Music

6/19/2016
MusicWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Music
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Musicisanartformandculturalactivitywhosemediumis
Music
soundandsilence.Thecommonelementsofmusicarepitch
(whichgovernsmelodyandharmony),rhythm(andits
associatedconceptstempo,meter,andarticulation),dynamics
(loudnessandsoftness),andthesonicqualitiesoftimbreand
texture(whicharesometimestermedthe"color"ofamusical
sound).Differentstylesortypesofmusicmayemphasize,de
emphasizeoromitsomeoftheseelements.Musicisperformed
withavastrangeofinstrumentsandwithvocaltechniques
ApaintingonanAncientGreekvasedepictsa
rangingfromsingingtorapping,andtherearesolely
musiclesson(c.510BC).
instrumentalpieces,solelyvocalpieces(suchassongswithout
instrumentalaccompaniment)andpiecesthatcombinesinging
Medium
Sound,silence
andinstruments.ThewordderivesfromGreek
Originatingculture
Various
(mousike"artoftheMuses").[1]Initsmostgeneralform,the
Originatingera
Paleolithicera
activitiesdescribingmusicasanartformincludetheproduction
ofworksofmusic(songs,tunes,symphonies,andsoon),the
criticismofmusic,thestudyofthehistoryofmusic,andtheaesthetic
examinationofmusic.AncientGreekandIndianphilosophersdefinedmusic
astonesorderedhorizontallyasmelodiesandverticallyasharmonies.
Commonsayingssuchas"theharmonyofthespheres"and"itismusictomy
ears"pointtothenotionthatmusicisoftenorderedandpleasanttolistento.
However,20thcenturycomposerJohnCagethoughtthatanysoundcanbe
music,saying,forexample,"Thereisnonoise,onlysound."[2]
Thecreation,performance,significance,andeventhedefinitionofmusicvary
accordingtocultureandsocialcontext.Indeed,throughouthistory,somenew
formsorstylesofmusichavebeencriticizedas"notbeingmusic",including
Beethoven'sGrosseFugestringquartetin1825,[3]earlyjazzinthebeginning
ofthe1900s[4]andhardcorepunkinthe1980s.[5]Therearemanytypesof
music,includingpopularmusic,traditionalmusic,artmusic,musicwrittenfor
religiousceremoniesandworksongssuchaschanteys.Musicrangesfrom
strictlyorganizedcompositionssuchasClassicalmusicsymphoniesfromthe
1700sand1800s,throughtospontaneouslyplayedimprovisationalmusicsuch
asjazz,andavantgardestylesofchancebasedcontemporarymusicfrom20th
and21stcentury.
Musiccanbedividedintogenres(e.g.,countrymusic)andgenrescanbe
furtherdividedintosubgenres(e.g.,countrybluesandpopcountryaretwoof
themanycountrysubgenres),althoughthedividinglinesandrelationships
betweenmusicgenresareoftensubtle,sometimesopentopersonal
interpretation,andoccasionallycontroversial.Forexample,itcanbehardto
drawthelinebetweensomeearly1980shardrockandheavymetal.Withinthe
arts,musicmaybeclassifiedasaperformingart,afineartorasanauditory
art.Musicmaybeplayedorsungandheardliveatarockconcertororchestra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music
Americanjazzsingerand
songwriterBillieHolidayinNew
YorkCityin1947.
BonnieRaittisanAmerican
singer,guitarplayerandpiano
player.AwinneroftenGrammy
awards,sheisalsonotedforher
slideguitarplaying.
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performance,heardliveaspartofadramaticwork(amusictheatershowor
opera),oritmayberecordedandlistenedtoonaradio,MP3player,CD
player,SmartphoneorasfilmscoreorTVshow.
Inmanycultures,musicisanimportantpartofpeople'swayoflife,asitplays
akeyroleinreligiousrituals,riteofpassageceremonies(e.g.,graduationand
marriage),socialactivities(e.g.,dancing)andculturalactivitiesrangingfrom
amateurkaraokesingingtoplayinginanamateurfunkbandorsingingina
communitychoir.Peoplemaymakemusicasahobby,forexample,ateen
whoplayscelloinayouthorchestra,orbyworkingasaprofessionalmusician
orsinger.Themusicindustryincludestheindividualswhocreatenewsongs
andmusicalpieces,suchassongwritersandcomposersindividualswho
performmusic,whichincludeorchestra,jazzbandandrockbandmusicians,
singersandconductorsindividualswhorecordmusic(musicproducersand
soundengineers)andorganizeconcerttoursandthosewhosellrecordings
andsheetmusictocustomers.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Asaformofartorentertainment
2.1 Composition
2.2 Notation
2.3 Improvisation
2.4 Theory
3 Elementsofmusic
3.1 Rudimentaryelementsofmusic
3.2 Perceptualelementsofmusic
3.3 Analysisofmusicalstyles
3.4 Descriptionofelementsofmusic
3.4.1 Pitchandmelody
3.4.2 Harmonyandchords
3.4.3 Rhythm
3.4.4 Texture
3.4.5 Timbreor"tonecolor"
3.4.6 Expression
3.4.7 Form
4 History
4.1 Prehistoriceras
4.2 AncientEgypt
4.3 Asiancultures
4.4 ReferencesintheBible
4.5 Antiquity
4.6 AncientGreece
4.7 TheMiddleAges
4.8 TheRenaissance
4.9 TheBaroque
4.10 Classicism
4.11 Romanticism
4.12 20thand21stcenturymusic
5 Performance
5.1 Oralandauraltradition
LydiaCanaanisaLebanese
singersongwriternotedforfusing
MiddleEasternquarternotesand
microtoneswithanglophonerock,
innovatingauniquestyleof
WorldMusic.In2015,shewas
listedinthecatalogoftheRock
andRollHallofFameand
Museum'sLibraryandArchives
asthefirstrockstaroftheMiddle
East.
AshaBhosleisanIndiansinger
bestknownasaplaybacksingerin
Hindicinema.In2011,shewas
officiallyacknowledgedbythe
GuinnessBookofWorldRecords
asthemostrecordedartistin
musichistory.
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5.1 Oralandauraltradition
5.2 Ornamentation
6 Philosophyandaesthetics
7 Psychology
7.1 Cognitiveneuroscienceofmusic
7.2 Cognitivemusicology
7.3 Psychoacoustics
7.4 Evolutionarymusicology
7.5 Cultureinmusiccognition
8 Sociology
9 Mediaandtechnology
9.1 Internet
10 Business
11 Education
11.1 Nonprofessional
11.2 Professionaltraining
11.2.1 Undergraduate
11.2.2 Graduate
11.2.3 Musicology
11.2.4 Musictheory
11.2.5 Zoomusicology
11.2.6 Ethnomusicology
12 Musictherapy
13 Seealso
14 References
15 Furtherreading
16 Externallinks
Etymology
Beethovenwasaninfluential
composerfromtheClassicalera.
Thisportraitisfrom1820.
TheBeatleswereafourpiecerock
band.Theyarepicturedherein1965,
celebratingtheirGrammywin.
ThewordderivesfromGreek(mousike
"artoftheMuses").[1]InGreekmythology,the
ninemuseswerethegoddesseswhoinspired
literature,science,andtheartsandwhowerethe
sourceoftheknowledgeembodiedinthepoetry,
songlyrics,andmythsintheGreekculture.
AccordingtotheOnlineEtymological
Dictionary,theterm"music"isderivedfrom
"mid13c.,musike,fromOldFrenchmusique
(12c.)anddirectlyfromLatinmusica"theartof
music,"alsoincludingpoetry(also[the]source
InGreekmythology,theninemusesweretheinspirationformany
ofSpanishmusica,Italianmusica,OldHigh
creativeendeavors,includingthearts.
Germanmosica,GermanMusik,Dutchmuziek,
Danishmusik)."Thisisderivedfromthe
"...Greekmousike(techne)"(art)oftheMuses,"fromfem.ofmousikos"pertainingtotheMuses,"fromMousa
"Muse"(seemuse(n.)).Modernspelling[dates]from[the]1630s.InclassicalGreece,[theterm"music"refersto]
anyartinwhichtheMusespresided,butespeciallymusicandlyricpoetry."[6]
Asaformofartorentertainment
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Musiciscomposedandperformedformanypurposes,rangingfromaesthetic
pleasure,religiousorceremonialpurposes,orasanentertainmentproductfor
themarketplace.Whenmusicwasonlyavailablethroughsheetmusicscores,
suchasduringtheClassicalandRomanticeras,musicloverswouldbuythe
sheetmusicoftheirfavouritepiecesandsongssothattheycouldperform
themathomeonthepiano.Withtheadventofsoundrecording,recordsof
popularsongs,ratherthansheetmusicbecamethedominantwaythatmusic
loverswouldenjoytheirfavouritesongs.Withtheadventofhometape
JeanGabrielFerlanperformingat
recordersinthe1980sanddigitalmusicinthe1990s,musicloverscouldmake
a2008concertatthecollgelyce
tapesorplaylistsoftheirfavouritesongsandtakethemwiththemona
SaintFranoisXavier
portablecassetteplayerorMP3player.Somemusicloverscreatemixtapesof
theirfavoritesongs,whichserveasa"selfportrait,agestureoffriendship,
prescriptionforanidealparty...[and]anenvironmentconsistingsolelyofwhatismostardentlyloved."[7]
Amateurmusicianscomposeand/orperformmusicfortheirownpleasure,andderivetheirincomeelsewhere.
Professionalmusiciansareemployedbyarangeofinstitutionsandorganisations,includingarmedforces(in
marchingbands,concertbandsandpopularmusicgroups),churchesandsynagogues,symphonyorchestras,
broadcastingorfilmproductioncompanies,andmusicschools.Professionalmusicianssometimesworkas
freelancersorsessionmusicians,seekingcontractsandengagementsinavarietyofsettings.Thereareoftenmany
linksbetweenamateurandprofessionalmusicians.Beginningamateurmusicianstakelessonswithprofessional
musicians.Incommunitysettings,advancedamateurmusiciansperformwithprofessionalmusiciansinavarietyof
ensemblessuchascommunityconcertbandsandcommunityorchestras.
Adistinctionisoftenmadebetweenmusicperformedforaliveaudienceandmusicthatisperformedinastudioso
thatitcanberecordedanddistributedthroughthemusicretailsystemorthebroadcastingsystem.However,there
arealsomanycaseswherealiveperformanceinfrontofanaudienceisalsorecordedanddistributed.Liveconcert
recordingsarepopularinbothclassicalmusicandinpopularmusicformssuchasrock,whereillegallytapedlive
concertsareprizedbymusiclovers.Inthejambandscene,live,improvisedjamsessionsarepreferredtostudio
recordings.
Composition
"Composition"istheactorpracticeofcreatingasongorotherpieceof
music.Inmanycultures,includingWesternclassicalmusic,theactof
composingalsoincludesthecreationofmusicnotation,suchasasheet
music"score",whichisthenperformedbythecomposerorothersingersor
musicians.Inpopularmusicandtraditionalmusic,theactofcomposing,
whichistypicallycalledsongwriting,mayinvolvethecreationofabasic
outlineofthesong,calledtheleadsheet,whichsetsoutthemelody,lyrics
andchordprogression.Inclassicalmusic,thecomposertypically
orchestratesherowncompositions,butinmusicaltheatreandinpopmusic,
songwritersmayhireanarrangertodotheorchestration.Insomecases,a
songwritermaynotusenotationatall,andinsteadcomposethesonginher
mindandthenplayorrecorditfrommemory.Injazzandpopularmusic,
notablerecordingsbyinfluentialperformersaregiventheweightthat
writtenscoresplayinclassicalmusic.
Peoplecomposingmusicin2013
usingelectronickeyboardsand
computers.
Evenwhenmusicisnotatedrelativelyprecisely,asinclassicalmusic,there
aremanydecisionsthataperformerhastomake,becausenotationdoesnot
specifyalloftheelementsofmusicprecisely.Theprocessofdecidinghowtoperformmusicthathasbeen
previouslycomposedandnotatedistermed"interpretation".Differentperformers'interpretationsofthesamework
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ofmusiccanvarywidely,intermsofthetemposthatarechosenandthe
playingorsingingstyleorphrasingofthemelodies.Composersand
songwriterswhopresenttheirownmusicareinterpretingtheirsongs,just
asmuchasthosewhoperformthemusicofothers.Thestandardbodyof
choicesandtechniquespresentatagiventimeandagivenplaceisreferred
toasperformancepractice,whereasinterpretationisgenerallyusedtomean
theindividualchoicesofaperformer.
Althoughamusicalcompositionoftenusesmusicalnotationandhasa
singleauthor,thisisnotalwaysthecase.Aworkofmusiccanhave
multiplecomposers,whichoftenoccursinpopularmusicwhenaband
collaboratestowriteasong,orinmusicaltheatre,whenonepersonwrites
themelodies,asecondpersonwritesthelyrics,andathirdperson
orchestratesthesongs.Apieceofmusiccanalsobecomposedwithwords,
images,orcomputerprogramsthatexplainornotatehowthesingeror
musicianshouldcreatemusicalsounds.Examplesrangefromavantgarde
FrenchBaroquemusiccomposer
musicthatusesgraphicnotation,totextcompositionssuchasAusden
MichelRichardDelalande(1657
siebenTagen,tocomputerprogramsthatselectsoundsformusicalpieces.
1726),peninhand.
Musicthatmakesheavyuseofrandomnessandchanceiscalledaleatoric
music,andisassociatedwithcontemporarycomposersactiveinthe20th
century,suchasJohnCage,MortonFeldman,andWitoldLutosawski.Amorecommonlyknownexampleof
chancebasedmusicisthesoundofwindchimesjinglinginabreeze.
ThestudyofcompositionhastraditionallybeendominatedbyexaminationofmethodsandpracticeofWestern
classicalmusic,butthedefinitionofcompositionisbroadenoughthecreationofpopularmusicandtraditional
musicsongsandinstrumentalpiecesandtoincludespontaneouslyimprovisedworkslikethoseoffreejazz
performersandAfricanpercussionistssuchasEwedrummers.
Notation
Inthe2000s,musicnotationtypicallymeansthewritten
expressionofmusicnotesandrhythmsonpaperusing
symbols.Whenmusiciswrittendown,thepitchesandrhythm
ofthemusic,suchasthenotesofamelody,arenotated.Music
notationalsooftenprovidesinstructionsonhowtoperformthe
music.Forexample,thesheetmusicforasongmaystatethat
thesongisa"slowblues"ora"fastswing",whichindicates
thetempoandthegenre.Toreadmusicnotation,apersonmust
haveanunderstandingofmusictheory,harmonyandthe
performancepracticeassociatedwithaparticularsongor
piece'sgenre.
Sheetmusiciswrittenrepresentationofmusic.This
isahomorhythmic(i.e.,hymnstyle)arrangement
ofatraditionalpieceentitled"AdesteFideles",in
standardtwostaffformatformixedvoices. Play
Writtennotationvarieswithstyleandperiodofmusic.Inthe2000s,notatedmusicisproducedassheetmusicor,
forindividualswithcomputerscorewriterprograms,asanimageonacomputerscreen.Inancienttimes,music
notationwasputontostoneorclaytablets.Toperformmusicfromnotation,asingerorinstrumentalistrequiresan
understandingoftherhythmicandpitchelementsembodiedinthesymbolsandtheperformancepracticethatis
associatedwithapieceofmusicoragenre.Ingenresrequiringmusicalimprovisation,theperformeroftenplays
frommusicwhereonlythechordchangesandformofthesongarewritten,requiringtheperformertohaveagreat
understandingofthemusic'sstructure,harmonyandthestylesofaparticulargenre(e.g.,jazzorcountrymusic).
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InWesternartmusic,themostcommontypesofwrittennotationarescores,whichincludeallthemusicpartsofan
ensemblepiece,andparts,whicharethemusicnotationfortheindividualperformersorsingers.Inpopularmusic,
jazz,andblues,thestandardmusicalnotationistheleadsheet,whichnotatesthemelody,chords,lyrics(ifitisa
vocalpiece),andstructureofthemusic.Fakebooksarealsousedinjazztheymayconsistofleadsheetsorsimply
chordcharts,whichpermitrhythmsectionmemberstoimproviseanaccompanimentparttojazzsongs.Scoresand
partsarealsousedinpopularmusicandjazz,particularlyinlargeensemblessuchasjazz"bigbands."Inpopular
music,guitaristsandelectricbassplayersoftenreadmusicnotatedintablature(oftenabbreviatedas"tab"),which
indicatesthelocationofthenotestobeplayedontheinstrumentusingadiagramoftheguitarorbassfingerboard.
TabulaturewasalsousedintheBaroqueeratonotatemusicforthelute,astringed,frettedinstrument.
Improvisation
Musicalimprovisationisthecreationofspontaneousmusic,oftenwithin(orbasedon)apreexistingharmonic
frameworkorchordprogression.Improvisationistheactofinstantaneouscompositionbyperformers,where
compositionaltechniquesareemployedwithorwithoutpreparation.Improvisationisamajorpartofsometypesof
music,suchasblues,jazz,andjazzfusion,inwhichinstrumentalperformersimprovisesolos,melodylinesand
accompanimentparts.IntheWesternartmusictradition,improvisationwasanimportantskillduringtheBaroque
eraandduringtheClassicalera.IntheBaroqueera,performersimprovisedornamentsandbassocontinuo
keyboardplayersimprovisedchordvoicingsbasedonfiguredbassnotation.IntheClassicalera,soloperformers
andsingersimprovisedvirtuosocadenzasduringconcerts.However,inthe20thandearly21stcentury,as
"commonpractice"westernartmusicperformancebecameinstitutionalizedinsymphonyorchestras,operahouses
andballets,improvisationhasplayedasmallerrole.Atthesametime,somemoderncomposershaveincreasingly
includedimprovisationintheircreativework.InIndianclassicalmusic,improvisationisacorecomponentandan
essentialcriterionofperformances.
Theory
Musictheoryencompassesthenatureandmechanicsofmusic.Itofteninvolvesidentifyingpatternsthatgovern
composers'techniquesandexaminingthelanguageandnotationofmusic.Inagrandsense,musictheorydistills
andanalyzestheparametersorelementsofmusicrhythm,harmony(harmonicfunction),melody,structure,
form,andtexture.Broadly,musictheorymayincludeanystatement,belief,orconceptionoforaboutmusic.[8]
Peoplewhostudythesepropertiesareknownasmusictheorists.Somehaveappliedacoustics,humanphysiology,
andpsychologytotheexplanationofhowandwhymusicisperceived.
Elementsofmusic
Musichasmanydifferentfundamentalsorelements.Dependingonthedefinitionof"element"beingused,these
caninclude:pitch,beatorpulse,tempo,rhythm,melody,harmony,texture,style,allocationofvoices,timbreor
color,dynamics,expression,articulation,formandstructure.Theelementsofmusicfeatureprominentlyinthe
musiccurriculumsofAustralia,UKandUSA.Allthreecurriculumsidentifypitch,dynamics,timbreandtexture
aselements,buttheotheridentifiedelementsofmusicarefarfromuniversallyagreed.Belowisalistofthethree
officialversionsofthe"elementsofmusic":
Australia:pitch,timbre,texture,dynamicsandexpression,rhythm,formandstructure.[9]
UK:pitch,timbre,texture,dynamics,duration,tempo,structure.[10]
USA:pitch,timbre,texture,dynamics,rhythm,form,harmony,style/articulation.[11]
InrelationtotheUKcurriculum,in2013theterm:"appropriatemusicalnotations"wasaddedtotheirlistof
elementsandthetitleofthelistwaschangedfromthe"elementsofmusic"tothe"interrelateddimensionsof
music".Theinterrelateddimensionsofmusicarelistedas:pitch,duration,dynamics,tempo,timbre,texture,
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structureandappropriatemusicalnotations.[12]
Thephrase"theelementsofmusic"isusedinanumberofdifferentcontexts.Thetwomostcommoncontextscan
bedifferentiatedbydescribingthemasthe"rudimentaryelementsofmusic"andthe"perceptualelementsof
music".
Rudimentaryelementsofmusic
Inthe1800s,thephrase"theelementsofmusic"andthephrase"therudimentsofmusic"wereused
interchangeably.[13][14]Theelementsdescribedinthesedocumentsrefertoaspectsofmusicthatareneededin
ordertobecomeamusician,RecentwriterssuchasEstrella[15]seemtobeusingthephrase"elementsofmusic"in
asimilarmanner.Adefinitionwhichmostaccuratelyreflectsthisusageis:"therudimentaryprinciplesofanart,
science,etc.:theelementsofgrammar."[16]TheUK'scurriculumswitchtothe"interrelateddimensionsofmusic"
seemstobeamovebacktousingtherudimentaryelementsofmusic.
Perceptualelementsofmusic
Sincetheemergenceofthestudyofpsychoacousticsinthe1930s,mostlistsofelementsofmusichaverelated
moretohowwehearmusicthanhowwelearntoplayitorstudyit.C.E.Seashore,inhisbookPsychologyof
Music,[17]identifiedfour"psychologicalattributesofsound".Thesewere:"pitch,loudness,time,andtimbre"
(p.3).Hedidnotcallthemthe"elementsofmusic"butreferredtothemas"elementalcomponents"(p.2).
Nonethelesstheseelementalcomponentslinkpreciselywithfourofthemostcommonmusicalelements:"Pitch"
and"timbre"matchexactly,"loudness"linkswithdynamicsand"time"linkswiththetimebasedelementsof
rhythm,durationandtempo.Thisusageofthephrase"theelementsofmusic"linksmorecloselywithWebster's
New20thCenturyDictionarydefinitionofanelementas:"asubstancewhichcannotbedividedintoasimpler
formbyknownmethods"[18]andeducationalinstitutions'listsofelementsalignwiththislistaswell.
Writersoflistsof"rudimentaryelementsofmusic"varytheirlistsdependingontheirpersonalpriorities.However,
inrelationtotheperceptualelementsofmusic,itshouldbepossibletoidentifyalistofdiscreteelementswhich
canbeindependentlymanipulatedtoachieveanintendedmusicaleffect.Itseemsatthisstagethatthereisstill
researchtobedoneinthisarea.
Analysisofmusicalstyles
Somestylesofmusicplaceanemphasisoncertainofthesefundamentals,
whileothersplacelessemphasisoncertainelements.Togiveoneexample,
whileBeboperajazzmakesuseofverycomplexchords,includingaltered
dominantsandchallengingchordprogressions,withchordschangingtwoor
moretimesperbarandkeyschangingseveraltimesinatune,funkplaces
mostofitsemphasisonrhythmandgroove,withentiresongsbasedarounda
vamponasinglechord.WhileRomanticeraclassicalmusicfromthemidto
late1800smakesgreatuseofdramaticchangesofdynamics,fromwhispering
pianissimosectionstothunderousfortissimosections,someentireBaroque
dancesuitesforharpsichordfromtheearly1700smayuseasingledynamic.
Togiveanotherexample,whilesomeartmusicpieces,suchassymphoniesare
verylong,somepopsongsarejustafewminuteslong.
Descriptionofelementsofmusic
Funkplacesmostofitsemphasis
onrhythmandgroove,withentire
songsbasedaroundavampona
singlechord.Picturedarethe
influentialfunkmusiciansGeorge
ClintonandParliament
Funkadelicin2006.
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Pitchandmelody
Pitchisanaspectofasoundthatwecanhear,reflectingwhetheronemusicalsound,noteortoneis"higher"and
"lower"thananothermusicalsound,noteortone.Wecantalkaboutthehighnessorlownessofpitchinthemore
generalsense,suchasthewayalistenerhearsapiercinglyhighpiccolonoteashigherinpitchthanadeepthump
ofabassdrum.Wealsotalkaboutpitchintheprecisesenseassociatedwithmusicalmelodies,basslinesand
chords.Precisepitchcanonlybedeterminedinsoundsthathaveafrequencythatisclearandstableenoughto
distinguishfromnoise.Forexample,itismucheasierforlistenerstodiscernthepitchofasinglenoteplayedona
pianothantotrytodiscernthepitchofacrashcymbalthatisstruck.
Amelody(alsocalleda
"tune")isaseriesof
pitches(notes)sounding
insuccession(oneafter
Themelodytothetraditionalsong"PopGoestheWeasel" Play
theother),oftenina
risingandfalling
pattern.Thenotesofamelodyaretypicallycreatedusingpitchsystemssuchasscalesormodes.Melodiesalso
oftencontainnotesfromthechordsusedinthesong.Themelodiesinsimplefolksongsandtraditionalsongsmay
useonlythenotesofasinglescale,thescaleassociatedwiththetonicnoteorkeyofagivensong.Forexample,a
folksonginthekeyofC(alsoreferredtoasCmajor)mayhaveamelodythatusesonlythenotesoftheCmajor
scale(theindividualnotesC,D,E,F,G,A,BandCthesearethe"whitenotes"onapianokeyboard.Ontheother
hand,Beboperajazzfromthe1940sandcontemporarymusicfromthe20thand21stcenturiesmayusemelodies
withmanychromaticnotes(i.e.,notesinadditiontothenotesofthemajorscaleonapiano,achromaticscale
wouldincludeallthenotesonthekeyboard,includingthe"whitenotes"and"blacknotes"andunusualscales,such
asthewholetonescale(awholetonescaleinthekeyofCwouldcontainthenotesC,D,E,F,GandA).Alow,
deepmusicallineplayedbybassinstrumentssuchasdoublebass,electricbassortubaiscalledabassline.
Harmonyandchords
Harmonyreferstothe"vertical"soundsofpitchesinmusic,whichmeanspitchesthatplayedorsungtogetherat
thesametimetocreateachord.Usuallythismeansthenotesareplayedatthesametime,althoughharmonymay
alsobeimpliedbyamelodythatoutlinesaharmonicstructure(i.e.,byusingmelodynotesthatareplayedoneafter
theother,outliningthenotesofachord).Inmusicwrittenusingthesystemofmajorminortonality("keys"),
whichincludesmostclassicalmusicwrittenfrom1600to1900andmostWesternpop,rockandtraditionalmusic,
thekeyofapiecedeterminesthescaleused,whichcentresaroundthe"homenote"ortonicofthekey.Simple
classicalpiecesandmanypopandtraditionalmusicsongsarewrittensothatallthemusicisinasinglekey.More
complexClassical,popandtraditionalmusicsongsandpiecesmayhavetwokeys(andinsomecasesthreeor
morekeys).ClassicalmusicfromtheRomanticera(writtenfromabout18201900)oftencontainsmultiplekeys,
asdoesjazz,especiallyBebopjazzfromthe1940s,inwhichthekeyor"homenote"ofasongmaychangeevery
fourbarsoreveneverytwobars.
Rhythm
Rhythmisthearrangementofsoundsandsilencesintime.Meteranimatestimeinregularpulsegroupings,called
measuresorbars,whichinWesternclassical,popularandtraditionalmusicoftengroupnotesinsetsoftwo(e.g.,
2/4time),three(e.g.,3/4time,alsoknownasWaltztime,or3/8time),orfour(e.g.,4/4time).Metersaremade
easiertohearbecausesongsandpiecesoften(butnotalways)placeanemphasisonthefirstbeatofeachgrouping.
Notableexceptionsexist,suchasthebackbeatusedinmuchWesternpopandrock,inwhichasongthatusesa
measurethatconsistsoffourbeats(called4/4timeorcommontime)willhaveaccentsonbeatstwoandfour,
whicharetypicallyperformedbythedrummeronthesnaredrum,aloudanddistinctivesoundingpercussion
instrument.Inpopandrock,therhythmpartsofasongareplayedbytherhythmsection,whichincludeschord
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playinginstruments(e.g.,electricguitar,acousticguitar,piano,orother
keyboardinstruments),abassinstrument(typicallyelectricbassorforsome
stylessuchasjazzandbluegrass,doublebass)andadrumkitplayer.
Texture
Musicaltextureistheoverallsoundofapieceofmusicorsong.Thetextureof
apieceorsingisdeterminedbyhowthemelodic,rhythmic,andharmonic
materialsarecombinedinacomposition,thusdeterminingtheoverallnature
ofthesoundinapiece.Textureisoftendescribedinregardtothedensity,or
thickness,andrange,orwidth,betweenlowestandhighestpitches,inrelative
termsaswellasmorespecificallydistinguishedaccordingtothenumberof
voices,orparts,andtherelationshipbetweenthesevoices(seecommontypes
below).Forexample,athicktexturecontainsmany'layers'ofinstruments.
Oneoftheselayerscouldbeastringsection,oranotherbrass.Thethickness
alsoisaffectedbytheamountandtherichnessoftheinstruments.Textureis
commonlydescribedaccordingtothenumberofandrelationshipbetween
partsorlinesofmusic:
Whenmusiciansplaythreeor
moredifferentnotesatthesame
time,thiscreatesachord.In
Westernmusic,includingclassical
music,popmusic,rockmusicand
manyrelatedstyles,themost
commonchordsaretriadsthree
notesusuallyplayedatthesame
time.Themostcommonlyused
chordsarethemajorchordand
theminorchord.Anexampleofa
majorchordisthethreepitchesC,
EandG.Anexampleofaminor
chordisthethreepitchesA,Cand
E.(Picturedisaguitarplayer
performingachordonaguitar).
monophony:asinglemelody(or"tune")withneitherinstrumental
accompanimentnoraharmonypart.Amothersingingalullabytoher
babywouldbeanexample.
heterophony:twoormoreinstrumentsorsingersplaying/singingthe
samemelody,butwitheachperformerslightlyvaryingtherhythmor
speedofthemelody,oraddingdifferentornamentstothemelody.Two
bluegrassfiddlersplayingthesametraditionalfiddletunetogetherwill
typicallyeachvarythemelodyabitandeachadddifferentornaments.
polyphony:multipleindependentmelodylinesthatinterweavetogether,whicharesungorplayedatthe
sametime.ChoralmusicwrittenintheRenaissancemusicerawastypicallywritteninthisstyle.Around,
whichisasongsuchas"Row,Row,RowYourBoat",whichdifferentgroupsofsingersallstarttosingata
differenttime,isasimpleexampleofpolyphony.
homophony:aclearmelodyaccompaniedbychords.MostWesternpopularmusicsongsfromthe19th
centuryonwardiswritteninthistexture.
Musicthatcontainsalargenumberofindependentparts(e.g.,adoubleconcertoaccompaniedby100orchestral
instrumentswithmanyinterweavingmelodiclines)isgenerallysaidtohavea"thicker"or"denser"texturethana
workwithfewparts(e.g.,asoloflutemelodyaccompaniedbyasinglecello).
Timbreor"tonecolor"
Timbre,sometimescalled"color"or"tonecolor"isthequalityorsoundofavoiceorinstrument.[19]Timbreis
whatmakesaparticularmusicalsounddifferentfromanother,evenwhentheyhavethesamepitchandloudness.
Forexample,a440HzAnotesoundsdifferentwhenitisplayedonoboe,piano,violinorelectricguitar.Evenif
differentplayersofthesameinstrumentplaythesamenote,theirnotesmightsounddifferentduetodifferencesin
instrumentaltechnique(e.g.,differentembouchures),differenttypesofaccessories(e.g.,mouthpiecesforbrass
players,reedsforoboeandbassoonplayers)orstringsmadeoutofdifferentmaterialsforstringplayers(e.g.,gut
stringsversussteelstrings).Eventwoinstrumentalistsplayingthesamenoteonthesameinstrument(oneafterthe
other)maysounddifferentduetodifferentwaysofplayingtheinstrument(e.g.,twostringplayersmightholdthe
bowdifferently).
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Thephysicalcharacteristicsofsoundthatdeterminetheperceptionoftimbreincludethespectrum,envelopeand
overtonesofanoteormusicalsound.Forelectricinstrumentsdevelopedinthe20thcentury,suchaselectric
guitar,electricbassandelectricpiano,theperformercanalsochangethetonebyadjustingequalizercontrols,tone
controlsontheinstrument,andbyusingelectroniceffectsunitssuchasdistortionpedals.Thetoneoftheelectric
Hammondorganiscontrolledbyadjustingdrawbars.
Expression
Expressivequalitiesarethoseelementsinmusicthatcreatechangeinmusicwithout
changingthemainpitchesorsubstantiallychangingtherhythmsofthemelodyand
itsaccompaniment.Performers,includingsingersandinstrumentalists,canadd
musicalexpressiontoasongorpiecebyaddingphrasing,byaddingeffectssuchas
vibrato(withvoiceandsomeinstruments,suchasguitar,violin,brassinstruments
andwoodwinds),dynamics(theloudnessorsoftnessofpieceorasectionofit),
tempofluctuations(e.g.,ritardandooraccelerando,whichare,respectivelyslowing
downandspeedingupthetempo),byaddingpausesorfermatasonacadence,and
bychangingthearticulationofthenotes(e.g.,makingnotesmorepronouncedor
accented,bymakingnotesmorelegato,whichmeanssmoothlyconnected,orby
makingnotesshorter).
Form
Sheetmusicnotationforthe
chorus(refrain)oftheChristmas
song"JingleBells" Play
Singersaddexpressionto
themelodiestheysing
usingmanymethods,
includingchangingthe
toneoftheirsinging,
addingvibratotocertain
notes,oremphasizing
importantwordsinthe
lyrics.
Inmusic,formdescribeshowtheoverall
structureorplanofasongorpieceofmusic,[20]
anditdescribesthelayoutofacompositionas
dividedintosections.[21]Intheearly20th
century,TinPanAlleysongsandBroadway
musicalsongswereofteninAABA32barform,
inwhichtheAsectionsrepeatedthesameeight
barmelodyandtheBsectionprovideda
contrastingmelodyand/orharmonyfor8bars.
Fromthe1960sonward,Westernpopandrocksongsareofteninversechorus
form,whichisbasedaroundasequenceofverseandchorus("refrain")
sections,withnewlyricsformostversesandrepeatinglyricsforthechoruses.
Popularmusicoftenmakesuseofstrophicform,sometimesinconjunction
withthetwelvebarblues.
InthetentheditionofTheOxfordCompaniontoMusic,PercyScholesdefinesmusicalformas"aseriesof
strategiesdesignedtofindasuccessfulmeanbetweentheoppositeextremesofunrelievedrepetitionand
unrelievedalteration."[22]ExamplesofcommonformsofWesternmusicincludethefugue,theinvention,sonata
allegro,canon,strophic,themeandvariations,androndo.ScholesstatesthatEuropeanclassicalmusichadonlysix
standaloneforms:simplebinary,simpleternary,compoundbinary,rondo,airwithvariations,andfugue(although
musicologistAlfredMannemphasizedthatthefugueisprimarilyamethodofcompositionthathassometimes
takenoncertainstructuralconventions.[23])
Whereapiececannotreadilybebrokendownintosectionalunits(thoughitmightborrowsomeformfroma
poem,storyorprogramme),itissaidtobethroughcomposed.Suchisoftenthecasewithafantasia,prelude,
rhapsody,etude(orstudy),symphonicpoem,Bagatelle,impromptu,etc.ProfessorCharlesKeilclassifiedforms
andformaldetailas"sectional,developmental,orvariational."[24]
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Sectionalform
Thisformisbuiltfromasequenceofclearcutunits[25]thatmaybereferredtobylettersbutalsooftenhave
genericnamessuchasintroductionandcoda,exposition,developmentandrecapitulation,verse,chorusorrefrain,
andbridge.Introductionsandcodas,whentheyarenomorethanthat,arefrequentlyexcludedfromformal
analysis.Allsuchunitsmaytypicallybeeightmeasureslong.Sectionalformsinclude:
Strophicform
Thisformisdefinedbyits"unrelievedrepetition"(AAAA...).
Medley
Medley,potpourriistheextremeopposite,thatof"unrelievedvariation":itissimplyanindefinitesequenceof
selfcontainedsections(ABCD...),sometimeswithrepeats(AABBCCDD...).Examplesincludeorchestral
overtures,whicharesometimesnomorethanastringofthebesttunesofthemusicaltheatreshoworoperato
come.
Binaryform
Thisformusestwosections(AB...),eachoftenrepeated(AABB...).In
18thcenturywesternclassicalmusic,"simplebinary"formwasoftenused
fordancesandcarriedwithittheconventionthatthetwosectionsshouldbe
indifferentmusicalkeysbutsamerhythm,durationandtone.The
alternationoftwotunesgivesenoughvarietytopermitadancetobe
extendedforaslongasdesired.
Ternaryform
Binaryforminmajorandminor
keys.Eachsectionmustbeatleast
threephraseslong. [26]
Thisformhasthreeparts.InWesternclassicalmusicasimpleternaryformhasathirdsectionthatisa
recapitulationofthefirst(ABA).Often,thefirstsectionisrepeated(AABA).Thisapproachwaspopularinthe
18thcenturyoperaticaria,andwascalleddacapo(i.e."repeatfromthetop")form.Later,itgaverisetothe32bar
song,withtheBsectionthenoftenreferredtoasthe"middleeight".Asonghasmoreneedthanadanceofaself
containedformwithabeginningandanendofcourse.
Rondoform
Thisformhasarecurringthemealternatingwithdifferent(usuallycontrasting)sectionscalled"episodes".Itmay
beasymmetrical(ABACADAEA)orsymmetrical(ABACABA).Arecurringsection,especiallythemaintheme,
issometimesmorethoroughlyvaried,orelseoneepisodemaybea"development"ofit.Asimilararrangementis
theritornelloformoftheBaroqueconcertogrosso.Archform(ABCBA)resemblesasymmetricalrondowithout
intermediaterepetitionsofthemaintheme.Itisnormallyusedinaround.
Variationalform
Variationalformsarethoseinwhichvariationisanimportantformativeelement.
ThemeandVariations:atheme,whichinitselfcanbeofanyshorterform(binary,ternary,etc.),formstheonly
"section"andisrepeatedindefinitely(asinstrophicform)butisvariedeachtime(A,B,A,F,Z,A),soastomakea
sortofsectionalchainform.Animportantvariantofthis,muchusedin17thcenturyBritishmusicandinthe
PassacagliaandChaconne,wasthatofthegroundbassarepeatingbassthemeorbassoostinatooverandaround
whichtherestofthestructureunfolds,often,butnotalways,spinningpolyphonicorcontrapuntalthreads,or
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improvisingdivisionsanddescants.ThisissaidbyScholes(1977)tobetheformparexcellenceofunaccompanied
oraccompaniedsoloinstrumentalmusic.TheRondoisoftenfoundwithsectionsvaried(AA1BA2CA3BA4)or
(ABA1CA2B1A).
Developmentalform
Developmentalformsarebuiltdirectlyfromsmallerunits,suchasmotifs.AwellknownClassicalpiecewitha
motifisBeethoven'sfifthsymphony,whichstartswiththreeshortrepeatednotesandthenalongnote.InClassical
piecesthatarebasedonmotifs,themotifisusuallycombined,variedandworkedoutindifferentways,perhaps
havingasymmetricalorarchlikeunderpinningandaprogressivedevelopmentfrombeginningtoend.Byfarthe
mostimportantdevelopmentalforminWesternclassicalmusicisSonataform.Thisform,alsoknownassonata
form,firstmovementform,compoundbinary,ternaryandavarietyofothernames,developedfromthebinary
formeddancemovementdescribedabovebutisalmostalwayscastinagreaterternaryformhavingthenominal
subdivisionsofExposition,DevelopmentandRecapitulation.Usually,butnotalways,the"A"parts(Exposition
andRecapitulation,respectively)maybesubdividedintotwoorthreethemesorthemegroupswhicharetaken
asunderandrecombinedtoformthe"B"part(thedevelopment)thuse.g.(AabB[dev.ofaand/orb]A1ab1+coda).
Thisdevelopmentalformisgenerallyconfinedtocertainsectionsofthepiece,astothemiddlesectionofthefirst
movementofasonata,thoughnineteenthcenturycomposerssuchasBerlioz,LisztandWagnermadevaliant
effortstoderivelargescaleworkspurelyormainlyfromthemotif.
History
Prehistoriceras
Aboneflute
whichisover
41,000years
old.
Prehistoricmusiccanonlybetheorizedbasedonfindingsfrompaleolithicarchaeologysites.
Flutesareoftendiscovered,carvedfrombonesinwhichlateralholeshavebeenpiercedthese
arethoughttohavebeenblownatoneendliketheJapaneseshakuhachi.TheDivjeBabeflute,
carvedfromacavebearfemur,isthoughttobeatleast40,000yearsold.Instrumentssuchas
thesevenholedfluteandvarioustypesofstringedinstruments,suchastheRavanahatha,have
beenrecoveredfromtheIndusValleyCivilizationarchaeologicalsites.[27]Indiahasoneofthe
oldestmusicaltraditionsintheworldreferencestoIndianclassicalmusic(marga)arefound
intheVedas,ancientscripturesoftheHindutradition.[28]Theearliestandlargestcollectionof
prehistoricmusicalinstrumentswasfoundinChinaanddatesbacktobetween7000and
6600BC.[29]TheHurriansong,foundonclaytabletsthatdatebacktoapproximately
1400BC,istheoldestsurvivingnotatedworkofmusic.
AncientEgypt
TheancientEgyptianscreditedoneoftheirgods,Thoth,withtheinventionofmusic,withOsirisinturnusedas
partofhisefforttocivilizetheworld.TheearliestmaterialandrepresentationalevidenceofEgyptianmusical
instrumentsdatestothePredynasticperiod,buttheevidenceismoresecurelyattestedintheOldKingdomwhen
harps,flutesanddoubleclarinetswereplayed.[30]Percussioninstruments,lyresandluteswereaddedtoorchestras
bytheMiddleKingdom.Cymbals[31]frequentlyaccompaniedmusicanddance,muchastheystilldoinEgypt
today.Egyptianfolkmusic,includingthetraditionalSufidhikrrituals,aretheclosestcontemporarymusicgenreto
ancientEgyptianmusic,havingpreservedmanyofitsfeatures,rhythmsandinstruments.[32][33]
Asiancultures
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Indianclassicalmusicisoneofthe
oldestmusicaltraditionsinthe
Durga
world.[34]TheIndusValley
civilizationhassculpturesthat
showdance[35]andoldmusical
instruments,likethesevenholedflute.Varioustypesof
stringedinstrumentsanddrumshavebeenrecoveredfrom
Musiciansof
Indianwomendressedin
HarappaandMohenjoDarobyexcavationscarriedoutbySir
Amun,Tombof
regionalattireplayinga
[36]
Nakht,18th
MortimerWheeler. TheRigvedahaselementsofpresent
varietyofmusical
Dynasty,
Indianmusic,withamusicalnotationtodenotethemetreand
instrumentspopularin
[37]
WesternThebes
themodeofchanting. Indianclassicalmusic(marga)is
differentpartsofIndia
monophonic,andbasedonasinglemelodylineorraga
rhythmicallyorganizedthroughtalas.SilappadhikarambyIlangoAdigalprovides
informationabouthownewscalescanbeformedbymodalshiftingofthetonicfromanexistingscale.[38]
HindustanimusicwasinfluencedbythePersianperformancepracticesoftheAfghanMughals.Carnaticmusic,
popularinthesouthernstates,islargelydevotionalthemajorityofthesongsareaddressedtotheHindudeities.
Therearealsomanysongsemphasisingloveandothersocialissues.
GangubaiHangal
AsianmusiccoversthemusicculturesofArabia,CentralAsia,EastAsia,SouthAsia,andSoutheastAsia.Chinese
classicalmusic,thetraditionalartorcourtmusicofChina,hasahistorystretchingoveraroundthreethousand
years.Ithasitsownuniquesystemsofmusicalnotation,aswellasmusicaltuningandpitch,musicalinstruments
andstylesormusicalgenres.Chinesemusicispentatonicdiatonic,havingascaleoftwelvenotestoanoctave
(5+7=12)asdoesEuropeaninfluencedmusic.PersianmusicisthemusicofPersiaandPersianlanguage
countries:musiqi,thescienceandartofmusic,andmuzik,thesoundandperformanceofmusic(Sakata1983).
ReferencesintheBible
Musicandtheatrescholarsstudyingthehistoryandanthropologyof
SemiticandearlyJudeoChristianculturehavediscoveredcommonlinksin
theatricalandmusicalactivitybetweentheclassicalculturesofthe
HebrewsandthoseoflaterGreeksandRomans.Thecommonareaof
performanceisfoundina"socialphenomenoncalledlitany,"aformof
prayerconsistingofaseriesofinvocationsorsupplications.TheJournalof
ReligionandTheatrenotesthatamongtheearliestformsoflitany,"Hebrew
litanywasaccompaniedbyarichmusicaltradition:"[39]
"WhileGenesis4.21identifiesJubalasthe"fatherofallsuchas
handletheharpandpipe,"thePentateuchisnearlysilentaboutthe
practiceandinstructionofmusicintheearlylifeofIsrael.Then,inI
Samuel10andthetextsthatfollow,acuriousthinghappens."One
findsinthebiblicaltext,"writesAlfredSendrey,"asuddenand
"Davidwithhisharp"ParisPsalter,
unexplainedupsurgeoflargechoirsandorchestras,consistingof
c.960,Constantinople
thoroughlyorganizedandtrainedmusicalgroups,whichwouldbe
virtuallyinconceivablewithoutlengthy,methodicalpreparation."
ThishasledsomescholarstobelievethattheprophetSamuelwas
thepatriarchofaschool,whichtaughtnotonlyprophetsandholymen,butalsosacredritemusicians.This
publicmusicschool,perhapstheearliestinrecordedhistory,wasnotrestrictedtoapriestlyclasswhichis
howtheshepherdboyDavidappearsonthesceneasaminstreltoKingSaul."[39]
Antiquity
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MajorancientWesterncultureshavehadamajorinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmusic.Thehistoryofmusicin
WesternculturescanbetracedbacktoAncientGreektimes.AncientGreeksocietyproducedthefirstWestern
philosophers,someofwhomwrotetheoriesaboutmusic.MusicwasanimportantpartofAncientGreekculture,
andinturn,influencedtheAncientRomanculture.
AncientGreece
MusicwasanimportantpartofsocialandculturallifeinAncientGreece.Musiciansandsingersplayeda
prominentroleinGreektheater.[40]Mixedgenderchorusesperformedforentertainment,celebration,andspiritual
ceremonies.[41]Instrumentsincludedthedoublereedaulosandapluckedstringinstrument,thelyre,principally
thespecialkindcalledakithara.Musicwasanimportantpartofeducation,andboysweretaughtmusicstartingat
agesix.Greekmusicalliteracycreatedafloweringofmusicdevelopment.GreekmusictheoryincludedtheGreek
musicalmodes,thateventuallybecamethebasisforWesternreligiousandclassicalmusic.Later,influencesfrom
theRomanEmpire,EasternEurope,andtheByzantineEmpirechangedGreekmusic.TheSeikilosepitaphisthe
oldestsurvivingexampleofacompletemusicalcomposition,includingmusicalnotation,fromanywhereinthe
world.
ThefirstworkwrittenonthesubjectofmusictheoryisHarmonikaStoicheia.[42]
TheMiddleAges
Themedievalera(476to1400),whichtookplaceduring
LoninorProtin
theMiddleAges,startedwiththeintroductionof
Brevesdieshominis
monophonic(singlemelodicline)chantingintoRoman
CatholicChurchservices.Musicalnotationwasusedsince
AncienttimesinGreekculture,butintheMiddleAges,
notationwasfirstintroducedbytheCatholicchurchso
thatthechantmelodiescouldbewrittendown,tofacilitatetheuseofthesame
melodiesforreligiousmusicacrosstheentireCatholicempire.TheonlyEuropean
Medievalrepertorythathasbeenfoundinwrittenformfrombefore800isthe
monophonicliturgicalplainsongchantoftheRomanCatholicChurch,thecentral
traditionofwhichwascalledGregorianchant.Alongsidethesetraditionsofsacred
andchurchmusicthereexistedavibranttraditionofsecularsong(nonreligious
songs).ExamplesofcomposersfromthisperiodareLonin,ProtinandGuillaumede
Machaut.
Musicalnotationfroma
CatholicMissal,c.1310
1320
TheRenaissance
Renaissancemusic(c.1400to1600)wasmorefocusedonsecular(nonreligious)
T.L.deVictoria
themes,suchascourtlylove.Around1450,theprintingpresswasinvented,whichmade
Amicusmeus
printedsheetmusicmuchlessexpensiveandeasiertomassproduce(priortothe
inventionoftheprintingpress,allnotatedmusicwashandcopied).Theincreased
availabilityofsheetmusichelpedtospreadmusicalstylesmorequicklyandacrossa
largerarea.Musiciansandsingersoftenworkedforthechurch,courtsandtowns.Church
choirsgrewinsize,andthechurchremainedanimportantpatronofmusic.Bythemiddleofthe15thcentury,
composerswroterichlypolyphonicsacredmusic,inwhichdifferentmelodylineswereinterwovensimultaneously.
ProminentcomposersfromthiseraincludeGuillaumeDufay,GiovanniPierluigidaPalestrina,ThomasMorley,
andOrlandedeLassus.Asmusicalactivityshiftedfromthechurchtothearistocraticcourts,kings,queensand
princescompetedforthefinestcomposers.
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ManyleadingimportantcomposerscamefromtheNetherlands,Belgium,and
northernFrance.TheyarecalledtheFrancoFlemishcomposers.Theyheldimportant
positionsthroughoutEurope,especiallyinItaly.Othercountrieswithvibrantmusical
activityincludedGermany,England,andSpain.
TheBaroque
TheBaroqueeraofmusictookplacefrom1600to1750,as
theBaroqueartisticstyleflourishedacrossEuropeand
ToccataandFugue
duringthistime,musicexpandedinitsrangeand
complexity.Baroquemusicbeganwhenthefirstoperas
AllegoryofMusic,by
(dramaticvocalmusicaccompaniedbyorchestra)were
FilippinoLippi
writtenandwhencontrapuntalmusic,inwhichmultiple,
independentmelodylineswereused,becameprevalent.GermanBaroquecomposers
wroteforsmallensemblesincludingstrings,brass,andwoodwinds,aswellaschoirs,pipeorgan,harpsichord,and
clavichord.Duringthisperiodseveralmajormusicformsweredefinedthatlastedintolaterperiodswhenthey
wereexpandedandevolvedfurther,includingthefugue,theinvention,thesonata,andtheconcerto.[43]Thelate
Baroquestylewaspolyphonicallycomplexandrichlyornamented.ComposersfromtheBaroqueerainclude
JohannSebastianBach,GeorgeFridericHandel,GeorgPhilippTelemannandVivaldi.
J.S.Bach
Classicism
ThemusicoftheClassicalperiod(1730to1820)
aimedtoimitatewhatwereseenasthekey
Symphony40gmoll
elementsoftheartandphilosophyofAncient
GreeceandRome:theidealsofbalance,
proportionanddisciplinedexpression.(Note:the
musicfromtheClassicalperiodshouldnotbe
confusedwithClassicalmusicingeneral,atermwhichreferstoWesternart
musicfromthefifthcenturytothe2000s,whichincludestheClassicalperiod
asoneofanumberofperiods).MusicfromtheClassicalperiodhasalighter,
clearerandconsiderablysimplertexturethantheBaroquemusicwhich
precededit.Themainstylewashomophony,[44]whereaprominentmelody
andasubordinatechordalaccompanimentpartareclearlydistinct.Classical
instrumentalmelodiestendedtobealmostvoicelikeandsingable.Newgenres
weredeveloped,andthefortepiano,theforerunnertothemodernpiano,
replacedtheBaroqueeraharpsichordandpipeorganasthemainkeyboard
instrument.
W.A.Mozart
WolfgangAmadeusMozart
(seatedatthekeyboard)wasa
childprodigyvirtuosoperformer
onthepianoandviolin.Even
beforehebecameacelebrated
composer,hewaswidelyknown
asagiftedperformerand
improviser.
Importancewasgiventoinstrumentalmusic.Itwasdominatedbyfurther
developmentofmusicalformsinitiallydefinedintheBaroqueperiod:the
sonata,theconcerto,andthesymphony.Othersmainkindswerethetrio,
stringquartet,serenadeanddivertimento.Thesonatawasthemostimportant
anddevelopedform.AlthoughBaroquecomposersalsowrotesonatas,the
Classicalstyleofsonataiscompletelydistinct.Allofthemaininstrumental
formsoftheClassicalera,fromstringquartetstosymphoniesandconcertos,werebasedonthestructureofthe
sonata.Theinstrumentsusedchambermusicandorchestrabecamemorestandardized.Inplaceofthebasso
continuogroupoftheBaroqueera,whichconsistedofharpsichord,organorlutealongwithanumberofbass
instrumentsselectedatthediscretionofthegroupleader(e.g.,viol,cello,theorbo,serpent),Classicalchamber
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groupsusedspecified,standardizedinstruments(e.g.,astringquartetwouldbeperformedbytwoviolins,aviola
andacello).TheBaroqueeraimprovisedchordplayingofthecontinuokeyboardistorluteplayerwasgradually
phasedoutbetween1750and1800.
OneofthemostimportantchangesmadeintheClassicalperiodwasthedevelopmentofpublicconcerts.The
aristocracystillplayedasignificantroleinthesponsorshipofconcertsandcompositions,butitwasnowpossible
forcomposerstosurvivewithoutbeingpermanentemployeesofqueensorprinces.Theincreasingpopularityof
classicalmusicledtoagrowthinthenumberandtypesoforchestras.Theexpansionoforchestralconcerts
necessitatedthebuildingoflargepublicperformancespaces.Symphonicmusicincludingsymphonies,musical
accompanimenttoballetandmixedvocal/instrumentalgenressuchasoperaandoratoriobecamemorepopular.
ThebestknowncomposersofClassicismareCarlPhilippEmanuelBach,ChristophWillibaldGluck,Johann
ChristianBach,JosephHaydn,WolfgangAmadeusMozart,LudwigvanBeethovenandFranzSchubert.
BeethovenandSchubertarealsoconsideredtobecomposersinthelaterpartoftheClassicalera,asitbeganto
movetowardsRomanticism.
Romanticism
Romanticmusic(c.1810to1900)fromthe
R.Wagner
nineteenthcenturyhadmanyelementsincommon
DieWalkre
withtheRomanticstylesinliteratureandpainting
oftheera.Romanticismwasanartistic,literary,
andintellectualmovementwascharacterizedbyits
emphasisonemotionandindividualismaswellas
glorificationofallthepastandnature.Romanticmusicexpandedbeyond
therigidstylesandformsoftheClassicaleraintomorepassionate,
dramaticexpressivepiecesandsongs.RomanticcomposerssuchasWagner
andBrahmsattemptedtoincreaseemotionalexpressionandpowerintheir
musictodescribedeepertruthsorhumanfeelings.Withsymphonictone
poems,composerstriedtotellstoriesandevokeimagesorlandscapesusing
instrumentalmusic.Somecomposerspromotednationalisticpridewith
patrioticorchestralmusicinspiredbyfolkmusic.Theemotionaland
expressivequalitiesofmusiccametotakeprecedenceovertradition.
Thepianowasthecentrepieceof
socialactivityformiddleclass
urbanitesinthe19thcentury(Moritz
vonSchwind,1868).Themanatthe
pianoiscomposerFranzSchubert.
Romanticcomposersgrewinidiosyncrasy,andwentfurtherinthesyncretismofexploringdifferentartformsina
musicalcontext,(suchasliterature),history(historicalfiguresandlegends),ornatureitself.Romanticloveor
longingwasaprevalentthemeinmanyworkscomposedduringthisperiod.Insomecasestheformalstructures
fromtheclassicalperiodcontinuedtobeused(e.g.,thesonataformusedinstringquartetsandsymphonies),but
theseformswereexpandedandaltered.Inmanycases,newapproacheswereexploredforexistinggenres,forms,
andfunctions.Also,newformswerecreatedthatweredeemedbettersuitedtothenewsubjectmatter.Composers
continuedtodevelopoperaandballetmusic,exploringnewstylesandthemes.[40]
Intheyearsafter1800,themusicdevelopedbyLudwigvanBeethovenandFranzSchubertintroducedamore
dramatic,expressivestyle.InBeethoven'scase,shortmotifs,developedorganically,cametoreplacemelodyasthe
mostsignificantcompositionalunit(anexampleisthedistinctivefournotefigureusedinhisFifthSymphony).
LaterRomanticcomposerssuchasPyotrIlyichTchaikovsky,AntonnDvok,andGustavMahlerusedmore
unusualchordsandmoredissonancetocreatedramatictension.Theygeneratedcomplexandoftenmuchlonger
musicalworks.DuringthelateRomanticperiod,composersexploreddramaticchromaticalterationsoftonality,
suchasextendedchordsandalteredchords,whichcreatednewsound"colours".Thelate19thcenturysawa
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dramaticexpansioninthesizeoftheorchestra,andtheindustrialrevolutionhelpedtocreatebetterinstruments,
creatingamorepowerfulsound.Publicconcertsbecameanimportantpartofwelltodourbansociety.Italsosaw
anewdiversityintheatremusic,includingoperetta,andmusicalcomedyandotherformsofmusicaltheatre.[40]
20thand21stcenturymusic
Inthe19thcentury,oneofthekeywaysthatnewcompositionsbecameknown
tothepublicwasbythesalesofsheetmusic,whichmiddleclassamateur
musicloverswouldperformathomeontheirpianoorothercommon
instruments,suchasviolin.With20thcenturymusic,theinventionofnew
electrictechnologiessuchasradiobroadcastingandthemassmarket
availabilityofgramophonerecordsmeantthatsoundrecordingsofsongsand
piecesheardbylisteners(eitherontheradioorontheirrecordplayer)became
themainwaytolearnaboutnewsongsandpieces.Therewasavastincrease
inmusiclisteningastheradiogainedpopularityandphonographswereusedto
Ajazzgroupconsistingofdouble
replayanddistributemusic,becausewhereasinthe19thcentury,thefocuson
bassistReggieWorkman,tenor
sheetmusicrestrictedaccesstonewmusictothemiddleclassandupperclass
saxophoneplayerPharoah
peoplewhocouldreadmusicandwhoownedpianosandinstruments.Inthe
Sanders,anddrummerIdris
20thcentury,anyonewitharadioorrecordplayercouldhearoperas,
Muhammad,performingin1978
symphoniesandbigbandsrightintheirownlivingroom.Thisallowedlower
incomepeople,whowouldneverbeabletoaffordanoperaorsymphony
concerttickettohearthismusic.Italsomeantthatpeoplecouldhearmusicfromdifferentpartsofthecountry,or
evendifferentpartsoftheworld,eveniftheycouldnotaffordtotraveltotheselocations.Thishelpedtospread
musicalstyles.
Thefocusofartmusicinthe20thcenturywascharacterizedbyexplorationofnewrhythms,styles,andsounds.
ThehorrorsofWorldWarIinfluencedmanyofthearts,includingmusic,andsomecomposersbeganexploring
darker,harshersounds.Traditionalmusicstylessuchasjazzandfolkmusicwereusedbycomposersasasourceof
ideasforclassicalmusic.IgorStravinsky,ArnoldSchoenberg,andJohnCagewereallinfluentialcomposersin
20thcenturyartmusic.Theinventionofsoundrecordingandtheabilitytoeditmusicgaverisetonewsubgenreof
classicalmusic,includingtheacousmatic[45]andMusiqueconcrteschoolsofelectroniccomposition.Sound
recordingwasalsoamajorinfluenceonthedevelopmentofpopularmusicgenres,becauseitenabledrecordingsof
songsandbandstobewidelydistributed.Theintroductionofthemultitrackrecordingsystemhadamajor
influenceonrockmusic,becauseitcoulddomuchmorethanrecordaband'sperformance.Usingamultitrack
system,abandandtheirmusicproducercouldoverdubmanylayersofinstrumenttracksandvocals,creatingnew
soundsthatwouldnotbepossibleinaliveperformance.
Jazzevolvedandbecameanimportantgenreofmusicoverthecourseofthe20thcentury,andduringthesecond
halfofthatcentury,rockmusicdidthesame.JazzisanAmericanmusicalartformthatoriginatedinthebeginning
ofthe20thcenturyinAfricanAmericancommunitiesintheSouthernUnitedStatesfromaconfluenceofAfrican
andEuropeanmusictraditions.Thestyle'sWestAfricanpedigreeisevidentinitsuseofbluenotes,improvisation,
polyrhythms,syncopation,andtheswungnote.[46]Fromitsearlydevelopmentuntilthepresent,jazzhasalso
incorporatedmusicfrom19thand20thcenturyAmericanpopularmusic.[47]Jazzhas,fromitsearly20thcentury
inception,spawnedavarietyofsubgenres,rangingfromNewOrleansDixieland(1910s)to1970sand1980sera
jazzrockfusion.
Rockmusicisagenreofpopularmusicthatdevelopedinthe1960sfrom1950srockandroll,rockabilly,blues,
andcountrymusic.[48]Thesoundofrockoftenrevolvesaroundtheelectricguitaroracousticguitar,anditusesa
strongbackbeatlaiddownbyarhythmsectionofelectricbassguitar,drums,andkeyboardinstrumentssuchas
organ,piano,or,sincethe1970s,analogsynthesizersanddigitalonesandcomputerssincethe1990s.Alongwith
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theguitarorkeyboards,saxophoneandbluesstyleharmonicaareusedassoloinginstruments.Inits"purestform,"
it"hasthreechords,astrong,insistentbackbeat,andacatchymelody."[49]Inthelate1960sandearly1970s,it
branchedoutintodifferentsubgenres,rangingfrombluesrockandjazzrockfusiontoheavymetalandpunkrock,
aswellasthemoreclassicalinfluencedgenreofprogressiverockandseveraltypesofexperimentalrockgenres.
Performance
Performanceisthephysicalexpressionofmusic,whichoccurswhenasong
issungorwhenapianopiece,electricguitarmelody,symphony,drumbeat
orothermusicalpartisplayedbymusicians.Inclassicalmusic,amusical
workiswritteninmusicnotationbyacomposerandthenitisperformed
oncethecomposerissatisfiedwithitsstructureandinstrumentation.
However,asitgetsperformed,theinterpretationofasongorpiececan
evolveandchange.Inclassicalmusic,instrumentalperformers,singersor
conductorsmaygraduallymakechangestothephrasingortempoofa
piece.Inpopularandtraditionalmusic,theperformershavealotmore
freedomtomakechangestotheformofasongorpiece.Assuch,in
popularandtraditionalmusicstyles,evenwhenabandplaysacoversong,
theycanmakechangestoitsuchasaddingaguitarsolotoorinsertingan
introduction.
Aperformancecaneitherbeplannedoutandrehearsed(practiced)which
isthenorminclassicalmusic,withjazzbigbandsandmanypopularmusic
stylesorimprovisedoverachordprogression(asequenceofchords),
whichisthenorminsmalljazzandbluesgroups.Rehearsalsoforchestras,
concertbandsandchoirsareledbyaconductor.Rock,bluesandjazzbands
areusuallyledbythebandleader.Arehearsalisastructuredrepetitionofa
songorpiecebytheperformersuntilitcanbesungand/orplayedcorrectly
and,ifitisasongorpieceformorethanonemusician,untilthepartsare
togetherfromarhythmicandtuningperspective.Improvisationisthe
creationofamusicalideaamelodyorothermusicallinecreatedonthe
spot,oftenbasedonscalesorpreexistingmelodicriffs.
ChineseNaximusicians
AssyriansplayingzurnaandDavul,
theinstrumentsthatgoback
thousandsofyears.
Manycultureshavestrongtraditionsofsoloperformance(inwhichonesingerorinstrumentalistperforms),such
asinIndianclassicalmusic,andintheWesternartmusictradition.Othercultures,suchasinBali,includestrong
traditionsofgroupperformance.Allculturesincludeamixtureofboth,andperformancemayrangefrom
improvisedsoloplayingtohighlyplannedandorganisedperformancessuchasthemodernclassicalconcert,
religiousprocessions,classicalmusicfestivalsormusiccompetitions.Chambermusic,whichismusicforasmall
ensemblewithonlyafewofeachtypeofinstrument,isoftenseenasmoreintimatethanlargesymphonicworks.
Oralandauraltradition
Manytypesofmusic,suchastraditionalbluesandfolkmusicwerenotwrittendowninsheetmusicinstead,they
wereoriginallypreservedinthememoryofperformers,andthesongswerehandeddownorally,fromone
musicianorsingertoanother,oraurally,inwhichaperformerlearnsasong"byear".Whenthecomposerofa
songorpieceisnolongerknown,thismusicisoftenclassifiedas"traditional"orasa"folksong".Different
musicaltraditionshavedifferentattitudestowardshowandwheretomakechangestotheoriginalsourcematerial,
fromquitestrict,tothosethatdemandimprovisationormodificationtothemusic.Aculture'shistoryandstories
mayalsobepassedonbyearthroughsong.
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Ornamentation
Inmusic,an"ornament"isadecorationtoamelody,basslineorothermusicalpart.The
detailincludedexplicitlyinthemusicnotationvariesbetweengenresandhistoricalperiods.
Ingeneral,artmusicnotationfromthe17ththroughthe19thcenturyrequiredperformersto
haveagreatdealofcontextualknowledgeaboutperformingstyles.Forexample,inthe17th
and18thcentury,musicnotatedforsoloperformerstypicallyindicatedasimple,unadorned
melody.However,performerswereexpectedtoknowhowtoaddstylisticallyappropriate
ornamentstoaddinteresttothemusic,suchastrillsandturns.
Inthe19thcentury,artmusicforsoloperformersmaygiveageneralinstructionsuchasto
performthemusicexpressively,withoutdescribingindetailhowtheperformershoulddo
this.Theperformerwasexpectedtoknowhowtousetempochanges,accentuation,and
pauses(amongotherdevices)toobtainthis"expressive"performancestyle.Inthe20th
century,artmusicnotationoftenbecamemoreexplicitandusedarangeofmarkingsand
annotationstoindicatetoperformershowtheyshouldplayorsingthepiece.
Inascoreorona
performer'smusic
part,thissign
indicatesthatthe
musicianshould
performatrilla
rapidalternation
betweentwonotes.
Play
Inpopularmusicandjazz,musicnotationalmostalwaysindicatesonlythebasicframework
ofthemelody,harmony,orperformanceapproachmusiciansandsingersareexpectedtoknowtheperformance
conventionsandstylesassociatedwithspecificgenresandpieces.Forexample,the"leadsheet"forajazztune
mayonlyindicatethemelodyandthechordchanges.Theperformersinthejazzensembleareexpectedtoknow
howto"fleshout"thisbasicstructurebyaddingornaments,improvisedmusic,andchordalaccompaniment.
Philosophyandaesthetics
Philosophyofmusicisasubfieldofphilosophy.Thephilosophyofmusicisthe
studyoffundamentalquestionsregardingmusic.Thephilosophicalstudyofmusic
hasmanyconnectionswithphilosophicalquestionsinmetaphysicsandaesthetics.
Somebasicquestionsinthephilosophyofmusicare:
Whatisthedefinitionofmusic?(Whatarethenecessaryandsufficient
conditionsforclassifyingsomethingasmusic?)
Whatistherelationshipbetweenmusicandmind?
Whatdoesmusicalhistoryrevealtousabouttheworld?
Whatistheconnectionbetweenmusicandemotions?
Whatismeaninginrelationtomusic?
Inancienttimes,suchaswiththeAncientGreeks,theaestheticsofmusicexplored
themathematicalandcosmologicaldimensionsofrhythmicandharmonic
organization.Intheeighteenthcentury,focusshiftedtotheexperienceofhearing
music,andthustoquestionsaboutitsbeautyandhumanenjoyment(plaisirand
ApaintingbyBoldiniofa
jouissance)ofmusic.Theoriginofthisphilosophicshiftissometimesattributedto
womanplayingthepiano.
Baumgarteninthe18thcentury,followedbyKant.Throughtheirwriting,the
ancientterm'aesthetics',meaningsensoryperception,receiveditspresentday
connotation.Inthe2000s,philosophershavetendedtoemphasizeissuesbesidesbeautyandenjoyment.For
example,music'scapacitytoexpressemotionhasbeenacentralissue.
Inthe20thcentury,importantcontributionsweremadebyPeterKivy,JerroldLevinson,RogerScruton,and
StephenDavies.However,manymusicians,musiccritics,andothernonphilosophershavecontributedtothe
aestheticsofmusic.Inthe19thcentury,asignificantdebatearosebetweenEduardHanslick,amusiccriticand
musicologist,andcomposerRichardWagnerregardingwhethermusiccanexpressmeaning.HarryPartchand
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someothermusicologists,suchasKyleGann,havestudiedandtriedtopopularizemicrotonalmusicandtheusage
ofalternatemusicalscales.AlsomanymoderncomposerslikeLaMonteYoung,RhysChathamandGlennBranca
paidmuchattentiontoascalecalledjustintonation.
Itisoftenthoughtthatmusichastheabilitytoaffectouremotions,intellect,andpsychologyitcanassuageour
lonelinessorinciteourpassions.ThephilosopherPlatosuggestsintheRepublicthatmusichasadirecteffecton
thesoul.Therefore,heproposesthatintheidealregimemusicwouldbecloselyregulatedbythestate.(BookVII)
Therehasbeenastrongtendencyintheaestheticsofmusictoemphasizetheparamountimportanceof
compositionalstructurehowever,otherissuesconcerningtheaestheticsofmusicincludelyricism,harmony,
hypnotism,emotiveness,temporaldynamics,resonance,playfulness,andcolor(seealsomusicaldevelopment).
Psychology
Modernmusicpsychologyaimstoexplainandunderstandmusicalbehaviorandexperience.[50]Researchinthis
fieldanditssubfieldsareprimarilyempiricaltheirknowledgetendstoadvanceonthebasisofinterpretationsof
datacollectedbysystematicobservationofandinteractionwithhumanparticipants.Inadditiontoitsfocuson
fundamentalperceptionsandcognitiveprocesses,musicpsychologyisafieldofresearchwithpracticalrelevance
formanyareas,includingmusicperformance,composition,education,criticism,andtherapy,aswellas
investigationsofhumanaptitude,skill,intelligence,creativity,andsocialbehavior.
Cognitiveneuroscienceofmusic
Cognitiveneuroscienceofmusicisthescientificstudyofbrainbased
mechanismsinvolvedinthecognitiveprocessesunderlyingmusic.
Thesebehavioursincludemusiclistening,performing,composing,
reading,writing,andancillaryactivities.Italsoisincreasingly
concernedwiththebrainbasisformusicalaestheticsandmusical
emotion.Thefieldisdistinguishedbyitsrelianceondirect
observationsofthebrain,usingsuchtechniquesasfunctionalmagnetic
resonanceimaging(fMRI),transcranialmagneticstimulation(TMS),
magnetoencephalography(MEG),electroencephalography(EEG),and
positronemissiontomography(PET).
Cognitivemusicology
Theprimaryauditorycortexisoneofthe
mainareasassociatedwithsuperiorpitch
resolution.
Cognitivemusicologyisabranchofcognitivescienceconcernedwith
computationallymodelingmusicalknowledgewiththegoalofunderstandingbothmusicandcognition.[51]The
useofcomputermodelsprovidesanexacting,interactivemediuminwhichtoformulateandtesttheoriesandhas
rootsinartificialintelligenceandcognitivescience.[52]
Thisinterdisciplinaryfieldinvestigatestopicssuchastheparallelsbetweenlanguageandmusicinthebrain.
Biologicallyinspiredmodelsofcomputationareoftenincludedinresearch,suchasneuralnetworksand
evolutionaryprograms.[53]Thisfieldseekstomodelhowmusicalknowledgeisrepresented,stored,perceived,
performed,andgenerated.Byusingawellstructuredcomputerenvironment,thesystematicstructuresofthese
cognitivephenomenacanbeinvestigated.[54]
Psychoacoustics
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Psychoacousticsisthescientificstudyofsoundperception.Morespecifically,itisthebranchofsciencestudying
thepsychologicalandphysiologicalresponsesassociatedwithsound(includingspeechandmusic).Itcanbe
furthercategorizedasabranchofpsychophysics.
Evolutionarymusicology
Evolutionarymusicologyconcernsthe"originsofmusic,thequestionofanimalsong,selectionpressures
underlyingmusicevolution",and"musicevolutionandhumanevolution".[55]Itseekstounderstandmusic
perceptionandactivityinthecontextofevolutionarytheory.CharlesDarwinspeculatedthatmusicmayhaveheld
anadaptiveadvantageandfunctionedasaprotolanguage,[56]aviewwhichhasspawnedseveralcompeting
theoriesofmusicevolution.[57][58][59]Analternateviewseesmusicasabyproductoflinguisticevolutionatype
of"auditorycheesecake"thatpleasesthesenseswithoutprovidinganyadaptivefunction.[60]Thisviewhasbeen
directlycounteredbynumerousmusicresearchers.[61][62][63]
Cultureinmusiccognition
Anindividual'scultureorethnicityplaysaroleintheirmusiccognition,includingtheirpreferences,emotional
reaction,andmusicalmemory.Musicalpreferencesarebiasedtowardculturallyfamiliarmusicaltraditions
beginningininfancy,andadults'classificationoftheemotionofamusicalpiecedependsonbothculturally
specificanduniversalstructuralfeatures.[64][65]Additionally,individuals'musicalmemoryabilitiesaregreaterfor
culturallyfamiliarmusicthanforculturallyunfamiliarmusic.[66][67]
Sociology
ThisSongDynasty(9601279)painting,entitledthe"NightRevelsofHanXizai,"showsChinese
musiciansentertainingguestsatapartyina10thcenturyhousehold.
Manyethnographicstudiesdemonstratethatmusicisaparticipatory,communitybasedactivity.[68][69]Musicis
experiencedbyindividualsinarangeofsocialsettingsrangingfrombeingalonetoattendingalargeconcert,
formingamusiccommunity,whichcannotbeunderstoodasafunctionofindividualwilloraccidentitincludes
bothcommercialandnoncommercialparticipantswithasharedsetofcommonvalues.Musicalperformancestake
differentformsindifferentculturesandsocioeconomicmilieus.InEuropeandNorthAmerica,thereisoftena
dividebetweenwhattypesofmusicareviewedasa"highculture"and"lowculture.""Highculture"typesof
musictypicallyincludeWesternartmusicsuchasBaroque,Classical,Romantic,andmodernerasymphonies,
concertos,andsoloworks,andaretypicallyheardinformalconcertsinconcerthallsandchurches,withthe
audiencesittingquietlyinseats.
Othertypesofmusicincluding,butnotlimitedto,jazz,blues,soul,andcountryareoftenperformedinbars,
nightclubs,andtheatres,wheretheaudiencemaybeabletodrink,dance,andexpressthemselvesbycheering.
Untilthelater20thcentury,thedivisionbetween"high"and"low"musicalformswaswidelyacceptedasavalid
distinctionthatseparatedoutbetterquality,moreadvanced"artmusic"fromthepopularstylesofmusicheardin
barsanddancehalls.
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However,inthe1980sand1990s,musicologistsstudyingthisperceiveddividebetween"high"and"low"musical
genresarguedthatthisdistinctionisnotbasedonthemusicalvalueorqualityofthedifferenttypesofmusic.
Rather,theyarguedthatthisdistinctionwasbasedlargelyonthesocioeconomicsstandingorsocialclassofthe
performersoraudienceofthedifferenttypesofmusic.Forexample,whereastheaudienceforClassicalsymphony
concertstypicallyhaveaboveaverageincomes,theaudienceforarapconcertinaninnercityareamayhave
belowaverageincomes.Eventhoughtheperformers,audience,orvenuewherenon"art"musicisperformedmay
havealowersocioeconomicstatus,themusicthatisperformed,suchasblues,rap,punk,funk,orskamaybevery
complexandsophisticated.
Whencomposersintroducestylesofmusicthatbreakwithconvention,therecanbeastrongresistancefrom
academicmusicexpertsandpopularculture.LateperiodBeethovenstringquartets,Stravinskyballetscores,
serialism,beboperajazz,hiphop,punkrock,andelectronicahaveallbeenconsiderednonmusicbysomecritics
whentheywerefirstintroduced.Suchthemesareexaminedinthesociologyofmusic.Thesociologicalstudyof
music,sometimescalledsociomusicology,isoftenpursuedindepartmentsofsociology,mediastudies,ormusic,
andiscloselyrelatedtothefieldofethnomusicology.
Mediaandtechnology
Themusicthatcomposersmakecanbeheardthroughseveral
mediathemosttraditionalwayistohearitlive,inthe
presenceofthemusicians(orasoneofthemusicians),inan
outdoororindoorspacesuchasanamphitheatre,concerthall,
cabaretroomortheatre.Sincethe20thcentury,livemusiccan
alsobebroadcastovertheradio,televisionortheInternet,or
recordedandlistenedtoonaCDplayerorMp3player.Some
musicalstylesfocusonproducingasoundforaperformance,
whileothersfocusonproducingarecordingthatmixes
togethersoundsthatwereneverplayed"live."Recording,even
ofessentiallylivestylessuchasrock,oftenusestheabilityto
editandsplicetoproducerecordingsthatmaybeconsidered
"better"thantheactualperformance.
Musicproductioninthe2000susingadigitalaudio
workstation(DAW)withanelectronickeyboard
andamultimonitorsetup.
Technologyhashadaninfluenceonmusicsinceprehistoric
times,whencavepeopleusedsimpletoolstoboreholesinto
boneflutes41,000yearsago.Technologycontinuedto
influencemusicthroughoutthehistoryofmusic,asitenablednewinstrumentsandmusicnotationreproduction
systemstobeused,withoneofthewatershedmomentsinmusicnotationbeingtheinventionoftheprintingpress
inthe1400s,whichmeantmusicscoresnolongerhadtobehandcopied.Inthe19thcentury,musictechnologyled
tothedevelopmentofamorepowerful,louderpianoandledtothedevelopmentofnewvalvesbrassinstruments.
Intheearly20thcentury(inthelate1920s),astalkingpicturesemergedintheearly20thcentury,withtheir
prerecordedmusicaltracks,anincreasingnumberofmoviehouseorchestramusiciansfoundthemselvesoutof
work.[70]Duringthe1920slivemusicalperformancesbyorchestras,pianists,andtheaterorganistswerecommon
atfirstruntheaters.[71]Withthecomingofthetalkingmotionpictures,thosefeaturedperformanceswerelargely
eliminated.TheAmericanFederationofMusicians(AFM)tookoutnewspaperadvertisementsprotestingthe
replacementoflivemusicianswithmechanicalplayingdevices.One1929adthatappearedinthePittsburghPress
featuresanimageofacanlabeled"CannedMusic/BigNoiseBrand/GuaranteedtoProduceNoIntellectualor
EmotionalReactionWhatever"[72]
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Sincelegislationintroducedtohelpprotectperformers,composers,publishersandproducers,includingtheAudio
HomeRecordingActof1992intheUnitedStates,andthe1979revisedBerneConventionfortheProtectionof
LiteraryandArtisticWorksintheUnitedKingdom,recordingsandliveperformanceshavealsobecomemore
accessiblethroughcomputers,devicesandInternetinaformthatiscommonlyknownasMusicOnDemand.
Inmanycultures,thereislessdistinctionbetweenperformingandlisteningtomusic,sincevirtuallyeveryoneis
involvedinsomesortofmusicalactivity,oftencommunal.Inindustrializedcountries,listeningtomusicthrougha
recordedform,suchassoundrecordingorwatchingamusicvideo,becamemorecommonthanexperiencinglive
performance,roughlyinthemiddleofthe20thcentury.
Sometimes,liveperformancesincorporateprerecordedsounds.Forexample,adiscjockeyusesdiscrecordsfor
scratching,andsome20thcenturyworkshaveasoloforaninstrumentorvoicethatisperformedalongwithmusic
thatisprerecordedontoatape.ComputersandmanykeyboardscanbeprogrammedtoproduceandplayMusical
InstrumentDigitalInterface(MIDI)music.Audiencescanalsobecomeperformersbyparticipatinginkaraoke,an
activityofJapaneseorigincenteredonadevicethatplaysvoiceeliminatedversionsofwellknownsongs.Most
karaokemachinesalsohavevideoscreensthatshowlyricstosongsbeingperformedperformerscanfollowthe
lyricsastheysingovertheinstrumentaltracks.
Internet
TheadventoftheInternetandwidespreadhighspeedbroadbandaccesshas
transformedtheexperienceofmusic,partlythroughtheincreasedeaseofaccessto
recordingsofmusicviastreamingvideoandvastlyincreasedchoiceofmusicfor
consumers.ChrisAnderson,inhisbookTheLongTail:WhytheFutureofBusiness
IsSellingLessofMore,suggeststhatwhilethetraditionaleconomicmodelofsupply
anddemanddescribesscarcity,theInternetretailmodelisbasedonabundance.
Digitalstoragecostsarelow,soacompanycanaffordtomakeitswholerecording
inventoryavailableonline,givingcustomersasmuchchoiceaspossible.Ithasthus
becomeeconomicallyviabletooffermusicrecordingsthatveryfewpeopleare
interestedin.Consumers'growingawarenessoftheirincreasedchoiceresultsina
closerassociationbetweenlisteningtastesandsocialidentity,andthecreationof
thousandsofnichemarkets.[73]
AnothereffectoftheInternetarosewithonlinecommunitiesandsocialmedia
YouTubepresentspop
websiteslikeYouTubeandFacebook,asocialnetworkingservice.Thesesitesmake
singerTaylorSwift.
iteasierforaspiringsingersandamateurbandstodistributevideosoftheirsongs,
connectwithothermusicians,andgainaudienceinterest.Professionalmusiciansalso
useYouTubeasafreepublisherofpromotionalmaterial.YouTubeusers,forexample,nolongeronlydownload
andlistentoMP3s,butalsoactivelycreatetheirown.AccordingtoDonTapscottandAnthonyD.Williams,in
theirbookWikinomics,therehasbeenashiftfromatraditionalconsumerroletowhattheycalla"prosumer"role,
aconsumerwhobothcreatescontentandconsumes.Manifestationsofthisinmusicincludetheproductionof
mashes,remixes,andmusicvideosbyfans.[74]
Business
Themusicindustryreferstothebusinessesconnectedwiththecreationandsaleofmusic.Itconsistsof
songwritersandcomposerswhocreatenewsongsandmusicalpieces,musicproducersandsoundengineerswho
recordsongsandpieces,recordlabelsandpublishersthatdistributerecordedmusicproductsandsheetmusic
internationallyandthatoftencontroltherightstothoseproducts.Somemusiclabelsare"independent,"while
othersaresubsidiariesoflargercorporateentitiesorinternationalmediagroups.Inthe2000s,theincreasing
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popularityoflisteningtomusicasdigitalmusicfilesonMP3players,iPods,orcomputers,andoftradingmusicon
filesharingwebsitesorbuyingitonlineintheformofdigitalfileshadamajorimpactonthetraditionalmusic
business.ManysmallerindependentCDstoreswentoutofbusinessasmusicbuyersdecreasedtheirpurchasesof
CDs,andmanylabelshadlowerCDsales.Somecompaniesdidwellwiththechangetoadigitalformat,though,
suchasApple'siTunes,anonlinemusicstorethatsellsdigitalfilesofsongsovertheInternet.
Education
Nonprofessional
Theincorporationofsomemusicorsingingtraininginto
generaleducationfrompreschooltopostsecondaryeducation
iscommoninNorthAmericaandEurope.Involvementin
playingandsingingmusicisthoughttoteachbasicskillssuch
asconcentration,counting,listening,andcooperationwhile
alsopromotingunderstandingoflanguage,improvingthe
abilitytorecallinformation,andcreatinganenvironmentmore
conducivetolearninginotherareas.[75]Inelementaryschools,
childrenoftenlearntoplayinstrumentssuchastherecorder,
singinsmallchoirs,andlearnaboutthehistoryofWesternart
musicandtraditionalmusic.Someelementaryschoolchildren
alsolearnaboutpopularmusicstyles.Inreligiousschools,
ASuzukiviolinrecitalwithstudentsofvarying
childrensinghymnsandotherreligiousmusic.Insecondary
ages.
schools(andlesscommonlyinelementaryschools),students
mayhavetheopportunitytoperforminsometypesofmusical
ensembles,suchaschoirs(agroupofsingers),marchingbands,concertbands,jazzbands,ororchestras.Insome
schoolsystems,musiclessonsonhowtoplayinstrumentsmaybeprovided.Somestudentsalsotakeprivatemusic
lessonsafterschoolwithasingingteacherorinstrumentteacher.Amateurmusicianstypicallylearnbasicmusical
rudiments(e.g.,learningaboutmusicalnotationformusicalscalesandrhythms)andbeginnertointermediate
levelsingingorinstrumentplayingtechniques.
Attheuniversitylevel,studentsinmostartsandhumanitiesprogramscanreceivecreditfortakingafewmusic
courses,whichtypicallytaketheformofanoverviewcourseonthehistoryofmusic,oramusicappreciation
coursethatfocusesonlisteningtomusicandlearningaboutdifferentmusicalstyles.Inaddition,mostNorth
AmericanandEuropeanuniversitieshavesometypesofmusicalensemblesthatstudentsinartsandhumanitiesare
abletoparticipatein,suchaschoirs,marchingbands,concertbands,ororchestras.ThestudyofWesternartmusic
isincreasinglycommonoutsideofNorthAmericaandEurope,suchastheIndonesianInstituteoftheArtsin
Yogyakarta,Indonesia,ortheclassicalmusicprogramsthatareavailableinAsiancountriessuchasSouthKorea,
Japan,andChina.Atthesametime,Westernuniversitiesandcollegesarewideningtheircurriculumtoinclude
musicofnonWesterncultures,suchasthemusicofAfricaorBali(e.g.Gamelanmusic).
Professionaltraining
Individualsaimingtobecomeprofessionalmusicians,singers,composers,songwriters,musicteachersand
practitionersofothermusicrelatedprofessionssuchasmusichistoryprofessors,soundengineers,andsoonstudy
inspecializedpostsecondaryprogramsofferedbycolleges,universitiesandmusicconservatories.Some
institutionsthattrainindividualsforcareersinmusicoffertraininginawiderangeofprofessions,asisthecase
withmanyofthetopU.S.universities,whichofferdegreesinmusicperformance(includingsingingandplaying
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instruments),musichistory,musictheory,musiccomposition,musiceducation
(forindividualsaimingtobecomeelementaryorhighschoolmusicteachers)
and,insomecases,conducting.Ontheotherhand,somesmallcollegesmay
onlyoffertraininginasingleprofession(e.g.,soundrecording).
Whilemostuniversityandconservatorymusicprogramsfocusontraining
studentsinclassicalmusic,thereareanumberofuniversitiesandcollegesthat
trainmusiciansforcareersasjazzorpopularmusicmusiciansandcomposers,
withnotableU.S.examplesincludingtheManhattanSchoolofMusicandthe
BerkleeCollegeofMusic.TwoimportantschoolsinCanadawhichoffer
professionaljazztrainingareMcGillUniversityandHumberCollege.
Individualsaimingatcareersinsometypesofmusic,suchasheavymetal
ManhattanSchoolofMusic
music,countrymusicorbluesarelesslikelytobecomeprofessionalsby
professorandprofessionaldouble
completingdegreesordiplomasincollegesoruniversities.Instead,they
bassplayerTimothyCobb
typicallylearnabouttheirstyleofmusicbysingingand/orplayinginmany
teachingabasslessoninthelate
bands(oftenbeginninginamateurbands,coverbandsandtributebands),
2000s.HisbasshasalowC
studyingrecordingsavailableonCD,DVDandtheInternetandworkingwith
extensionwithametal"machine"
alreadyestablishedprofessionalsintheirstyleofmusic,eitherthrough
withbuttonsforplayingthe
informalmentoringorregularmusiclessons.Sincethe2000s,theincreasing
pitchesontheextension.
popularityandavailabilityofInternetforumsandYouTube"howto"videos
haveenabledmanysingersandmusiciansfrommetal,bluesandsimilargenres
toimprovetheirskills.Manypop,rockandcountrysingerstraininformallywithvocalcoachesandsinging
teachers.
Undergraduate
Undergraduateuniversitydegreesinmusic,includingtheBachelorofMusic,theBachelorofMusicEducation,
andtheBachelorofArts(withamajorinmusic)typicallytakeaboutfouryearstocomplete.Thesedegrees
providestudentswithagroundinginmusictheoryandmusichistory,andmanystudentsalsostudyaninstrument
orlearnsingingtechniqueaspartoftheirprogram.Graduatesofundergraduatemusicprogramscanseek
employmentorgoontofurtherstudyinmusicgraduateprograms.Bachelor'sdegreegraduatesarealsoeligibleto
applytosomegraduateprogramsandprofessionalschoolsoutsideofmusic(e.g.,publicadministration,business
administration,libraryscience,and,insomejurisdictions,teacher'scollege,lawschoolormedicalschool).
Graduate
GraduatemusicdegreesincludetheMasterofMusic,theMasterofArts,theDoctorofPhilosophy(Ph.D.)(e.g.,in
musicologyormusictheory),andmorerecently,theDoctorofMusicalArts,orDMA.TheMasterofMusic
degree,whichtakesonetotwoyearstocomplete,istypicallyawardedtostudentsstudyingtheperformanceofan
instrument,education,voice(singing)orcomposition.TheMasterofArtsdegree,whichtakesonetotwoyearsto
completeandoftenrequiresathesis,istypicallyawardedtostudentsstudyingmusicology,musichistory,music
theoryorethnomusicology.
ThePhD,whichisrequiredforstudentswhowanttoworkasuniversityprofessorsinmusicology,musichistory,
ormusictheory,takesthreetofiveyearsofstudyafterthemaster'sdegree,duringwhichtimethestudentwill
completeadvancedcoursesandundertakeresearchforadissertation.TheDMAisarelativelynewdegreethatwas
createdtoprovideacredentialforprofessionalperformersorcomposersthatwanttoworkasuniversityprofessors
inmusicalperformanceorcomposition.TheDMAtakesthreetofiveyearsafteramaster'sdegree,andincludes
advancedcourses,projects,andperformances.InMedievaltimes,thestudyofmusicwasoneoftheQuadriviumof
thesevenLiberalArtsandconsideredvitaltohigherlearning.WithinthequantitativeQuadrivium,music,ormore
accuratelyharmonics,wasthestudyofrationalproportions.
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Musicology
Musicology,theacademicstudyofthesubjectofmusic,isstudiedinuniversitiesandmusicconservatories.The
earliestdefinitionsfromthe19thcenturydefinedthreesubdisciplinesofmusicology:systematicmusicology,
historicalmusicology,andcomparativemusicologyorethnomusicology.In2010erascholarship,oneismore
likelytoencounteradivisionofthedisciplineintomusictheory,musichistory,andethnomusicology.Researchin
musicologyhasoftenbeenenrichedbycrossdisciplinarywork,forexampleinthefieldofpsychoacoustics.The
studyofmusicofnonwesterncultures,andtheculturalstudyofmusic,iscalledethnomusicology.Studentscan
pursuetheundergraduatestudyofmusicology,ethnomusicology,musichistory,andmusictheorythroughseveral
differenttypesofdegrees,includingbachelor'sdegrees,master'sdegreesandPhDdegrees.
Musictheory
Musictheoryisthestudyofmusic,generallyinahighlytechnicalmanneroutsideofotherdisciplines.More
broadlyitreferstoanystudyofmusic,usuallyrelatedinsomeformwithcompositionalconcerns,andmayinclude
mathematics,physics,andanthropology.Whatismostcommonlytaughtinbeginningmusictheoryclassesare
guidelinestowriteinthestyleofthecommonpracticeperiod,ortonalmusic.Theory,evenofmusicofthe
commonpracticeperiod,maytakemanyotherforms.Musicalsettheoryistheapplicationofmathematicalset
theorytomusic,firstappliedtoatonalmusic.Speculativemusictheory,contrastedwithanalyticmusictheory,is
devotedtotheanalysisandsynthesisofmusicmaterials,forexampletuningsystems,generallyaspreparationfor
composition.
Zoomusicology
Zoomusicologyisthestudyofthemusicofnonhumananimals,orthemusicalaspectsofsoundsproducedby
nonhumananimals.AsGeorgeHerzog(1941)asked,"doanimalshavemusic?"FranoisBernardMche's
Musique,mythe,nature,oulesDauphinsd'Arion(1983),astudyof"ornithomusicology"usingatechniqueof
NicolasRuwet'sLangage,musique,posie(1972)paradigmaticsegmentationanalysis,showsthatbirdsongsare
organisedaccordingtoarepetitiontransformationprinciple.JeanJacquesNattiez(1990),arguesthat"inthelast
analysis,itisahumanbeingwhodecideswhatisandisnotmusical,evenwhenthesoundisnotofhumanorigin.
Ifweacknowledgethatsoundisnotorganisedandconceptualised(thatis,madetoformmusic)merelybyits
producer,butbythemindthatperceivesit,thenmusicisuniquelyhuman."
Ethnomusicology
IntheWest,muchofthehistoryofmusicthatistaughtdealswiththeWesterncivilization'sartmusic,whichis
knownasclassicalmusic.ThehistoryofmusicinnonWesterncultures("worldmusic"orthefieldof
"ethnomusicology"),whichtypicallycoversmusicfromAfricaandAsiaisalsotaughtinWesternuniversities.
ThisincludesthedocumentedclassicaltraditionsofAsiancountriesoutsidetheinfluenceofWesternEurope,as
wellasthefolkorindigenousmusicofvariousothercultures.PopularorfolkstylesofmusicinnonWestern
countriesvariedwidelyfromculturetoculture,andfromperiodtoperiod.Differentculturesemphasiseddifferent
instruments,techniques,singingstylesandusesformusic.Musichasbeenusedforentertainment,ceremonies,
rituals,religiouspurposesandforpracticalandartisticcommunication.NonWesternmusichasalsobeenusedfor
propagandapurposes,aswasthecasewithChineseoperaduringtheCulturalRevolution.
ThereisahostofmusicclassificationsfornonWesternmusic,manyofwhicharecaughtupintheargumentover
thedefinitionofmusic.Amongthelargestoftheseisthedivisionbetweenclassicalmusic(or"art"music),and
popularmusic(orcommercialmusicincludingnonWesternstylesofrock,country,andpopmusicrelated
styles).Somegenresdonotfitneatlyintooneofthese"bigtwo"classifications,(suchasfolkmusic,worldmusic,
orjazzrelatedmusic).
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Asworldcultureshavecomeintogreaterglobalcontact,theirindigenous
musicalstyleshaveoftenmergedwithotherstyles,whichproducesnew
styles.Forexample,theUnitedStatesbluegrassstylecontainselementsfrom
AngloIrish,Scottish,Irish,GermanandAfricaninstrumentalandvocal
traditions,whichwereabletofuseintheUnitedStates'multiethnic"melting
pot"society.SometypesofworldmusiccontainamixtureofnonWestern
indigenousstyleswithWesternpopmusicelements.Genresofmusicare
determinedasmuchbytraditionandpresentationasbytheactualmusic.Some
works,likeGeorgeGershwin'sRhapsodyinBlue,areclaimedbybothjazzand
classicalmusic,whileGershwin'sPorgyandBessandLeonardBernstein's
WestSideStoryareclaimedbybothoperaandtheBroadwaymusicaltradition.
ManycurrentmusicfestivalsfornonWesternmusicincludebandsandsingers
fromaparticularmusicalgenre,suchasworldmusic.
Indianmusic,forexample,isoneoftheoldestandlongestlivingtypesof
music,andisstillwidelyheardandperformedinSouthAsia,aswellas
internationally(especiallysincethe1960s).Indianmusichasmainlythree
formsofclassicalmusic,Hindustani,Carnatic,andDhrupadstyles.Ithasalso
alargerepertoireofstyles,whichinvolveonlypercussionmusicsuchasthe
talavadyaperformancesfamousinSouthIndia.
EthnomusicologistFrances
DensmorerecordingBlackfoot
chiefMountainChiefforthe
BureauofAmericanEthnology
(1916)
Musictherapy
Musictherapyisaninterpersonalprocessinwhichthetherapistusesmusic
andallofitsfacetsphysical,emotional,mental,social,aesthetic,and
spiritualtohelpclientstoimproveormaintaintheirhealth.Insome
instances,theclient'sneedsareaddresseddirectlythroughmusicinothers
theyareaddressedthroughtherelationshipsthatdevelopbetweentheclient
andtherapist.Musictherapyisusedwithindividualsofallagesandwitha
varietyofconditions,including:psychiatricdisorders,medicalproblems,
physicalhandicaps,sensoryimpairments,developmentaldisabilities,
substanceabuse,communicationdisorders,interpersonalproblems,and
aging.Itisalsousedto:improvelearning,buildselfesteem,reducestress,
supportphysicalexercise,andfacilitateahostofotherhealthrelated
activities.
Amusictherapistfroma"Bluesin
theSchools"programplays
harmonicawithaUSNavysailorata
NavalTherapyCenter.
OneoftheearliestmentionsofmusictherapywasinAlFarabi's(c.872
950)treatiseMeaningsoftheIntellect,whichdescribedthetherapeuticeffectsofmusiconthesoul.[76]Musichas
longbeenusedtohelppeopledealwiththeiremotions.Inthe17thcentury,thescholarRobertBurton'sThe
AnatomyofMelancholyarguedthatmusicanddancewerecriticalintreatingmentalillness,especially
melancholia.[77]Henotedthatmusichasan"excellentpower...toexpelmanyotherdiseases"andhecalledit"a
sovereignremedyagainstdespairandmelancholy."HepointedoutthatinAntiquity,Canus,aRhodianfiddler,
usedmusicto"makeamelancholymanmerry,...alovermoreenamoured,areligiousmanmoredevout."[78][79][80]
InNovember2006,Dr.MichaelJ.Crawford[81]andhiscolleaguesalsofoundthatmusictherapyhelped
schizophrenicpatients.[82]IntheOttomanEmpire,mentalillnessesweretreatedwithmusic.[83]
Seealso
Musicspecificdisorders
27/31
6/19/2016
Listsofmusicians
Listofmusicologytopics
Listofmusicsoftware
Musicandemotion
Musichistory
Womeninmusic
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77.cf.TheAnatomyofMelancholy,RobertBurton,subsection3,onandafterline3,480,"MusicaRemedy"
78.IsmeniastheTheban,Chironthecentaur,issaidtohavecuredthisandmanyotherdiseasesbymusicalone:asnowthy
dothose,saithBodine,thataretroubledwithSt.Vitus'sBedlamdance.ProjectGutenberg'sTheAnatomyofMelancholy,
byDemocritusJunior(http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10800/108008.txt)
79."HumanitiesaretheHormones:ATarantellaComestoNewfoundland.Whatshouldwedoaboutit?"(http://www.med.m
un.ca/munmed/84/crellin.htm)byDr.JohnCrellin,MUNMED,newsletteroftheFacultyofMedicine,Memorial
UniversityofNewfoundland,1996.
80.Aung,StevenK.H.,Lee,MathewH.M.,"Music,Sounds,Medicine,andMeditation:AnIntegrativeApproachtothe
HealingArts,"Alternative&ComplementaryTherapies(http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/act.2004.10.266?j
ournalCode=act),Oct2004,Vol.10,No.5:266270.
81.Dr.MichaelJ.Crawfordpage(http://www1.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/people/m.crawford/)atImperialCollegeLondon,
FacultyofMedicine,DepartmentofPsychologicalMedicine.
82.Crawford,MikeJ.Talwar,Nakuletal.(November2006)."Musictherapyforinpatientswithschizophrenia:
Exploratoryrandomisedcontrolledtrial".TheBritishJournalofPsychiatry(2006)189(5):405409.
doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073.PMID17077429."Musictherapymayprovideameansofimprovingmentalhealth
amongpeoplewithschizophrenia,butitseffectsinacutepsychoseshavenotbeenexplored"
83.TreatmentofMentalIllnessesWithMusicTherapyAdifferentapproachfromhistory(http://www.iadh.org/pdf/2006No
vember.pdf)Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20131201231144/http://www.iadh.org/pdf/2006November.pdf)
December1,2013,attheWaybackMachine.
Furtherreading
Colles,HenryCope(1978).TheGrowthofMusic:AStudyinMusicalHistory,4thed.,London:Oxford
UniversityPress.ISBN0193161168(1913editiononline(https://books.google.com/books?id=PrkNAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover)atGoogleBooks)
Harwood,Dane(1976)."UniversalsinMusic:APerspectivefromCognitivePsychology".Ethnomusicology
20(3):52133.doi:10.2307/851047.
Small,Christopher(1977).Music,Society,Education.JohnCalderPublishers,London.ISBN071453614
8
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Externallinks
BBCBlastMusic(http://www.bbc.co.uk/blast/)For13to19yearoldsinterestedinlearningabout,making,
performingandtalkingaboutmusic.
TheVirginiaTechMultimediaMusicDictionary(http://web.archive.org/web/20160122074030/http://www.
music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/),withdefinitions,pronunciations,examples,quizzesandsimulations
TheMusicWebMusicEncyclopedia(http://www.musicweb.org/),formusicians,composersandmusic
lovers
Dolmetschfreeonlinemusicdictionary(http://dolmetsch.com/musictheorydefs.htm),complete,with
referencestoalistofspecialisedmusicdictionaries(bycontinent,byinstrument,bygenre,etc.)
MusicalTerms(http://www.naxos.com/education/glossary.asp)GlossaryofmusictermsfromNaxos
"OnHermeneuticalEthicsandEducation:BachalsErzieher"(http://www.uned.es/dpto_fil/revista/polemos/a
rticulos/MA_Quintana_On%20Hermeneutical%20Ethics%20&%20Education%20(Internet)2.doc),apaper
byProf.MiguelngelQuintanaPazinwhichheexplainsthehistoryofthedifferentviewsholdaboutmusic
inWesternsocieties,sincetheAncientGreecetoourdays.
MonthlyOnlineFeaturesFromBloomingdaleSchoolofMusic(http://www.bsmny.org/features),addressing
avarietyofmusicaltopicsforawideaudience
ArtsandMusicUpliftingSocietytowardsTransformationandTolerance(http://www.musicfoundations.org/
pages/3/index.htm)Articlesmeanttostimulatepeople'sawarenessaboutthepeaceenhancing,transforming,
communicative,educationalandhealingpowersofmusic.
ScientificAmerican,MusicalChillsRelatedtoBrainDopamineRelease(http://www.scientificamerican.co
m/podcast/episode.cfm?id=musicalchillsrelatedtobraindop110109)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music&oldid=725160739"
Categories: Music Entertainment Performingarts Culture Sound
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon13June2016,at23:17.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
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