the sizes of the largest maria to the smallest.
2. Discuss any differences you observed between the maria located at the moon's terminator and those
located away from the terminator.
3. Propose an explanation for the differences between the crater density within the maria and that outside
the maria.
4. Discuss the medieval view that the maria are bodies of water.
Table 0-3-1
A
B
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Maria
Name (Latin)
Mare Crisium
Mare Serenitatis
Mare Tranquillitatis
Mare Vaporum
Mare Fecunditatis
Mare Nectaris
Mare Frigoris
Mare Marginis
Mare Smythii
Mare Australe
Mare Imbrium
Oceanus Procellarum
Mare Humorum
Mare Nubium
Mare Insularum
Mare Cognitum
Name(English) Phase
Sea of Crisis
F
F
Sea of Serenity
Sea of Tranquility F
B
Sea of Vapors
F
Sea of Fertility
Sea of Nectar
F
B
Sea of Cold
F
Border Sea
F
Smyth's Sea
F
Southern Sea
L
Sea of Rains
Ocean of Storms L
L
Sea of Moisture
Sea of Clouds
L
L
Sea of Isles
L
Known Sea
12
Exercise O-4
Observations of a Total Lunar Eclipse

Introduction:
In this exercise you will make observations of one of the sky's more impressive events, a total eclipse
of the moon.

At 15 minute intervals sketch the boundary of the earth's shadow on your lunar map (page 17) as
it creeps across the moon. Note the time of each of your observations. Record your results in your lab
book. During totality, or the total phase of the eclipse, rate with your unaided eye the luminosity or
L-value of the moon according to the so-called Danjon system in which the ratings are as follows:
L=0 Very dark eclipse. Moon almost invisible, expecially at mid-totality.
L=l Dark eclipse with gray or brownish coloration. Details on moon distinguishable only with difficulty.
L=2 Deep red or rust-colored eclipse. Central regions of the moon are dark and outer rim of moon relatively
bright.
L=3 Brick-red eclipse. Rim of moon yellowish and relatively bright.
L=4 Very Bright copper-red or orange eclipse with a bluish very bright lunar rim.
Record your rating in your lab book.
Calculations:
Use the technique in appendix A-3 to determine the diameter dss of the shadow edge. Measure
the diameter du of the moon on the same scale. Calculate the diameter DES of the earth's shadow at
the lunar distance using the scaling equation
DBS =
x 3500 km
Compare your value of DES with the value of 12,700 km for the linear diameter of the earth itself.
Choose any two of your shadow observations and measure the difference AX in the shadow positions
on your lunar map and the diameter XM of the moon. Express the time difference A* between your two
observations in hours and then calculate the velocity VM of the moon as it enters the earth's shadow
from
AX
VM
3500
= "AT x -x^
Enter your results in your lab book.
13
km/hr "
If the moon takes 27.3 days or 655 hours to complete one orbit about the earth, calculate the
circumference CM of the moon's orbit and the radius RM of the moon's orbit, or the mean distance
between the moon and the earth using:
CM = VM x 655
R -Cu
RM~^
Record all of your results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Sketch the relative positions of the earth, moon, and sun at the time the lunar eclipse occurred. On
the basis of your sketch, during what phase(s) of the moon would you expect the next such eclipse to
occur?
2. Discuss (a) why the moon is visible when it is totally inside of the earth's shadow and (b) why the
brightness and color of the total phase change from lunar eclipse to lunar eclipse.
3. Discuss the geometric relationship between the diameter of the earth's shadow at the moon's distance
and the linear diameter of the earth itself. In particular, what do your results tell you about the linear
diameter of the sun compared to that of the earth and moon?
4. Some individuals believe that the phases of the moon are caused by the moon passing through the
earth's shadow. How would you respond to such a claim?
14
Exercise 0-5
Observations of a Partial Lunar Eclipse

Introduction:
As the moon orbits the earth, from time to time it enters the earth's shadow. Such an event is
called a lunar eclipse or an eclipse of the moon. If the moon is completely immersed in earth's shadow,
the eclipse is said to be a total eclipse. On the other hand, if the immersion is not complete, then the
eclipse is said to be partial. In this exercise you will make observations of a partial lunar eclipse.

Center the moon in your telescope's field of view. At 15 minute intervals sketch the boundary of
the earth's shadow on your lunar map (page 17) as it creeps across the moon. Note the time of each of
your observations. Also record your impressions of any and all color changes that you perceive across
the lunar surface as the eclipse progresses.
Calculations:
From your observations, estimate the maximum percentage of the lunar surface which was covered
during this partial eclipse to about 10 percent or so. Record this estimate in your lab book.
Measure the diameter dw of the lunar map and the largest radial distance d$ between the shadow
edge and the lunar edge at the maximum phase of the eclipse. Record your results in your lab book.
Calculate the angle a by which the moon missed being totally eclipsed using the scaling equation
ds
a = 0.5 degrees
where 0.5 degrees is the angular diameter of the moon. Enter your result in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Sketch the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun at the time of this eclipse. From your diagram, at
what phase of the moon does a lunar eclipse occur? How does this prediction agree with what you
actually observed?
2. Show by means of diagrams how a partial eclipse of the moon differs from a total eclipse of the moon.
3. Which type of eclipse, total or partial, do you think occurs more frequently? Explain your answer.
15
Exercise O-6
Visual Observations of the Planet Mercury

Introduction:
The planet Mercury is a most elusive object owing to the size of its orbit, the speed that it moves
in its orbit, and the size of this planet. In this exercise you will take advantage of an appartition of this
planet which is called greastest eastern elongation in order to make some telescopic observations.

Locate the planet Mercury in your telescope. Sketch the view of the planet in your lab book noting
the shape and color of the planet as well as any surface features that you can see on the disk. Note
also the degree to which the planet appears to "twinkle" in the telescope. Record all of your results in
your lab book. Locate a star about the same altitude above the horizon as Mercury and note in your
lab book the degree to which the star appears to twinkle compared to the planet Mercury. Repeat this
observation for a star that is nearly overhead, and record this result in your lab book.
Questions:
1. On the basis of your sketch of the shape of the planet Mercury, draw a diagram of the relative positions
of the Earth, Mercury, and the Sun at the time of your observation.
2. Explain why each of the factors listed in the introduction make Mercury a difficult object to observe
from the Earth.
3. On the basis of your observations is the old saying that "stars twinkle, planets don't" true? Explain.
4. On the basis of your observations, can you provide an explanation for the phenomenon of twinkling?
19
Exercise O-7
Visual Observations of the Planet Venus

Introduction:
Tonight you will observe the planet Venus.

Using your telescope, locate the planet Venus and in your lab book make a sketch of the planet's
disk as it appears in the field of view. Sketch any details on the disk that you can detect in moments of
"clear seeing" when the earth's atmosphere "steadies up" for a few tenths of a second. Note the colors
of such details as well as the color of the overall disk. Check for any objects in the field of view which
might be satellites of Venus. Record all of your data in your lab book as well as the focal length of
the eyepiece that you used in making your observations. Also obtain from your instructor the angular
separation between Venus and the Sun at the time of your observations and record this value in your
lab book.
Repeat the above observations using an eyepiece having a different focal length. Record all of these
results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Comment on the number of features which you observed on Venus' image. Explain your result in terms
of the atmosphere, if any, of Venus.
2. Prom your observed shape of Venus, sketch the relative positions of Venus, the Earth, and the Sun at
the time you made your observation. Can your observations be accounted for by having Venus orbit the
Earth? Explain.
3. If the mean distance between Venus and the Sun is about 0.7 astronomical units, determine by means
of a scaled diagram (see below), the value of the maximum possible angular separation between Venus
and the Sun as seen from the Earth. Assume that Venus moves in a circular orbit about the Sun and
that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is 1.0 astronomical units.
Venus
Angle of Maximum
Angular Separation
Earth
Not To Scale
Orbit of Venus
21
Exercise 0-8
Visual Observations of the Planet Mars

Introduction:
Tonight you will observe the planet Mars. Because it is the closest outer planet it often offers some
of the best viewing.

Using your telescope, locate the planet Mars and in your lab book make a sketch of the planet's
might be satellites of Mars. Record all of your data in your lab book as well as the focal length of the
eyepiece that you used in making your observations.
Repeat the above observations using an eyepiece having a different focal length. Record all of these
results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Discuss the problems associated with sketching Mars at the telescope.
2. Compare and contrast the observed colors of the Martian disk and details perceived at high magnification
with those perceived at the lower magnification.
3. To what extent, if any, did the higher magnification permit you to better see detail on the disk of Mars?
4. If you observed starlike objects in the vicinity of Mars which might be satellites of Mars, indicate what
additional observations you would make in order to verify or disprove that such objects are indeed
Martian satellites.
23
Exercise 0-9
Visual Observations of the Planet Jupiter

Introduction:
Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. In fact it is larger than all the other planets
combined. Because of its size and brightness it is one of the most interesting objects to observe through
a small telescope.

Using your telescope locate the planet Jupiter, and in your lab book make a sketch of the planet's
might be satellites of Jupiter. Record all of your data in your lab book as well as the focal length of the
eyepiece that you used in making your observations. Repeat the above observations using an eyepiece
having a different focal length. Record all of these results in your lab book.
Now make a sketch in your lab book of Jupiter's disk as well as any and all star-like objects in the
field of view.
Determine the number of these objects which lie along Jupiter's equatorial plane, or the line along
the largest dimension of Jupiter's oblong disk. The number of such objects which are visible can range
from zero up to four, but usually at least two of these Galilean satellites are visible.
Having identified the Galilean satellites which are visible in the telescope, note the order of apparent
brightness as well as any colors you are able to detect for these objects.
Using the sky almanac chart provided to you by the instructor, identify which of the Galilean
satellites, lo, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa were visible at the time you made your observations.
Questions:
1. What, if anything, is unusual about the overall shape of Jupiter's disk?
2. Compare and contrast the observed colors of the details on Jupiter's disk perceived at high magnification
with those perceived at the lower magnification.
3. Are there any signs of any of the following on Jupiter's disk: eruptive features, atmospheric features,
geological features, impact features?
4. Jupiter rotates once every 9.8 hours. Through what angle has the planet rotated while you are in the
laboratory session this evening.
5. Suppose that a background star was located in the field of view of your telescope. Describe how you
might distinguish such a star from Jupiter's Galilean satellites.
6. Suppose that you observed Jupiter and saw no Galilean satellites. Describe the configuration of the
satellites which would produce such a result.
7. On the basis of your observations, which of the Galilean satellites do you think might be the largest?
Explain the assumptions that you make in formulating your answer.
25
Exercise 0-10
Visual Observations of the Planet Saturn

Introduction:
Tonight you will observe the planet Saturn. Saturn is famous for its glorious system of rings, and
is a very exciting object to view in a telescope. Although it is very distant, its size and brightness make
it relatively easy to view.

Locate the planet Saturn in your telescope and place the planet's image in the center of the field of
view. Sketch the image of Saturn in your lab book. Note the shape of the planet, any starlike objects
you can see in the field of view, particularly in the vicinity of the planet, the orientation of the ring
system, and the approximate ratio R of the diameter of the outer boundary of the rings to the diameter
of the disk of the planet itself, and record all of these observations in your lab book.
Questions:
1. If Saturn's diameter DSAT is about 120,000 kilometers, estimate the diameter of the outer edge of
Saturn's ring system in kilometers using the scaling relationship
= DSAT x R
2. Using the charts provided by your instructor, determine which, if any, of the star-like objects in your
field of view are actual satellites of Saturn. Identify each by name.
3. Every 15 years the rings of the planet Saturn appear edge-on as seen from the Earth. Show by means
of diagrams why such an effect occurs.
27
Exercise 0-11
Visual Observations of a Comet

Introduction:
In this exercise you will have an opportunity to observe a relatively rare event in the night sky, the
appearance of a bright comet.

Locate the head of the comet in your telescope and carefully sketch the position of the bright central
region with respect to any background stars visible in the field of view. On a separate page, sketch the
comet head, noting the size and brightness of the nucleus, if any, relative to the size and brightness of
the overall surrounding "fuzz" of the comet's coma. Carefully examine the region of the sky around the
comet and determine the extent to which the comet has a visible tail. Note the color and brightness
distribution exhibited by the various regions of the comet. Record all of your observations in your lab
book.
Estimate the ratio of the size of each of the following relative to the size of the telescope's field of
view: nucleus, head, tail. Record these estimated ratios as Rnucieus, ^head> -^taii m your lab book.
After at least 30 minutes sketch for a second time the position of the nucleus of the comet relative
to the background stars. Compare your two position sketches and estimate the ratio -Rmotion of the
amount of the comet's motion to the size of the telescope's field of view. Note also the value of the total
elapsed time t2 t{ between your two position observations.
Questions:
1. From your observations, in what direction relative to the sun is the comet's tail pointing?
2. Using the size foeid of the telescope's field of view in degrees provided to you by your instructor, find the
linear sizes of the nucleus, head, and tail of the comet from your estimated R values and the equation
linear size =
Afield x R x distance
200,000
3. Determine the angular velocity Vang of the comet across the sky using
,r
__ Hmotion * "field
^ang
t2 *1
How does your result compare with the moon's motion across the sky at a rate of about 0.5 degrees/hour?
29
Exercise 0-12
Observations of Messier Objects

Introduction:
In 1781 the French astronomer Charles Messier published a catalogue of 103 "fuzzy patches of light"
or diffuse objects which might be mistaken for comets by Messier and other comet hunters of the day.
The resulting catalogue contains some of the most famed and photographed objects in all of astronomy,
and in this exercise you will make observations of at least two of the objects from Messier's catalogue.

Using the finder chart provided to you by your instructor, locate the first of your Messier objects
and center it in your telescope's field of view. Have your instructor verify that you have indeed found
the given object. Sketch the object in your lab book, noting the shape, coloration, if any, and details
in the object, if any. Estimate the ratio r of the angular size of the object compared to the diameter of
your telescope's field of view. Record all of your observations in your lab book. Repeat the observations
for each of the Messier objects assigned to you by your instructor. Record all of your results in your lab
book.
Calculations:
Calculate the approximate angular size a of each of your Messier objects using the scaling equation
where aa is the angular diameter of your telescope's field of view as determined by you or given to you
by yur instructor. Enter all of your results in your lab book.
Calculate the linear size D of each of your Messier objects using the equation
D=
a-d
206265
where d is the distance to the object given to you by your instructor, and enter your results in your lab
book.
Each of the following classes of objects can be found in the Messier Catalogue:
galaxies
open star clusters
supernova remnants
globular clusters
gas/dust clouds
planetary nebulae
On the basis of your observations and previous calculations, identify the category to which you feel each
of your Messier objects belongs. If you feel that a given object might belong in more than one category,
so state. Enter all of your conclusions in your lab book.
31
Questions:
1. There are many other diffuse objects which can be seen in small telescopes but which do not appear in
the Messier Catalogue. If you were a comet hunter, how would you distinguish such an object from a
genuine comet having a diffuse appearance and no tail?
2. For those objects which could be assigned to more than one category, discuss what additional observations and/or instrumentation you might make or use in order to resolve the ambiguity.
3. Why do you suppose that there are so many fundamentally different kinds of celestial objects in the
Messier Catalogue?
32
Exercise 0-13
The Field of View of the Telescope

Introduction:
The angular diameter of a telescope tells us how large of a portion of the sky a telescope can see
at one time. For example, if 2 stars are 1 apart and just fit in the telescopes field of view the angular
diameter of the telescope/eyepiece system is 1.
This is useful when we view extended objects like nebulae, and want to know the extent to which
a telescope with a given eyepiece will be able to see all of the nebula.

Align as accurately as possible the polar axis of your telecope mounting. Set your telescope on the
object assigned to you by your instructor. Turn off the telescope drive and measure the total time T
that it takes the object to drift from the center of the field of view to the edge. R.ecord your result in
your lab book.
Set the telescope on one of the asterisms in Table 0-13-1 on page 34, and on the basis of how much
or how little of the field of view the asterism occupies, estimate the angular size of the asterism in terms
of a fraction of the angular diameter of the telescope. If the asterism is larger than one field of view the
fraction will be larger than one. Record your results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Assuming that it takes 240 seconds for the field to drift a total of one degree, calculate the angular
diameter Da of your telescope's field of view using
Da (degrees) =
2 x T(sec)
240 degree
Calculate also the angular diameter of the asterism you viewed.
Questions:
1. Explain why your object appears to drift across the telescope's field of view.
2. Derive the equation for Da. Show explicitly why the 240 is present.
3. How would the values of T and Da be affected, if at all, if you employed a higher magnification eyepiece?
Explain.
4. If you were to place Polaris (the Pole Star) in the field of view, describe how this object would drift
across the field of view, if at all. Explain your answer
33
Table 0-13-1
Possible Asterisms to be observed
The Head of Hydra
The Circlet in Pisces
The Keystone in Hercules
The Bowl of the Big Dipper
The Aquarius Water Jar
Delphinus
The Belt of Orion

The Milk Dipper Bowl in Sagittarius
Corona Borealis
The Head of Draco
The Pleiades
Corvus
34
Exercise O-14
Aligning a telescope with the polar axis

Introduction:
In tonight's exercise you will align your telescope with the polar axis of the Earth. This is necessary
for the telescopes clock drive to rotate the telescope in the proper direction. It is also necessary for the
setting circles to be accurate.

First the wedge must be adjusted in altitude in correspondance with the lattitude of the Earth.
Fort Collins is located at 40 N lattitude so adjust the wedge so that the lattitude scale points at 40.
Move the entire telescope so that the fork mount points north and level the telescope by adjusting
the tripods legs. You will find a bubble level on the telescopes mount.
Once the telescope is leveled make sure the finder scope is properly aligned with the main telescope.
Do this by locating an object on the ground through the main telescope. Using the screws on the finder
scope adjust the finder scope until the object visible in the main telescope is right in the center of the
finder scopes cross hairs. Check the main telescope again to ensure the object is still in the center of the
field of view of the telescope since you may have accidentaly moved the telescope slightly when adjusting
the finder. Once the object is in the center of the field of view of both telescopes you can begin the final
stage of polar alignment.
Locate the star Polaris in the sky. The star polaris is within a degree of the north celestial pole
and so stays virtually stationary at all times. Move the telescope tube so that it is parallel to the polar
axis of the telescope as shown below and lock the DEC lock.
Rotate the telescope or adjust the latitude scale until polaris is in the finder scopes field of view.
Make minor adjustments until polaris is near the center of the cross hairs of the the finder scope. Once
polaris is near the center of the finder scope check that polaris is near the center of the main telescopes
field of view. Make small adjustments to the telescope until Polaris is near the center. Have your
instructor verify you have properly aligned your telescope.
Declination drift
So far we have the telescope roughly polar aligned. This is usually good enough for most purposes.
However if you want to use the telescope to do astrophotography the polar alignment must be very
precise. To more accurately align the telescope we use a technique called declination drift. This technique
is very time consuming so we will not actually align the telescope further. We will however use this
technique to figure out in what direction the alignment is off. In this method we look at a couple of
guide stars and note how they drift out of the field of view. (Note: To actually use this method to
align the telescope it is recommended that you have a piece of equipment called an illuminated reticle
ocular).
Locate a star near the celestial equator and near the meridian (your instructor can help you with
this). Point your telescope at this star using the highest magnification eyepiece available. Use the DEC
fine adjustment knobs to determine which direction in the field of view is north and which is south. Put
the star in the center of the field of view and turn the telescopes drive on. Time how long it takes for
35
the star to drift out of the field of view (if the star is drifting slowly you can time how long it takes to
go from the center of the field of view to a point half way between the center and the edge and multiply
by 2). Record how long the star took to leave the field of view and in which direction the star moved.
If the star drifted south the polar axis of the telescope is too far east. If the star drifted north the polar
axis is too far west.
Now find a star near the celestial equator and about 20 degrees above the eastern horizon (again
your instructor can help you with this). Repeat the procedure above and time how long the star takes
to drift out of the field of view. This time if the star drifts south the polar axis is too low, if the star
drifts north the polar axis is too high.
Calculations:
Using your findings from the declination drift method estimate where the polar axis is off with
respect to Polaris and make a sketch showing where the polar axis is pointing. For example if we found
that the polar axis was too far east and was high and that the the star near the horizon took about
twice as long to drift out of the field of view I would sketch the following.
Polar axis
Polaris
Questions:
1. Explain how a star near the meridian drifting north means the polar axis is too far west.
2. Explain how a star near the horizon drifting north means the polar axis is too high.
3. What would polaris do in the field of view of a telescope that was slightly misaligned and whose drive
was on?
36
Exercise 0-15
A Planetary Position
Introduction:
The right ascension (RA) and declination (DEC) of a planet are constantly changing, while the RA
and DEC of a star are relatively fixed. Using the setting circles on the telescope and the known position
of several nearby stars you will determine the (RA,DEC) position of a planet.

As accurately as possible, align the polar axis of your telescope so that it points toward the North
Star, Polaris. Plug the telescope in to start it tracking. Set the image of the calibration star given to
you by your instructor in the center of the field of view. Set the setting circles so that they read the
correct RA and DEC. Set the image of the first reference star given to you by your instructor exactly
at the center of the telescope's field of view. Record the angular readings from both of the axes of your
telescope mounting in you lab book. Repeat this procedure alternately for the planet being observed
and the second and third reference stars given to you by your lab instructor. Record all of these readings
in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the corrections A to your telescope position readings for the three reference stars employed
using the following equations:
&RA = JM(reading) - -RA(true)

ADEC = DC(reading) - DEC(true)
where the positions of the reference stars are those supplied to you by your instructor.
Find the average values of ARA and ADEC for your reference stars and record these values as
&RA and &DEC in your lab book. Using the average values of the readings recorded for your planet,
RA and DEC, find the RA and DEC for your planet using the following equations:
7L4(planet) = J?l4(planet reading) - AJL4

DEC(planet) = DEC (planet reading) - ADEC
Record your results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Describe the effect of a poorly aligned polar axis on your RA-DEC measurements.
2. Discuss the effect on your measurements of not having the telescope tracking drive turned on while the
measurements are being made.
3. Under what circumstances will the values of A.RA and ADEC be equal to zero? Explain.
37
Exercise O-16
The Magnitude Limit

Introduction:
One of the most important things a telescope allows you to do is to see objects too faint to be seen
with the naked eye. In this lab you will determine the brightness of the faintest stars which can be seen
with your telescope.

Using the finder chart provided by your instructor locate the assigned star cluster in your telescope.
Have your lab instructor verify that you have indeed located this object in your field of view.
As accurately as possible, count the number N0 of stars that are visible in your star cluster through
your telescope. Record your result in your lab book.
Calculations:
Plot in your lab book the apparent magnitude m versus N, the number of stars brighter than
magnitude m using the data provided by your instructor. Draw a "best fit" straight line through the
resulting set of points. Prom your graph and using the value you obtained for N0, read off the value
m,L, which corresponds to your value of N0. Record your value of mi in your lab book. This value of
mi represents an approximate value of your telescope's limiting magnitude.
Questions:
1. Estimate the uncertainty in your value of N0 and the corresponding uncertainty in your m^ value.
2. How many stars in your cluster do you estimate would be brighter than magnitude +13? Explain.
3. As the value of m continues to increase, discuss what happens to the plot of N versus m? Explain.
4. Measure the diameter DT of your telelscope's aperature. Calculate the ratio of the brightness between
the naked eye limit and the telescope limit using
Compare this value with the theoretical value of R which is given by
where Deye is equal to the diameter of the human eye and is equal to about 0.5 cm or 0.2 inches. Discuss
any significant differences between the R values.
5. Will the magnitude limit be the save every night? Explain why or why not.
6. In terms of the magnitude limit and your answers to the two questions above discuss the advantage the
Hubble Space Telescope has over similar sized ground based telescopes.
39
Exercise 0-17
The Seeing Angle

Introduction:
The seeing angle is a way of measuring the resolving power of a telescope on a given night. The
resolving power tells you about the telescope's ability to resolve two nearby objects into two distinct
images.

Using your telescope, locate each of the pairs of stars indicated to you by your instructor. Have
your instructor verify that you have found each object on your list. Determine which of these star pairs
appear to you to be (a) two separate stars, (b) a single but elongated image, and (c) a single image with
no hint of elongation. Record your results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Determine the value of the seeing angle for this night in the following fashion: If one of the images
is elongated, note the angle of separation. This angle is equal to the seeing angle for the night. If all
of the images are either cleanly separated or appear single, note the largest angle of separation AL for
which the image remains single in appearance. Record this value in your lab book. Note the smallest
angle AS for which the image is cleanly separated into two stars. Record this result in your lab book.
Estimate the angle of seeing A for the night using the following equation:
Enter your results into your lab book.
Questions:
1. What is the significance of the seeing angle of an observer?
2. Give a couple of reasons why the seeing angle changes from night to night.
3. The theoretical resolving power of a telescope indicates the existence of a minimum possible seeing angle
for a telescope. Explain why this minimum seeing angle can never be realized.
4. In terms of teh seeing angle and your answers to the above two questions, explain the benefits of the
Hubble Space Telescope over similar sized ground based telescopes.
5. Is it possible for the seeing angle to be improved (made smaller) on a given night? Explain.
41
Exercise O-18
The Visual Magnitude of a Variable Star

Introduction:
Variable stars are stars whose brightness varies periodically in time. The period of the star's
brightness is related to the mean absolute magnitude of the star. Thus if we measure the apparent
magnitude of the star over time we can determine a lot about the star, especially distance. In this lab
we will measure the apparent magnitude at one instant.

Locate the variable star assigned to you by your instructor in your telescope. Also identify two
comparison stars in the field of view whose brightnesses bracket the apparent brightness of your variable
star. Have the instructor verify that you have indeed located the variable star in your telescope.
Assign a "grade" or "rating" to the brightness of the variable star as it appears to you in the
telescope according to the following scale:
Description
Actual Magnitude
As bright as the brighter comparison star
MBR
Brighter than halfway but not as bright as the brighter comparison star
MBR +
Halfway in brightness between the two comparison stars
MBR +
Fainter than halfway but not as faint as the fainter comparison star
MBR +
As faint as the fainter comparison star
MBR + AM = MFT
Calculations:
Calculate the actual magnitude for the variable star by first determining the value AM = MFT
MBR, where MFT is the magnitude of the fainter of your two comparison stars and MBR is the magnitude
of the brighter of your two comparison stars. Using this value for AM, calculate the visual magnitude
of your variable star according to the values listed in the table above for a given rating. Record all of
your results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. What color does your variable star appear to be when viewed through your telescope?
2. Estimate the uncertainty in your value of M.
3. How does your measured value of m compare with the maximum brightness listed for your variable star?
43
Exercise O-19
The Distance to a Globular Cluster

Introduction:
In this exercise you will obtain the distance to a globular cluster using a technique often employed
by astronomers in dealing with remote objects in the universe.

Locate the globular cluster assigned to you by your instructor and center the object in your telescope's field of view. Estimate the ratio r of the apparent size of the globular cluster relative to the
size of the entire field of view of the telescope. Enter your measurement in your lab book. Repeat this
measurement for at least one other eyepiece and enter those results in your lab book as well.
Calculations:
Calculate the angular diameter a of the globular cluster for each eyepiece measurement using the
relation
a = raa
where a0 is the angular diameter of the telescope's field of view as measured by you or provided you
by your instructor. Convert your results into arcseconds (one degree = 3600 arcseconds.) and enter your
results in your lab book. Assuming that the typical globular cluster has a linear diameter of about 325 light
years, find the distance d to the globular cluster using the relationship
d(light years) =
325 x 2.06 x 105
Calculate the distance to the cluster measured for each eyepiece used. Find the average value of the
distance and enter your result in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Estimate the uncertainty in the value of the cluster distance from the variation in values obtained with
different eyepieces.
2. As you employ different eyepieces, what quantities will remain the same in this exercise? What quantities
will change with a change of eyepiece?
3. In what year did the light from the globular cluster you observed leave that cluster?
45
Exercise 0-20
Observations of the Sun

Introduction:
Because our sun is the star closest to us, it has been studied more than any other star. It is the
only star close enough to show considerable details on the surface. Because the sun is so bright one
must be extremely careful not to look directly at the sun.

Place the solar filter on your telescope. Have your instructor verify that your telescope is indeed
safe for observing the sun.
Sketch the sun's disk in your lab book, recording the number and pattern of sunspots that are
visible, any structure that you are able to see in the individual sunspots, and any variation in the light
intensity over the sun's disk. Record all of your results in your lab book as well as the time and date of
your observation.
Determine the number g of overall sunspot groups that you observed and the value of s, the total
number of individual spots. Record your results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the observed sunspot number N using the defining equation
N = Wg + s
and record this result in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Discuss the factors which could affect the observed value of N for (a) a given telescope and (b) different
observers using different telescopes.
2. How would you show that the sunspots you observed were not specks of dust or dirt on the telescope's
lens or mirror?
3. When Galileo reported the discovery of sunspots, many of his contemporaries took the view that these
objects were in fact planets passing between the Earth and the sun. Describe the observation(s) you
would make to prove Galileo correct.
47
Indoor Excercises
49
Excercise 1-1
Math Review and Scaling

Introduction:
In this lab we will review some tools necessary to do basic astronomy.

Section 1 - Math review
During the semester we will have to do a small amount of basic algebra. The main thing to
remember is whatever I do to one side of an equation I must do to the other. To solve an equation I
systematically isolate the variable I am looking for by multiplying the correct factors to both sides of the
equation, so that the variable I want to solve for is alone on one side of the equation in the numerator.
As an example we will solve the equation Z = ~ for X. First I must get X out of the denominator of
the right hand side, to do this I multiply both sides by X, which leaves me with the equation XZ = Y.
Now I need to get X alone so I divide both sides by Z (or equivalently multiply both sides by 4).
(X)Z=-(X)
=> XZ = Y =>
-XZ = Y -
X =
The following are the rules for simplifying expressions with exponents.
Xn
XnYn = (XY}n
(Xn)m = Xn'm
XnYm cannot be simplified.
Compound fractions are fractions where either the numerator or the denominator also have fractions. To simplify a compound fraction, bring the bottom fraction up to the top and flip it over as
shown below.
(xlxY)
()
Section 2 - Math with units
When you do mathematics on numbers with units the result may or may not have a unit. The rules
to determine if it has a unit, and if it does have a unit, what that unit is, are simple. Simply stated
whatever you do mathematically to a number you must do to the units. So if you divide a number with
units of meters by a number with units of seconds the result will have units of meters per second ().
As an example lets say I'm using the equation X = !L^ where a = 2 m, b = 3 Kg, and c = 4 s then:
X =
C2mf-(3Kg)
(4s)
4m2-3Kg
4-3m2-Kg
4s
The unit for X here is meters squared times Kilograms per second (or equivalently Kilogram meter
squared per second).
It is possible for all of the units to cancel out, the result in this case simply has no units. A pure
number such as this gives a comparison between two objects. For example to compare the diameter of
51
earth (12756 Km) to the diameter of Mars (6787 Km) I would find the ratio of their diameters.
Dearth
12756 Km
= 1.879
6787 Km
This tells me earth is 1.879 times larger than Mars. Note this is true regardless of what units the
diameter of earth and Mars are measured in as long as they were measured in the same units. This
is seen often in astronomy - giving sizes and masses in terms of known celestial objects (normally the
earth or the Sun).
Ratios of like quantities can be used to find scales, and to do unit transformations. We will see how
this works in the next section and in a future lab.
Section 3 - Scaling
If I look at a picture of two trees that are of equal distance from the camera and the picture shows
one of the trees being twice as tall as the other, then the tree actually is twice as tall as the other. If
I know the actual height of one of the trees then I know the scale of the picture. In order to find the
height of the other tree I simply measure the height of both trees on the pictures and set up the ratio of
the size of the unknown object on the picture to the size of the known object on the picture. I also set
up the ratio of the actual size of the unknown object to the actual size of the known object. Since the
ratio of the picture sizes is equal to the ratio of the actual size we can now set up the following equality.
Measurement of unknown object on picture _ Actual size of unknown object
Measurement of known object on picture
Actual size of known object
I then solve for the number that I don't know (Actual size of unknown object).
Sometimes the scale for a picture is already known. The scale may be given as how the size of an
object on the picture relates to it's real height, i.e. 1 cm = Smiles.
Calculations:
Section 1 - Math review
Solve the following equations for X.
a)
|= J
b)
**=Z
Simplify the following expressions.
c) X2-X3
d) (X3f
e)
Y3
Section 2 - Math with units

Using o = 2 m, b = 3 Kg, c = 4 s, and g = 10 *J find the units of K, V, M, P, W, and D.
a) K = j6 (f)
b) V = *^pc) M = ^
d) P = g-b-a
e) W = ^-
f) D =
52
Section 3 - Scaling
a) Figure 1 is a picture of 3 buildings. We know building A is 400 feet tall. Use this information to find
the heights of buildings B,C.
"
Figure 1
b) Use Figure 2 with a scale of 3 cm = 4 Astronomical units to determine the distance to go from A
B -> C - A in Astronomical units.
Figure 2
A
O
53
Questions:
1. The harmonic law relates the orbital period of a satellite to the radius of the orbit. We can write the
hamonic law as:
a^ _ G-M
p2
4^2
Where a is the radius of the orbit, p is the orbital period and M is the mass of the object being orbited,
and G is a constant. Solve the harmonic law for the orbital period.
The orbital period is related to the velocity of the satellite by
p=
27T-0
Use this relationship to find the velocity of the satellite in terms of the radius of the satellite and the
Mass of the object being orbited.
If G has units of ^.,2 (s is seconds), a has units of m (meters) and mass has units of Kg (Kilograms),
what are the units of the orbital period?
What are the units of the velocity?
2. The large crater in the following picture is the crater Tycho.
Tycho has a diameter of 85 Km. Use the technique in Appendix A-3 to determine the diameter of
Tycho on the picture and then determine the actual diameter of the small crater just to the right of Tycho
(indicated by the arrow)?
54
Excercise 1-2
Unit transformations, and Calculators

Introduction:
In this lab we will continue to review some tools necessary to do basic astronomy that we begin in
Math Review and Scaling.

Section 1 - Unit transformations
We can use ratios to do unit transformations if we know the conversion factor. The conversion
factor is just the ratio of one unit to another. For example if I wish to find how many seconds are in
2.4 minutes I set up the ratio of seconds to minutes which is equal to the conversion factor
Jfseconds
2.4 minutes
60 seconds
1 minute
I now just solve for the unknown (X).
Section 2 - More on unit transformations

When I solve for X in the above equation I get
/ 60 seconds \ (in seconds) = 2.4 minutes x
V 1 minute /
So to change units I simply multiply the number by the conversion factor to get to the new unit. I
just have to make sure I write my conversion factor so that the old units totally cancel leaving me just
with the new units.
Section 3 - Scientific notation

Scientific notation allows us to write very large or very small numbers in a convienient fashion. A
number written in scientific notation is in the following format Y x 10" where Y is a decimal number
and n is an integer. The integer n tells us how far to move the decimal point (the sign tells you what
direction to move it) in order to write the number out long hand. For positive n you move the decimal
n spaces to the right (these are large numbers) for negative n you move the decimal n places to the left
(these are small numbers). For example:
4.2 x 106 = 4200000
and
5.2 x 10~5 = .000052
If a number is written out long hand and you wish to write it in scientific notation you determine
how many places you must move the decimal point so that there is one digit in front of the decimal
point. If you had to move the decimal point n places to the left the exponent is +n. If you had to move
the decimal point n places to the right the exponent is n. For example:
89000 = 8.9 x UP
and
55
.0000034 - 3.4 x 10 -6
Section 4 - Significant Figures

Whenever we measure something we cannot measure it to an infinite level of accuracy. When we
report a measurement we must relay the level of accuracy of the measurement. We do this by reporting
the number with the proper number of significant figures. For example when I use a metric ruler (one
with centimeters) to measure the length of something I can only measure to an accuracy of -^ of a
centimeter, therefore it doesn't make sense to report a measurement of 1.52 cm with this ruler since we
cannot be sure of the 2.
To determine the number of significant figures a number has we simply follow a couple of rules.
1) Digits other than zero are always significant.
2) Final zeros are always significant.
3) Zeros between two other significant digits are always significant.
4) Zeros between a decimal point and the first non-zero digit are never significant.
The following table gives several numbers and the number of significant figures it has.
Number
Significant figures
1.2
2
1.30
3
1.002
4
.00003
1
Often times we must do calculations of numbers we get from making measurements. It is possible
that the various measurements can be measured to different accuracy. For example I may be able to
measure the length of an object to j^ of a centimeter, but can measure the mass to j^j of a kilogram.
Any calculations we do with these numbers must correctly handle the differing level of accuracy between
the two measurements. This is done with a simple rule which states that the result should have the
same number of significant figures as the number with the least number of significant figures used in
the calculations. For example if I add 3.2 and 3.47 your calculator will give you 6.67, but you should
report 6.7 in order to keep the correct number of significant figures. The moral of the story is that you
can round your numbers, and you can use this rule to determine how many digits to round them to.
Section 5 - Using a scientific calculator

You will be using your calculator throughout the semester. There are a couple of special keys
you must be aware of in order to use it properly. These are the square root key, the exponentiate
key, scientific notation key, and the trigonometric function (sin, cos, tan) keys. There are many, many
kinds of calculators out there and many ways to enter data into them, so it is not possible to cover all
possibilities here. Instead you will either have to play with your calculator until you figure out how to
use it, or you will have to consult your calculators owners manual, or consult your instructor.
56
Calculations:
Section 1 - Unit transformations
Knowing that there axe 2.54cm in 1 inch use the first method for doing unit transformations to
determine how long in inches a stick is that is 7 cm long.
Section 2 - More on unit transformations

Use the second method for doing unit transformations to perform the following conversions.
a) How many seconds are in 4 hours?
b) How many days are in 14000 seconds?
c) How many minutes are in 7.3 years?
Section 3 - Scientific notation

Write the following numbers in scientific notation
a) 12000000
b) .00000034
Write the following numbers out long hand
c) 1.5 x 103
d) 4.1 x 10~5
Section 4 - Significant Figures

Calculate the result of the following operations to the correct number of significant figures,
a) 4.3 x 3.71
b) fa
c) 4.3 + 3.71
d) 300000 x .00004
e) fgm
f) 300000 + .00004
Section 5 - Using a scientific calculator

Give the keys on your calculator you pressed in order to obtain the results of the following calculations as well as the result of the calculation,
i.e. (note -> is short for "I pressed", and the result is in parenthasis)
=-> 3 -> x'y -> 3 -> Inv -> x~1 ->= (5.2)
a)
4 x 104
3 x 10-3
c) sin (45) =
d) 4 + 3 x 3 =
Questions:
1. The kinetic energy of an object is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) by K = |mw2. An object with
a mass of 4.342 x 10~3 Kg moves 3 x 103 meters in .002 seconds. Using this information find the kinetic
energy of this object. Write the answer in scientific notation with the proper number of significant
figures and with the correct units.
2. There is 1.6093 Kilometers in 1 mile and there is 1000 meters in 1 Kilometer. Use this information to
convert the speed of the object in question 1 to miles per hour.
3. If the object in question 1 goes from point A to point B in .007 seconds draw a diagram showing points
A and B at a scale of 2 miles = 3 centimeters.
57
Excercise 1-4
Introduction to the Telescope

Introduction:
The purpose of this lab is to help you become familiar with the telescopes you will be using this
semester.

Examine your telescope carefully and sketch a diagram of a cutaway view of the telescope showing
the positioning of the various lenses and/or mirrors which make up your telescope. Sketch the path
that a typical light ray would take from the point where it enters the telescope to the point at which it
enters the eyepiece. Make sure to label your diagram completely.
Observe a distant object with your telescope using tb*ee different focal length eyepieces. What
difference do you notice from eyepiece to eyepiece? In particular how is the magnification and size of
the field of view effected by the focal length of the eyepiece.
Pick a point in the room and pretend it is the "north star". Set up your telescope so that the polar
axis of the telescope is pointed at that point. Lock one of the axes of the telescope's rotation and leave
the other free to rotate. In this condition, what parts of the room can be observed with respect to the
"north star"? Write down your observations in your lab book. Reverse the locked and unlocked axes
and repeat the above observations. Record your results. If both axes are unlocked, are there any parts
of the room which cannot be seen with the telescope mounting in its fixed position?
Aim your telescope at a light source (A point source works much better than an extended source).
Record your impression of the brightness of the source when viewed through the telescope compared to
viewing the same source with the unaided eye. Cover^j7J, |, and | of the entrance aperature to the
.
telescope. Each time record your impression of the brightness of the source and compare it to viewing
the source without covering the entrance aperature. Is there any effect on what you see besides the
brightness of the image (magnification, size of field of view, focus, etc.) when you cover the entrance
aperature? Does it matter what part of the entrance aperature is covered.
Measure the diameter of the entrance aperture of your telescope, across at least three different
diameters. Record your results in your lab book and calculate the average diameter of your telecope.
As accurately and as safely as possible, have your lab partner measure the approximate diameter
of the entrance aperture (pupil) of your eye. Record this result in your lab book.
Calculations:
The amount of light collected per unit time by a telescope (or anything that collects and focuses
light) is proportional to the area of the detector. Thus the theoretical ratio of the amount of light
collected per unit time by the telescope to that of the human eye is just the ratio of the area of the two
detectors. Since both detectors are circles this ratio is just the ratio of the squares of their diameters.
Calculate the theoretical ratio R of the amount of light collected per unit time by the telescope to
that collected by the human eye using the equation
R=
(diameter of telescope)
(diameter of eye)2
61
Questions:
1. Prom your observations, in what ways does a telescope enhance a given image? What physical characteristics of the telescope allow the image to be enhanced in these ways?
2. What characteristics of distant objects make them difficult to see? How does a telescope overcome these
difficulties to allow us to see these distant objects?
3. Does a telescope mounting need more than two axes of rotation? Explain.
62
Excercise 1-5
The Height of a Lunar Feature

Introduction:
The moon's surface is rich in detail and in the course of lunar exploration and discovery astronomers
have systematically obtained an overall topographical map of these features. In this exercise you will
determine the height of two such features Mons Pico and Mons Piton using the same techniques that
are employed by lunar astronomers.

On the photographs of Pico and Piton on page 65, measure the lengths XPC and XPT of the
shadows of Pico and Piton respectively. Measure also the length X0 of the 100 km scaling line. Record
Calculations:
Using the values of the measured lengths of the shadows Xpc and XPT calculate the actual lengths
I/PC and LPT of the shadows of Pico and Piton respectively using
L=X
100 km
Enter the results in your lab book.

Below is a diagram showing the geometry of a shadow. The relationship between the length of the
shadow and the height of the feature is determined by the angular elevation of the sun above the lunar
horizon. In this case that angle is 4 degrees so the ratio of the height of the lunar feature to the length
of the shadow (f) is roughly .07 (Tan(4)).
Lunar Feature
,s from Sun
Using this information and the values you obtained for LPC and LPT calculate the height of these
two mountains Hpc and HPT- Enter your results in your lab book.
63
Questions:
1. How do the heights of Pico and Piton compare with that of Mount Everest here on earth? The altitude
of Mount Everest is about 29,000 feet and one meter is equal to about 3.28 feet.
2. On the earth altitudes of features are measured with respect to sea level. Will such a system work on
the moon? If not, why not, and what adjustments to the system would you make so that it would work
for the moon's surface?
3. If Pico and Piton are located within the square as shown on the moon's surface, at what phase(s) was
the moon when the photographs for this exercise were taken?
64
3
Ul
0
X
Excercise 1-6
A Volcano on lo
Introduction:
One of the more surprising discoveries made by space age astronomy was the discovery of eruptive
volcanoes on lo, the innermost of Jupiter's Galilean satellites. In this exercise you will analyze the
eruption of one such volcano on the satellite lo.

Use the method in appendix A-3 to determine the radius of lo on page 69 and enter your result in
your lab book. Measure the height h of the eruptive plume as it appears on the satellite image of lo.
Enter this result in your lab book.
Calculations:
Determine the height H to which the material in the eruptive plume was ejected using the scaling
equation
Where R is the actual linear radius of lo and is equal to 1.82 x 106meters, and enter your result in your
lab book.
We now wish to calculate the velocity of the material ejected from the volcano. To do this we rely
on the concept of energy conservation. When the material initially leaves the volcano it posseses only
kinetic energy (energy associated with motion). When the material gets to the high point it no longer
posseses any kinetic energy (at the top it temporarily comes to a stop) but it does contain gravitational
potential energy. Since energy is conserved the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final potential
energy. This gives us a way of relating the height the material rises to how fast it was initially moving.
If the mass of the ejected plume material is m, then the kinetic energy KE of this material as it
left the surface of lo is given by
KE = -mv2
where v is the velocity at which the plume was ejected from the surface of lo. As the plume rises to the
height H, it acquires a gravitational potential energy PE which is given by
PE = m g H
where g is the acceleration of gravity at the surface of lo and is equal to 1.8 meters/sec 2 . If we assume
that all of the plume's initial kinetic energy is transformed into gravitational potential energy as the
plume rises, then at the plume's maximum height H we have
-mv2 = m g H
ft
solving this equation for v yields

67
Using this equation, calculate the ejection velocity v and enter your result in your lab book. Convert
you value of v to Miles per Hour using the fact there are 1.61 Kilometers in one mile.
Questions:
1. A typical volcanic eruption on the earth will eject material up to a height of 30 kilometers or so into
the earth's atmosphere. How does this value compare with your value for the lo volcanic eruption?
2. The acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 9.8^r. Using the average height material rises for a typical
eruption on earth given in question 1, determine the speed the ejected material is leaving a volcano on
earth. Compare this to the speed the material is leaving the volcano on lo.
3. If a volcano on the earth ejected material at the same speed as the volcano on lo does how high would
the material rise above the surface of the earth? How does this compare to the height of a typical
volcano on earth given in question 1?
4. Compare the acceleration due to gravity on the earth to that on lo. Using this as well as the values you
got for the last three questions what can we say about the nature of the volcano on lo?
5. Moving at a rate equal to the ejection velocity of the plume material of the lo volcano, how long would
it take you to travel the distance between Fort Collins and Denver (about 110 km)?
.v\
6. The surface of lo does not exhibit any impact craters similar to those observed on the surface of the
Moon and the planet Mercury. Why do you think this is so?
68
Excercise 1-7
Planetary Storms
Introduction:
Ever since the 17th century discovery of the Great Red Spot in Jupiter's atmosphere, astronomers
have recognized that cyclonic storms, sometimes of considerable size, can form in the atmospheres of the
distant planets. In this exercise you will derive some of the basic characteristics of these phenomena.

Use the method described in appendix A-3 to determine the radius of each of the images of the
Earth, Jupiter, and Neptune shown on pages 73 and 74. Call these radii re , TJ , and rn respectively and
enter your results in your lab book. Measure the major axis d e , dj, and dn respectively for each of the
cyclonic features on the Earth, Jupiter and Neptune and record these results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the actual diameters De, Dj, and Dn of each of the cyclonic storms shown on pages 73
and 74 using the equation
where R is the actual radius of the planet involved (Re = 6400 km, Rj = 71,000 km and Rn = 25,000
km.). D, d, and r are the actual diameter of the storm, the measured diameter of the storm, and the
measured radius of the planet respectively for the planet in question. Enter your results in your lab
book. For each planetary storm, calculate the ratio D/R and record your results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Compare the diameters of each of the storms to the earth's diameter.
2. Compare the values of D/R that you calculated. From your comparison, are there storms on the same
scale? What, if anything, does this tell you about these storms.
3. What size storm would you expect for the planet Mars, which has a radius of about 3400 km?
71
Hurricane on Earth
Great Red Spot of Jupiter
73
Spot on Neptune
74
Excercise 1-8

Introduction:
The celestial coordinates of a given object allow you to find that object quickly in a telescope that
is properly aligned. In this lab you will determine the celestial coordinates of a globular cluster, using
a photograph of the region of the sky in which the cluster is found.

On the photograph of northern Scorpius located on page 77, locate the globular star cluster M4
and choose two comparison stars "A" and "B" out of Table 1-8-1 on page 76 which bracket M4 both
in a north-south (up and down) direction and in an east-west (left and right) direction. Use the finder
chart for northern Scorpius found on page 76 to make your identifications.
Measure the linear distances of the reference stars A and B as well as M4 from the bottom edge
of the photograph. Record these values in your lab book as YA, YB, and YM, respectively. Repeat the
measurements, this time measuring from the left hand edge of the photograph. Record these values in
your lab book as XA, XB, and XMIEstimate an uncertainty in your linear measurement (A). Record this in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the RA of M4 using the following equation:
RAA
^-(RAB-RAA)
Calculate the DEC of M4 using the following equation:

(DECB - DECA]
IB 'A
Calculate the uncertainty in the RA and DEC resulting from the uncertainty in your linear measurement using the following equations:
= DEC A
XJ>A M4 =n 2A
A (RAB-RAA\
6RA
- -
\B - XA J
and 6DECM4 = 2A ---YB - YA

J
Express the position of M4 in your lab book in the following format:
{RAM4 6RAM4,DECM4 8DECM4}
75
Spot on Neptune
74
Excercise 1-8

Introduction:
The celestial coordinates of a given object allow you to find that object quickly in a telescope that
is properly aligned. In this lab you will determine the celestial coordinates of a globular cluster, using
a photograph of the region of the sky in which the cluster is found.

On the photograph of northern Scorpius located on page 77, locate the globular star cluster M4
and choose two comparison stars "A" and "B" out of Table 1-8-1 on page 76 which bracket M4 both
in a north-south (up and down) direction and in an east-west (left and right) direction. Use the finder
chart for northern Scorpius found on page 76 to make your identifications.
Measure the linear distances of the reference stars A and B as well as M4 from the bottom edge
of the photograph. Record these values in your lab book as YA, YB, and YMH, respectively. Repeat the
measurements, this time measuring from the left hand edge of the photograph. Record these values in
your lab book as XA, XB, and XM4.
Estimate an uncertainty in your linear measurement (A). Record this in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the RA of M4 using the following equation:
RAM4 = RAA +X***~*A(RAB - RAA]
&B -X-A
Calculate the DEC of M4 using the following equation:

DECM4 = DEC A + Y"* ~vA (DECB - DECA)
IB i A
Calculate the uncertainty in the RA and DEC resulting from the uncertainty in your linear measurement using the following equations:
.
6RAMt = 2 A
V XB-XA
. , nEV ,
n.gl
and 6DECMt = 2 A
-\
Express the position of M4 in your lab book in the following format:

6DECM4}
75
Questions:
1. Express your value of RA in hours by dividing your result from above by 15.0.
2. Why do you think that the star Antares is not included in the list of possible comparison stars?
3. Why should your comparison stars bracket the position of M4?
pOph
19
22
*
CCI
M4
HR 6070
Table 1-8-1
Star
HR 6070
/2.
r- 19 Sco
a Sco
pOph
22 Sco
VV
T SCO
Field Stars for M4
RA
244.57,5
<^245.158i
245.300
246.400
247.544
_ 248.9715
76
DEC
-28.617
<T 24.167
-25.583
-23.450
-25.117
. -28.217
Excercise 1-9
The Jupiter Comet Collision of 1994

Introduction:
The following lab is an example of a "Back of the Envelope" (BOE) calculation. The idea of a BOE
is to make a simple measurement and apply this data to a very simple model of the astronomical event.
Because the model we use is simple the results it yields can only be interpreted as rough estimates.
Thus a BOE calculation trades accuracy for quick and easy results. Very often a rough estimate is all
we need to answer many of the questions we wish to pose. It can also be a guideline or a check for a
more involved calculation.
In this lab you will use such a technique to get quantitative information on the comet that struck
Jupiter in 1994.

The photograph on page 81 is of Jupiter being struck by fragment R of Comet Shoemaker - Levy
9 on July 21,1994. On this photograph measure the diameter dps of the fireball produced when the
fragment struck the planet.
Use the method of appendix A-3 to determine the radius of Jupiter's image on page 81. Calculate
the diameter of Jupiter dj in the picture using the fact the diameter is twice the radius. Enter your
values for dpg and dj in your lab book.
Calculations:
The Actual diameter of Jupiter is 1.43 x 108m. This allows us to set the scale for the picture. Using
this information find the actual diameter of the fireball.
Calculate the volume of the fireball VFB assuming that the fireball has a spherical shape whose
volume is given by
Record your result for VFB in your lab book.

Assuming that the mass of fragment R was about 1 .6 x 1012kg and that it struck Jupiter at a velocity
of 60, 000^, find the kinetic energy of fragment R when it hit Jupiter, recalling that the kinetic energy
KE of a given object having mass m and moving at a velocity v is given by
KE = mv2
In SI units the unit of energy is called the joule (J) and is equal to l^Jgr. Record your result for the
kinetic energy of fragment R in your lab book.
Assuming that all of the kinetic energy of fragment R was converted into the thermal energy of the
fireball, calculate the energy density PE within the fireball using
PE =
KE
VFB
79
and record your result for PE in your lab book. The mean Kelvin temperature TFB of the fireball can
be estimated from the Stefan-Boltzmann equation
where A is equal to 7.56 x 10~16m3JKj. Calculate the value of TFB and record your result in your lab
book.
Questions:
1. Compare the diameter of the fireball with the diameter of the earth, which is about 1.28 x 107m.
2. The typical nuclear warhead on a ballistic missile releases about 2x 1016 joules of energy when detonated.
How many such warheads would be required to equal the energy released when fragment R struck
Jupiter? If all the worlds nuclear arsenals had a total of 30,000 warheads and these warheads were
detonated simultaneously, compare such an energy release with that of the fragment R fireball.
3. The sun's surface temperature is about 5800K. How does this value compare with the temperature you
calculated for the fragment R fireball?
4. Suppose that the earth's atmosphere, with a volume of about 1.3 x 1019m3 had absorbed all of the
energy of fragment R. To what temperature would the atmosphere of the earth have risen if this energy
had been uniformly distributed throughout the earth's atmosphere as thermal energy? Briefly describe
the effects on the Earth's environment.
Excercise I-10
The Solar Rotation

Introduction:
In this lab you will calculate the rotational period of the sun. We will then use these results to test
an early theory concerning the origin of sunspota, by comparing the measured rotational period to the
rotational period predicted by the theory.

On each of the frames in the photographs of the sun on page 84 measure the total horizontal
distance di between the left hand edge of the sun and a given sunspot or sunspot group of your choice.
Measure also the total horizontal distance d0 between the left hand edge of the sun and the right hand
edge. Record all of your measurements in your lab book.
Plot in your lab book the values of di versus their corresponding total elapsed times, assuming that
each frame was taken at noon or at 0.5 of the given day. Pass a smooth curve through each segment of
your plot during which time the spots are visible on the sun's disk.
Extend your plot to the time t0 when di has a value of 0 at the start of the frame sequence and out
to the time t\n di takes on the value d0 for the second time.
Calculations:
Calculate the rotational period of the sun Prot given by
ti-t0
"rot
1.5
Questions:
1. Explain the equation used to calculate P ro t- Especially the appearance fo the 1.5.
2. If the sun has a radius of 700,000 km, calculate the rotational velocity of the sun in jj^, using your
value for the sun's period of rotation. The rotational velocity of an object moving in a circular orbit of
radius R and period P is given by
vVrot -How does your result compare with the 0.5^ rotational velocity at the Earth's equator?
3. In the early years after the discovery of sunspots in Western Europe, it was suggested that the sunspots
were really planets in close orbit about the sun. If the size of such an orbit is about .005 astronomical
units, calculate the sidereal period P of such and object using the Harmonic Law
(P in years)2 = (a in AU)3
Convert your result for P into days and compare with your value of Prot from above. Comment on the
"planetary" theory for sunspots.
83
98
ir
ir
IT
IT
f ,'=.
ir
ir
ir
i
if
X , j
Excercise I-11
The Mass of Jupiter

Introduction:
The Harmonic Law relates the sidereal period of two objects orbiting each other, the mean separation between them, and the sum of their masses. If one of the objects is much larger than the other one
the sum of the masses is essentially the mass of the larger body. The sidereal period and mean distance
are quantities that are easy to measure. Thus the Harmonic Law gives an excellent way to find the mass
of an object that has another object orbiting it.

Using the set of photographs on page 89, measure the center to center distance between Jupiter
and the satellite nearest to Jupiter on the west side for each of the eight frames shown. Record each of
the measurements in your lab book as di where i runs from 1 (for frame 1) to 8 (for frame 8). Measure
also the length X0 of the 4 arcminute scaling line in the same units.
Plot in your lab book the measured separations versus the total elapsed time and sketch a smooth
curve through your set of plotted points. From your plot, find the value R0, the maximum value for the
Jupiter-satellite separation. Enter your results into your lab book.
Assume this moon orbits Jupiter at a distance of R0. Also assume we are in the orbital plane
of this moon. Draw a scaled diagram of the orbit of the moon as seen from above the North Pole of
Jupiter similar to the diagram shown below. Be sure to indicate the line of sight from the Earth. On
this diagram locate where the moon was at the initial point (di) and at the final point (dg). You should
now be able to determine the angle through which this moon orbited
Orbit of Satellite
Line of sight
Earth
87
Calculations:
Convert your linear value of R0 into astronomical units by using
a=
206265X0
assuming that the value of the distance to Jupiter (D) in that equation is equal to 4.46 astronomical
units. Find the value for the sidereal period of the satellite P using the equation
P = 360'
AT
where AT is the total elapsed time between frame 1 and frame 8. Enter this result in your lab book
along with the value of a, the mean distance between Jupiter and its satellite in astronomical units,
which you previously calculated. Convert your value of P into years, recalling that there are 24 hours
in a day and 365.24 days in a year. Enter your value of P in years in your lab book.
The mass of the planet Jupiter Mj is given by the Harmonic Law as follows:
Mj(\n solar mass units) =
(a in AU) 3
(P in years)
Calculate the mass of the planet Jupiter in solar mass units using your values of a and P and enter
Questions:
1. The mass of the sun is about 2 x 1030kg. Find the mass of Jupiter in kg.
2. Suppose that the orbits of the satellites of Jupiter were perpendicular to our line of sight, as are the
satellites of the planet Uranus at certain times. Sketch a plot of satellite separation versus time for such
a configuration.
3. The mass of the Earth is about 3.0 x 10~6 solar mass units. By what factor is Jupiter more (or less)
massive than the Earth?
88
Satellite I
West
9'
z-
4'
March 27
2:00
March 27 4:00
March 27 6:00
March 27 7:00
March 27 8:00
March 27 10:00
March 27 11:00
March 27 12:00
89
East
Excercise 1-12
Photographic Photometry
Introduction:
The only way we can study a star is by looking at it. Over the centuries astronomers have developed
many methods for gaining information on astronomical objects by analyzing the light. In this lab we
will create a calibration graph so that brightness can be measured from a photograph.

The brighter a star is the larger the image it will create on a photograph. In fact the points on a
calibration graph of brightness v.s. image diameter should fall on a straight line. Use Table 1-12-1 at the
bottom of this page to determine the image brightness of those stars listed and use the photograph of the
Hyades star cluster on page 93 to determine the image diameter of those same stars (the relavent stars
are are labeled on the picture). Create a calibration graph and thus determine the B (blue) magnitude
of 68 Tauri.
Questions:
1. Suppose that a star had a B magnitude of +3.0. What image diameter would this star have on this
photograph?
2. Over what range of magnitudes do you think your calibration graph will give accurate results? Explain.
3. By Using several different best fit lines, estimate an error for your B magnitude of 68 Tauri. This
number would likely decrease if we were to have more data in Table 1-7-1, Why?
4. What is an advantage of measuring star brightnesses in this fashion?
Table 1-12-1
Magnitude Data for the Comparison Stars
Star
B Magnitude
aTau
eTau
pTau
58 Tau
+
+
+
+
91
2.39
4.56
4.90
5.48
93
Excercise 1-13
Some Physical Characteristics of a Distant Star

Introduction:
All stars are unique. However we can group them into general categories based on certain criteria,
such as the appearance of their spectra. We can then use these results to gain information about stars
of a given category. For example, stars having similar spectra have similar surface temperatures.
In this lab you will use the parallax angle and spectral type of a star to find its distance, surface
temperature, luminosity, and radius.

The photograph on page 98 is the spectra of 18 different stars. The photograph on page 99 is the
spectra of known stars of different spectral types. By comparing the spectrum of the star assigned to
you by your instructor to the known spectra determine the spectral type of your assigned star and its
corresponding surface temperatuf? T. Find the ratio %?-, where T0 is the surface temperature of the
sun and is equal to about 5800K. Record your results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Find the distance to your star using the data in Table 1-13-1 on page 96 and the relationship:
distance in parsecs =
1.0
parallax angle in arcseconds
Record your result in your lab book.

Assuming that-the~en^rgy intensity I of your star is equal to the value provided in Table 1-13-1 and
that of the sun is 1360^, calculate the luminosity of your star relative to that of the sun, jf- using
L0
1360
wheied, is the distance to your star obtained above and de is the sun's distance in parsecs, or 4.6 x
10~6pc/ Enter your result for j^- in your lab book.
"Having obtained *- and ij?-, calculate the radius of your star relative to the sun, -j^*- using
Record your result in your lab book.
95
Questions:
1. How do the physical characteristics or temperature, luminosity, and radius for your star compare with
those of the sun?
2. If your star were to be placed at the center of the solar system, to what distance would its radius reach
in km? Assume that the sun's radius is about 700,000 km. Which, if any, of the planets would be
engulfed by such a star?
How long will it take a radio or TV signal to get to your star? Hint: one parsec is equal to 3.26 light
years.
Table 1-13-1
Star
m.
Parallax (arcseconds)
I fW/m 2 )
1
2
3
4
5
6
2.4
4.3
3.5
4.0
3.4
4.7
.020
.120
.018
.037
.108
.022
2.7 x 10~9
4.6 x 10~10
9.7 x 10~10
6.1 x 10~10
1.1 x 10-9
3.2 x 10-10
(?
8
ij'
10
11
12"
3.1
1.8
2.8
3.5
2.3
0.9
.004
.029
.014
.182
.001
.048
1.4 x 10-9
4.6 x 10~9
1.8 x ID"9
9.7 x 10~10
2.9 x 10-9
1.1 x 10~8
13
14
15
16
17
18
3.9
2.0
0.3
0.0
3.4
2.7
.027
.043
.288
.123
.009
.029
6.7 x ID"10
3.9 x 10~9
1.8 x 10~8
2.4 x 10~8
1.1 x 10~9
2.0 x 10~9
96
03
00
CD
r
(D
in
in
in
in
Hydrogen
3835A
Hydrogen
3889A
Hydrogen
Calciin
3934A
CalciiM
3970A
3970A
Heliuri
4026 A
Hydrogen
4101A
Calciun
422&A
Hydrogen
4340 A
Hel in; i
4387A
Iron
4383A
Heliun
4471A
U
tfl
Ul
VI
CO
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0
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<=
a
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a
in
a
a
a
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a
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-Hen
mc
a
n
Excercise 1-14
Magnification
Introduction:
The magnification of a telescope tells us how much a telescope enlarges a given object. The
magnification depends on both the telescope being used and the eyepiece. In this exercise, you will
calculate the magnification for the telescopes you will be using this semester.

Pick out a sample of "fine print" in a textbook, newspaper, etc. Have your partner move the print
sample slowly away from you until the print is no longer readable with your unaided eye. (Don't remove
glasses.) Repeat the exercise, only now have your partner approach you until the print distance becomes
readable. Record each distance in your book as dreCeed and dapproach.
Now observe the same print sample through your telescope, once again moving the sample to a
distance at which the print just becomes unreadable, and again to a distance at which an approaching
print sample just becomes readable. Record each of these distances in your lab book as before.
Calculations:
Calculate the average distance (deye/teiescope) using
,
_ "receed T ^approach
"eye/telescope
n
Calculate the observed value of the magnification of your telescope using the equation
Magnification =_
^telescope
Questions:
1. Magnification can be thought of as the amount a given image appears to be enlarged when viewed
through the telescope. Is this consistent with the way magnification was measured in this exercise?
Explain.
2. Often an astronomical image is blurred by movements in the earth's atmosphere. Will a higher magnification of the image help correct this blurring effect? Explain.
3. The magnification is also given by the following equation:
Magnification =
focal length of primary lens or mirror

r . .i,^
-.
focal length of eyepiece
Using your value for the magnification and the focal length of the eyepiece as given to you by your
instructor, find the focal length of the telescope's primary mirror/lens array.
101
Excercise 1-15
Coordinate System of the Telescope

Introduction:
The purpose of this lab is to help you become familiar with the coordinate system used by most
astronomical telescopes.
Objects in the sky are located by their celestial coordinates. The celestial coordinate system is set
up so that the poles of the coordinate system are directly above the geographic poles of the Earth. In
this lab we will define a "terrestrial" coordinate system that has a pole at the zenith (the point straight
up). We will then be able to chart several objects on the ground based on this coordinate system.

First we must calibrate the telescope to our "terrestrial" coordinate system. First adjust the
Latitude scale on the telescope mounting so that the polar axis points at the zenith. Make sure the
declination (DEC) setting circle reads 90 when the telescope points straight up. Locate the steeple
on the old Fort Collins High School in the telescope. Center the top of the steeple in the telescopes
field of view. Adjust the Right Ascension (R.A.) setting circle so that it reads 0 hours R.A. Have your
instructor verify that you have properly aligned your telescope. Locate as many of the the following
objects as are visible and record their coordinates:
The A on Horsetooth Resevoir.
Horsetooth Rock.
The large flag on the south side of town.
The top of each of the towers (center).
The H in the Holiday Inn sign.
The Moon (if visible).
Point your telescope at the coordinates given to you by your instructor. What do you see there?
Calculations:
Estimate the angular separation between the two towers.
Questions:
1. What would the DEC of Polaris be in the terrestrial coordinate system?
2. Could you assign a unique R.A. to an object on the ground in the regular celestial coordinate system?
Why or why not?
103
Excercise 1-16
The Distance Between an Interior Planet and the Sun

Introduction:
As interior planets whose orbits are smaller than that of the earth, Mercury and Venus appear from
the earth to oscillate from one side of the sun to the other. As they do so they pass through maximum
angular separations from the sun or greatest elongations. By using observations of such an elongation,
you will obtain the distance between one of these planets, Mercury or Venus, and the sun.

Table 1-16-1 on page 106 gives observed angular separations, called elongations, versus time for the
two inner planets. Plot in your lab book the observed elongation versus time for the planet assigned by
your instructor. Sketch a smooth curve through the resulting set of points. From your curve, determine
the value of #max, the angle of greatest elongation between the planet and the sun. Record your result
in your lab book.
Calculations:
Construct the figure shown below using a convenient value for the earth-sun distance (10 cm.
etc.) and the value you obtained for (?max. The line between the planet and the sun should be drawn
perpendicular to the earth-planet line of sight as shown. On your diagram, measure the distance X0
between the earth and the sun, the distance Xp between the planet and the sun, and the distance Xep
between the earth and the planet. Enter all of these measurements in your lab book.
Planet
Earth - Planet line of sight
X,
Earth
Sun
Assuming that the earth-sun distance is equal to 1.0 astronomical unit (AU), calculate the distance
dp between the planet and the sun and the distance dep between the earth and the planet using
d = 2- 1.0 AU
Enter all of your results in your lab book.
105
Questions:
1. Explain what the shape of your elongation curve or plot of elongation versus time plot means.
2. In your diagram of the relative positions of the earth, sun, and planet at greatest elongation, why can
we say that the line from the sun to the planet must be perpendicular to the line from the earth to the
planet?
3. Assuming that your planet moves in a circular orbit, what is the closest approach in AU that the planet
can make to the earth? What are the relative positions of the earth, planet and the sun for such an
approach?
Table 1-16-1
Mercury
Venus
Greatest Western Elongation 1996
Greatest Eastern Elongation 1995-1996
Date
Elongation Angle
Date
May
0
6
10"
15
20
21
Aug
14
18
22
26
30
June 1
5
9
11
13
17
21
25
29
July 3
7
11
22
23
24
23
22
20
18
14
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
May
Elongation Angle
20
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1995
1996
0
3
11
19
26
33
39
44
46
16
June 1
41
33
15
June
10
10
5
0
106
Excercise 1-17
The Distance and Proper Motion of Barnard's Star

Introduction:
There exist about 5000 stars in the heavens which are close enough to the earth to allow astronomers
to triangulate on the star and thus obtain a reliable value for its distance. In this exercise you will
measure the parallax or triangulation angle for one such nearby star, a star called Barnard's star.

On the superimposed set of photographs of Barnard's star on page 109 taken at 0 months, 6 months,
and 12 months measure the length X0 of the 10 arcsecond (10") scaling line and Xpm, the center to
center distance between the two end images. Draw a line between the two end image centers and
measure the perpendicular distance Xpx between this line and the center of the middle image. Record
all of your results in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the parallax angle p of Barnard's star using the equation
1X
p (in arcseconds) = --^~10"
2 X0
Enter your result in your lab book.

The distance d to Barnard's star in parsecs is given by
d (in parsecs) =
p (in arcseconds)
Calculate d and enter your result in your lab book.
The proper motion pm of a star is defined as the change of a star's position in the sky due to the
motion of the star itself. Calculate pm for Barnard's star using the equation
jf
pm (arcseconds /year) = 10
and enter your result in your lab book.
The transverse velocity VT of an object is defined as that component of an object's velocity which
is perpendicular to the line of sight to that object and is given by
VT (km/sec) = 4.74 pm d
where pm is measured in arcseconds per year and d is measured in parsecs. Prom your data calculate
VT for Barnard's star and enter your result in your lab book.
107
Questions:
1. If one parsec is equal to 3.26 light years or about 3.1 x 1013 km, calculate the distance to Barnard's star
in kilometers. How does your result compare with the earth-sun distance of 1.5 x 108 km?
2. In what year did the light from Barnard's star leave for earth if the observations shown were made this
year? What were you doing when the light left Barnard's star?
3. The typical human eye can detect angles as small as 60 arcseconds. From your result for the proper
motion of Barnard's star, how long will it take for Barnard's star to exhibit a total change of position
large enough to be detected with the naked eye?
4. Explain why the tangential velocity increases with distance for an object having a given proper motion.
5. If Barnard's star is moving almost perpendicular to the earth's orbital plane, explain the patterns of
images obtained for Barnard's star at 0, 6, and 12 month intervals. What would the pattern look like
if Barnard's star were moving in the earth's orbital plane?
108
109
Excercise 1-18
The Radial Velocity of Barnard's Star

Introduction:
One of the most important measurements that astronomers can make on a given object is the
measurement of that object's radial velocity, the component of the object's velocity which is directed
along the line of sight to the object. In this exercise you will measure the radial velocity of a relatively
nearby star called Barnard's star

Above and below the specturm of Barnard's star on page 113, locate the iron emission comparison
spectra and in particular, the two emission lines at 4404.75 A (440.475 nanometers) and 4427.31 A
(442.731 nanometers). Measure the center to center linear horizontal distance X0 between these two lines
and record your result in your lab book. Locate the absorption line at 4415.13 A (441.513 nanometers)
in the spectrum of Barnard's star. Measure the horizontal linear distance X between the center of the
4415 line and the position of the 4404 comparision line. Enter your result in your lab book.
Calculations:
Calculate the dispersion DISP of the spectrogram using the relationship
442.731 - 440.475
and enter your result in your lab book. Calculate the observed wavelength A0bs of the 4415 line using
Aobs = 440.475 + DISP X
Enter your result in your lab book. The radial velocity of Barnard's star is now given by
-Mab
Calculate the radial velocity of Barnard's star using the above equation and assuming that Aiab is equal
to 441.513 nanometers and c, the speed of light, is equal to 300,000 km/sec.
Questions:
1. From your results, is Barnard's star coming toward the earth or moving away? Explain your answer.
2. Explain what dispersion is. Explain how we obtained the equation for A^, from the dispersion. In what
way are we using the 440.475 nm line for. What characteristics do you think a comparison spectrum
should have?
3. Will the radial velocity remain the same every night? Besides the combined motion of Barnard's star
and the solar system through space what motions might effect the radial velocity?
Ill
4404.75
4427,31
Excercise 1-19
Masses in the Earth-Moon System

Introduction:
In order to determine the mass of a given celestial object, astronomers must somehow observe how
other bodies move in that object's gravitational field. In this exercise you will obtain the mass of both
the Earth and the Moon using orbital data for the Moon and the Mir space station.

The basic data for this exercise are listed below. Record each of these values in your lab book.
Mir
Moon
Mean Distance from the 6.771 x 106meters
3.844 x 108meters
Center of the Earth
Sidereal Period
5.545 x 103seconds
2.357 x 106seconds
Calculations:
In general the harmonic law can be stated for a two-body system as follows:
=
where a is the mean distance between the two objects, P is the sidereal period of the system, and MI
and MI are the two masses involved. The quantity G is the universal gravitational constant and has a
value equal to 6.670 x 10~umeters3/kg sec2. Solving this equation for the sum of the masses yields
MI + M2 =
47T 2 0 3
G P2
For the Earth-Mir two-body system, we may neglect the mass of Mir and thus obtain that the mass of
the earth ME is
where OMIF is the mean distance between the Earth and Mir and PW,T is the sidereal period of Mir as it
orbits about the Earth. Using this equation and the previously stated values for aMir and Pu;r, calculate
the mass of the earth in kilograms, retaining four significant figures in the process. Enter your result in
your lab book.
If we assume that the mass of the Moon cannot be neglected relative to that of the Earth, we have
for the Earth-Moon two-body system that
where MM is the mass of the Moon,

Moon's sidereal period.
is the Moon's mean distance from the Earth, and PM is the
115
Using the values given for OM and PM above, calculate the sum ME + MM out to four significant
figures and enter your result in your lab book. The mass of the Moon is then just the difference between
the mass of the Earth calculated from the Mir orbital data and the sum ME + MM calculated from the
Moon's orbital data. Calculate MM and enter your result in your lab book.
The mass of the Mir space station is about 2 x 106kg. Using this value and the value you obtained
for the mass of the earth compute the ratio of their masses ( M^' 1. Using the value for the mass of the
moon that you obtained above compute the ratio of the mass of the moon to the mass of earth ( ^jf- j .
Enter your results in your lab book.
Questions:
1. Using the values of ^jfff)
and ( 7 3 ^ - , was it reasonable to neglect the mass of Mir relative to the
mass of the Earth? From your results for the mass of the Moon, would it be reasonable to neglect the
Moon's mass in any future calculations involving the harmonic law? Explain.
2. Assuming that the average mass of a human being is about 75 kg, calculate the total mass of the world's
population of about 5 billion and compare your value to the mass of the Earth you obtained in this
exercise.
3. Suppose that you wished to place a satellite in orbit about the Earth with a sidereal period of exactly
24 hours or 86,400 seconds. At what distance from the Earth's center should the satellite be placed in
orbit? If the Earth's radius is about 6.4 x 106meters, at what altitude would this be? Why would one
want to orbit such a satellite?
116

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Table of Contents

Observations of Bright Stars

Measurements and Observations:

The 88 Constellation Names

Impact Features on the Waxing Moon

Measurements and Observations:

Maria on the Waxing Moon

Measurements and Observations:

Observations of a Total Lunar Eclipse

Measurements and Observations:

Enter your results in your lab book.

Record all of your results in your lab book.

Observations of a Partial Lunar Eclipse

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of the Planet Mercury

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of the Planet Venus

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of the Planet Mars

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of the Planet Jupiter

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of the Planet Saturn

Measurements and Observations:

Visual Observations of a Comet

Measurements and Observations:

Observations of Messier Objects

Measurements and Observations:

The Field of View of the Telescope

Measurements and Observations:

Calculate also the angular diameter of the asterism you viewed.

The Belt of Orion

Aligning a telescope with the polar axis

Measurements and Observations:

Measurements and Observations:

&RA = JM(reading) - -RA(true)

7L4(planet) = J?l4(planet reading) - AJL4

The Magnitude Limit

Measurements and Observations:

Compare this value with the theoretical value of R which is given by

The Seeing Angle

Measurements and Observations:

Enter your results into your lab book.

The Visual Magnitude of a Variable Star

Measurements and Observations:

The Distance to a Globular Cluster

Measurements and Observations:

325 x 2.06 x 105

Observations of the Sun

Measurements and Observations:

Math Review and Scaling

Measurements and Observations:

XnYm cannot be simplified.

Simplify the following expressions.

Section 2 - Math with units

Unit transformations, and Calculators

Measurements and Observations:

I now just solve for the unknown (X).

Section 2 - More on unit transformations

Section 3 - Scientific notation

5.2 x 10~5 = .000052

Section 4 - Significant Figures

Section 5 - Using a scientific calculator

Section 2 - More on unit transformations