SIGNALS, SPECTRA, AND

SIGNAL PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Signals
{

It is defined as any physical quantity that varies

with time, space, or any other independent
variable or variables.
For example, the functions

describe two signals, one that varies linearly

with the independent variable t (time) and a
second that varies quadratically with t.

INTRODUCTION
Example of a speech signal

INTRODUCTION
Other examples of natural signals:
{
{
{

ECG (electrocardiogram)
EEG (electroencephalogram)
Image signal

INTRODUCTION
Spectra
{

It describes the frequency content of the signal.

INTRODUCTION
System
{

It is defined as the physical device that performs

an operation on a signal.
The stimulus in combination with the system is
called a signal source.

INTRODUCTION
Signal Processing
{

It is extracting information from a signal,

conditioning a signal for subsequent use, signal
transformation, or altering a signal structure.
Processing of signals can be done by digital
means, either in software or in hardware.

INTRODUCTION
What is DSP?
{
{

Digital Signal Processing

It generally refers to the use of digital computers
to process signals.

INTRODUCTION
Basic Elements of a DSP System

INTRODUCTION

Advantages:

Simple

Infinite number of values

Disadvantages:

Unstable (amplifier gain variation over temperature, humidity,

and time; magnetic tape stretches and shrinks ; variations in
the speed of the motor driving the tape)

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

A/D converter
{

Digital signal processor

{

Interface between the analog signal and the

digital processor.
May be a large programmable digital computer
or a small microprocessor programmed to
perform the desired operations on the input
signal.

D/A converter
{

Interface from the digital domain to analog

domain.

INTRODUCTION

Disadvantages:
Complicated
Computers can handle numbers of finite resolution

INTRODUCTION
Advantages of DSP:
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{

Easy to Reconfigure/Modify
More Accurate
Easily stored
More cheaper
Unconditionally stable
Components (devices) used are compact and
small
It can allow large bandwidth signals to be sent
over narrow bandwidth channels.
Communication security can be greatly
improved through DSP.

INTRODUCTION
Allied Subjects of DSP

INTRODUCTION
Applications of DSP

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Applications:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Audio Processing
Image Formation and Display
Linear Image Processing
Special Imaging Techniques
Neural Networks
Data Compression
Digital Signal Processors

INTRODUCTION
Classification of Signals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

Analog and Digital Signals
Real and Complex Signals
Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals
Continuous-Valued Versus Discrete-Valued
Signals
Deterministic Versus Random Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

INTRODUCTION
1.

Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

{
A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if t
is a continuous variable. If t is a discrete
variable, that is, x(t) is defined at discrete
times, then x(t) is a discrete-time signal. Since
a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete
times, a discrete-time signal is often identified
as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {xn}
or x[n], where n = integer.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

A discrete-time signal x[n] may represent a

phenomenon for which the independent
variable is inherently discrete. For instance, the
daily closing stock market average is by its
nature a signal that evolves at discrete points in
time (that is, at the close of each day). On the
other hand a discrete-time signal x[n] may be
obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal
x(t) such as
or in a shorter form as

INTRODUCTION
or
and xns are called samples and the time interval
between them is called the sampling interval.
For example, the sequence

is a discrete-time signal.

INTRODUCTION

Graphical representation of the discrete time signal

x(n) = 0.8n for n > 0 and x(n) = 0 for n < 0.

INTRODUCTION

1.

2.

In applications, discrete-time signals may arise

in two ways:
By selecting values of an analog signal at
discrete-time instants. This process is called
sampling.
By accumulating a variable over a period of
time. For example, counting the number of cars
using a given street every hour, or recording the
value of gold every day.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
2.

Analog and Digital Signals

{
If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any
value in the continuous interval (a, b), where a
may be - and b may be +, then the
continuous-time signal x(t) is called an analog
signal. If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take
on only a finite number of distinct values,
then we call this signal a digital signal.

INTRODUCTION
3.

Real and Complex Signals

{
A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real
number, and a signal x(t) is a complex signal if
its value is a complex number. A general
complex signal x(t) is a function of the form

where x1(t) and x2(t) are real signals and j =

-1

INTRODUCTION
4.

Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals

{
Signals are generated by multiple sources or
multiple sensors. Such signals, in turn, can be
expressed in vector form. Example is the three
components of a vector signal that represents
the ground acceleration due to an earthquake.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

If sk(t), k = 1, 2, 3, denotes the electrical signal

from the kth sensor as a function of time, the set
of p = 3 signals can be represented by a vector
S3(t), where

We refer to such a vector of signals as a

multichannel signal.

INTRODUCTION
{

For independent variable(s), if the signal is a

function of a single independent variable the
signal is called a one-dimensional signal. On
the other hand, a signal is called M-dimensional
if its value is a function of M independent
variables.

INTRODUCTION

Example of two-dimensional signal

INTRODUCTION
{

In the example, the intensity or brightness I(x, y)

at each point is function of two independent
variables. On the other hand, a black-and-white
television picture may be represented as I(x, y, t)
since the brightness is a function of time. Hence
the TV picture may be treated as a threedimensional signal.

INTRODUCTION
{

In contrast, a color TV picture may be described

by three intensity function of the form Ir(x, y, t),
Ig(x, y, t), and Ib(x, y, t), corresponding to the
brightness of the primary colors (red, green,
blue) as functions of time. Hence the color TV
picture is a three-channel, three-dimensional
signal, which can be represented by the vector

INTRODUCTION
5.

Continuous-Valued Versus Discrete-Valued

Signals
{
If a signal takes on all possible values on a
finite or an infinite range, it is said to be
continuous-valued signal.
{
If the signal takes on values from a finite set of
possible values, it is said to be a discretevalued signal.
{
A discrete-time signal having a set of discrete
values is called a digital signal.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

If the signal to be processed is in analog form, it

is converted to a digital signal by sampling the
analog signal at discrete instants in time,
obtaining a discrete-time signal, and then by
quantizing its values to a set of discrete values.
The process of converting continuous-valued
signal into a discrete-valued signal, called
quantization, is basically an approximation
process. It may be accomplished simply by
approximation or truncation.

INTRODUCTION
6.

Deterministic Versus Random Signals

{
Deterministic signals are those signals whose
values are completely specified for any given
time. Thus, a deterministic signal can be
modeled by a known function of time.
{
Random signals are those signals that take
random values at any given time and must be
characterized statistically. The output of a
noise generator, the seismic signal, and speech
signal are examples of random signals.

INTRODUCTION
7.

Even and Odd Signals

{
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even
signal if

INTRODUCTION
{

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd

signal if

INTRODUCTION
8.

Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

{
A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be
periodic with period T if there is a positive
nonzero value of T for which

INTRODUCTION
{

Any continuous-time signal which is not

periodic is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic)
signal. Periodic discrete-time signals are
defined analogously. A sequence (discretetime signal) x[n] is periodic with period N if
there is a positive integer N for which

INTRODUCTION
{

Any sequence which is not periodic is called

a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) sequence. Note
that a sequence obtained by uniform
sampling of a periodic continuous-time signal
may not be periodic. Note also that the sum
of two continuous-time periodic signals may
not be periodic but that the sum of two
periodic sequences is always periodic.

INTRODUCTION
The Concept of Frequency in ContinuousTime and Discrete-Time Signals
1.
2.
3.

Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals
Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials
a.
Continuous-time exponentials
b.
Discrete-time exponentials

INTRODUCTION
1.

Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

{
A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically
described by the following continuous-time
sinusoidal signal:

INTRODUCTION
{

The signal is characterized by three parameters:

A is the amplitude of the sinusoid, is the
frequency in radians per second, and is the
phase in radians. Instead of , we often use the
frequency F in cycles per second or hertz (Hz),
where
so that,

INTRODUCTION
The analog sinusoidal signal is characterized by
the following properties:
a. For every fixed value of the frequency F, xa(t) is
periodic. Indeed, it can easily be shown, using
elementary trigonometry, that
{

where TP = 1/F is the fundamental period of the

sinusoidal signal.

INTRODUCTION
b. Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with distinct
(different) frequencies are themselves distinct.
c. Increasing the frequency F results in an increase
in the rate of oscillation of the signal, in the sense
that more periods are included in a given time
interval.

INTRODUCTION
{

The relationships we have described for

sinusoidal signals carry over to the class of
complex exponential signals

This can be easily be seen by expressing these

signals in terms of sinusoids using the Euler
identity

INTRODUCTION

Exponentially increasing sinusoidal signal

INTRODUCTION

Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal

INTRODUCTION
{

By definition, frequency is an inherently positive

physical quantity. However, in many cases, only
for mathematical convenience, we need to
introduce negative frequencies. The sinusoidal
signal may be expressed as

INTRODUCTION

Representation of a cosine function by a pair of

complex-conjugate exponentials (phasors)

INTRODUCTION
2.

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

{
A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be
expressed as

where n is an integer variable, called the

sample number, A is the amplitude of the
sinusoid, is the frequency in radians per
sample, and is the phase in radians.

INTRODUCTION
{

If instead of we use the frequency variable f

defined by

the relation becomes

INTRODUCTION

Example of a discrete time sinusoidal signal ( = /6

and = /3)

INTRODUCTION
{

a.

The discrete-time sinusoids are characterized

by the following properties:
A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic only if its
frequency f is a rational number.
A discrete-time signal is periodic if and only if
The smallest value of N is called the
fundamental period.

INTRODUCTION

For a sinusoid with frequency f0 to be

periodic, we should have
This relation is true if and only if there exists
an integer k such that

INTRODUCTION
b. Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are
separated by an integer multiple of 2 are identical.
Let us consider the sinusoid
As a result, all sinusoidal sequences
where
are indistinguishable (i.e., identical)

INTRODUCTION

The sequences of any two sinusoids with

frequencies in the range - or - f
are distinct.
Discrete-time signals with frequencies ||
or |f| are unique.
Frequencies in the range - , or - f
as unique and all frequencies || > , or
|f| > as aliases.

INTRODUCTION
C.

The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time

sinusoid is attained when = (or = -) or,
equivalently, f = (or f = - ).
Note that the period of the sinusoid
decreases as the frequency increases.
The rate of oscillation increases as the
frequency increases.

INTRODUCTION

Signal x(n) = cos0n for various values of frequency 0

INTRODUCTION

To see what happens for 0 2, we

consider the sinusoids with frequencies 1 =
0 and 2 = 2 0. Note that as 1 varies
from to 2, 2 varies from to 0. It can be
seen that

Hence 2 is an alias of 1.

INTRODUCTION

The frequency range for discrete-time

sinusoids is finite with duration 2. Usually,
we choose the range 0 2 or
(0 f 1, - f ), which we call the
fundamental range.

INTRODUCTION
3.

Harmonically Related Complex Fundamentals

{
These are sets of periodic complex
exponentials with fundamental frequencies that
are multiples of a single positive frequency. We
consider harmonically related complex
exponentials in both continuous time and
discrete time.

INTRODUCTION
a.

Continuous-time exponentials
The basic signals are

We note that for each value of k, sk(t) is

periodic with fundamental period 1/(kF0) =
TP/k or fundamental frequency kF0.
F0 is allowed to take any value and all
members of the set are distinct.

INTRODUCTION

From the basic signals, we can construct a

linear combination of harmonically related
complex exponentials of the form

where ck, k = 0, 1, 2, are arbitrary

complex constants. The signal xa(t) is
periodic with fundamental period TP = 1/F0,
and its representation in terms of the
equation is called the Fourier series
expansion of xa(t).

INTRODUCTION
b.

Discrete-time exponentials
Since a discrete-time complex exponential is
periodic if its relative frequency is a rational
number, we choose f0 = 1/N and we define
the sets of harmonically related complex
exponentials by

In contrast to the continuous-time, we note

that

INTRODUCTION

This means that there is only N distinct

periodic complex exponentials in the set. All
members of the set have a common period of
N samples. We can choose any consecutive
N complex exponentials to form a
harmonically related set with fundamental
frequency. For convenience, we choose the
set that corresponds to n0 = 0, that is, the set

INTRODUCTION

As in the case of continuous-time signals, it is

obvious that the linear combination

results in a periodic signal with fundamental

period N. This is the Fourier series
representation for a periodic discrete-time
sequence with Fourier coefficients {ck}. The
sequence sk(n) is called the kth harmonic of
x(n).

INTRODUCTION
Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion

INTRODUCTION

1.

A/D Conversion three-step process:

Sampling
{
This is the conversion of continuous-time signal
into a discrete-time signal obtained by taking
samples of the continuous-time signal at
discrete-time instants. Thus, if xa(t) is the input
to the sampler, the output is xa(nT) x(n),
where T is called the sampling interval.

INTRODUCTION
2.

3.

Quantization
{
This is the conversion of a discrete-time
continuous-valued signal into a discrete-time,
discrete-valued (digital) signal. The value of
each signal sample is represented by a value
selected from a finite set of possible values.
The difference between the unquantized
sample x(n) and the quantized output xq(n) is
called the quantization error.
Coding
{
In the coding process, each discrete value xq(n)
is represented by a b-bit binary sequence.

INTRODUCTION

D/A Conversion
{
The process of converting a digital signal into
an analog signal.
{
It connect the dots in a digital signal by
performing some kind of interpolation, whose
accuracy depends on the quality of the D/A
conversion process.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The analog signal can be reconstructed from the

samples, provided that the sampling rate is
sufficiently high to avoid the problem commonly
called aliasing.
Quantization is a noninvertible or irreversible
process that results in signal distortion.
The amount of distortion is dependent on the
accuracy, as measured by the number of bits, in the
A/D conversion process.
The factors affecting the choice of the desired
accuracy of the A/D converter are cost and
sampling rate.

INTRODUCTION

Sampling of Analog Signals

INTRODUCTION
{

Periodic sampling establishes a relationship

between the time variables t and n of
continuous-time and discrete-time signals,
respectively. These variables are linearly
related through the sampling period T or,
equivalently, through the sampling rate FS = 1/T,
as

INTRODUCTION
{

There exist a relationship between the frequency

variable F (or ) for analog signals and the
frequency variable f (or ) for discrete-time
signals. To establish the relationship, consider
an analog sinusoidal signal of the form
which when sampled periodically at a rate FS =
1/T samples per second, yields

INTRODUCTION
{

We note that the frequency variables F and f are

linearly related as
or
The relation justifies the name relative or
normalized frequency, which is sometimes used
to describe the frequency variable f.

INTRODUCTION
{

We recall that,
and

By substitution,

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

Periodic sampling of a continuous-time signal

implies a mapping of the infinite frequency range
for the variable F into a finite frequency range for
the variable f. Since the highest frequency in a
discrete-time signal is = or f = , it follows
that, with a sampling rate FS, the corresponding
highest values of F and are

INTRODUCTION
{

In general, the sampling of a continuous-time

sinusoid signal
with a sampling rate FS = 1/T results in a
discrete-time signal
where f0 = F0/FS is the relative frequency of the
sinusoid.

INTRODUCTION
{

If we assume that FS/2 F0 FS/2, the

frequency f0 of x(n) is in the range - f0 ,
which is the frequency range for discrete-time
signals. In this case, the relationship between
F0 and f0 is one-to-one, and hence it is possible
to identify (or reconstruct) the analog signal xa(t)
from the samples x(n).

INTRODUCTION
{

On the other hand, if the sinusoids

where
are sampled at a rate FS, it is clear that the
frequency Fk is outside the fundamental
frequency range FS/2 F FS/2.

INTRODUCTION
{

Consequently, the sampled signal is

which is identical to the discrete-time signal

obtained by sampling.

INTRODUCTION
{

Thus, an infinite number of continuous-time

sinusoids is represented by sampling the same
discrete-time signal (i.e., by the same set of
samples). Consequently, if we are given the
sequence x(n), an ambiguity exists as to which
continuous-time signal xa(t) these values
represent. Equivalently, we can say that the
frequencies Fk = F0 + kFS, - < k < (k integer)
are indistinguishable from the frequency F0 after
sampling and hence they are aliases of F0.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

The figure shows an example of aliasing where

two sinusoids with frequencies F0 = 1/8 Hz and
F1 = -7/8 Hz yield identical samples when a
sampling rate of FS = 1 Hz is used. If k = -1,
then F0 = F1 + FS = (-7/8 + 1) Hz = 1/8 Hz.

INTRODUCTION
{

Since FS/2, which corresponds to = , is the

highest frequency that can be represented
uniquely with sampling rate FS, it is a simple
matter to determine the mapping of any alias
frequency above FS/2 into the equivalent
frequency below FS/2. We can use FS/2 as the
pivotal point and reflect or fold the alias
frequency to the range 0 . Since the
point of reflection is FS/2 ( = ), the frequency
FS/2 ( = ) is called the folding frequency.

INTRODUCTION

The Sampling Theorem

{ Let us suppose that any analog signal can be
represented as a sum of sinusoids of different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases, that is,

where N denotes the number of frequency

components.

INTRODUCTION
{

All signals, such as speech and video, lend

themselves to such a representation over any
short time segment. The amplitudes,
frequencies and phases usually change slowly
with time from one time segment to another.
However, suppose that the frequencies do not
exceed some known frequency, say Fmax (e.g.,
Fmax = 3000 Hz for speech signals and Fmax = 5
MHz for television signals).

INTRODUCTION
{

Since the Fmax may vary slightly from different

realizations among signals of any given class
(e.g., it may vary slightly from speaker to
speaker), we may wish to ensure that Fmax does
not exceed some predetermined value by
passing the analog signal through a filter that
severely attenuates frequency component above
Fmax. Thus we are certain that no signal in the
class contains frequency components above
Fmax. In practice, such filtering is commonly
used prior to sampling.

INTRODUCTION
{

We know that the highest frequency in an

analog signal that can be unambiguously
reconstructed when the signal is sampled at a
rate FS = 1/T is FS/2. Any frequency above FS/2
or below FS/2 results in samples that are
identical with a corresponding frequency in the
range FS/2 F FS/2. To avoid the
ambiguities resulting from aliasing, we must
select the sampling rate to be sufficiently high.
That is, we must select FS/2 to be greater than
Fmax.

INTRODUCTION
{

With the sampling rate selected in this manner,

any frequency component, say |Fi| < Fmax, in the
analog signal is mapped into a discrete-time
sinusoid with a frequency

or, equivalently,

INTRODUCTION
{

Since, |f| = or || = is the highest (unique)

frequency in a discrete-time signal, the choice of
sampling rate avoids the problem of aliasing.
Thus, all the frequency components of the
analog signal are represented in sampled form
without ambiguity, and hence the analog signal
can be reconstructed without distortion from the
sample values using an appropriate
interpolation (digital-to-analog conversion)
method.

INTRODUCTION
{

Sampling Theorem
If the highest frequency contained in an
analog signal xa(t) is Fmax = B and the signal
is sampled at a rate FS > 2Fmax 2B, then
xa(t) can be exactly recovered from its sample
values using the interpolation function

INTRODUCTION

Thus xa(t) may be expressed as

where xa(n/FS) = xa(nT) x(n) are the

samples of xa(t).
When the sampling of xa(t) is performed at
the minimum sampling rate FS = 2B, the
reconstruction formula becomes

The sampling rate FN = 2B = 2Fmax is called

the Nyquist rate.

INTRODUCTION

Ideal D/A conversion (interpolation)

INTRODUCTION

Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

{ The process of converting a discrete-time
continuous-amplitude signal into a digital signal
by expressing each sample value as a finite
number of digits is called quantization. The
error introduced in representing the continuousvalued signal by a finite set of discrete value
levels is called quantization error or quantization
noise.

INTRODUCTION
{

We denote the quantizer operation on the

samples x(n) as Q[x(n)] and let xq(n) denote the
sequence of quantized samples at the output of
the quantizer. Hence

Then the quantization error is a sequence eq(n)

defined as the difference between the quantized
value and the actual sample value. Thus

INTRODUCTION
{

We illustrate the quantization process with an

example. Let us consider the discrete-time
signal

obtained by sampling the analog exponential

signal xa(t) = 0.9t, t 0 with a sampling
frequency FS = 1 Hz.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

The table shows the values of the first 10

samples of x(n), reveals that the description of
the sample value x(n) requires n significant
digits.
Let us assume that we want to use only one
significant digit. To eliminate the excess digits,
we can either simply discard them (truncation) or
discard them by rounding the resulting number
(rounding). We discuss only quantization by
rounding, although is it just as easy to treat
truncation.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
{

The values allowed in the digital signal are

called the quantization levels, whereas the
distance between two successive quantization
levels is called the quantization step size or
resolution. The rounding quantizer assigns each
sample of x(n) to the nearest quantization level.
In contrast, a quantizer that performs truncation
would have assigned each sample of x(n) to the
quantization level below it.

INTRODUCTION
{

The quantization error in rounding is limited to

the range of /2 to /2, that is,

In other words, the instantaneous quantization

error cannot exceed half of the quantization
step.

INTRODUCTION
{

If xmin and xmax represents the minimum and

maximum value of x(n) and L is the number of
quantization levels, then

We define the dynamic range of the signal as

xmax xmin. Note that if the dynamic range is
fixed, increasing the number of quantization
levels results in a decrease of the quantization
step size. Thus the quantization error
decreases and the accuracy of the quantizer
increases.

INTRODUCTION
{

Theoretically, quantization of analog signals

always results in a loss of information. This is
result of the ambiguity introduced by
quantization. Indeed, quantization is an
irreversible or noninvertible process since all
samples in a distance /2 about a certain
quantization level are assigned the same value.

INTRODUCTION

Quantization of Sinusoidal Signals

INTRODUCTION
{

If the sampling rate FS satisfies the sampling

theorem, quantization is the only error in the A/D
conversion process. Thus we can evaluate the
quantization error by quantizing the analog
signal x=a(t) instead of the discrete-time signal
x(n) = x=a(nT). Inspecting the figure indicates
that the signal xa(t) is almost linear between the
quantization levels.

INTRODUCTION
{

In the figure shown, denotes the time that xa(t)

stays within the quantization levels. The mean
square error power Pq is

Since eq(t) = (/2)t, - t , we have

INTRODUCTION
{

If the quantizer has b bits of accuracy and the

quantizer covers the entire range 2A, the
quantization step is = 2A/2b. Hence

The average power of the signal xa(t) is

INTRODUCTION
{

The quality of the output of A/D converter is

usually measured by the signal-to-quantization
noise ratio (SQNR), which provides the ratio of
the signal power to the noise power:

Expressed in decibels (dB), the SQNR is

INTRODUCTION

Coding of Quantized Samples

{ It assigns a unique binary number to each
quantization level. If we have L levels we need
at least L different binary numbers. With a word
length of b bits we can create 2b different binary
numbers. Hence we have 2b L or equivalently
b log2L
{ Generally, the higher the sampling speed and
the finer the quantization, the more expensive
the device becomes.

INTRODUCTION

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
{ The task of D/A converter is to interpolate
between samples.
{ The simplest D/A converter is the zero-order
hold, which simply holds constant the value of
one sample until the next one is received.
Additional improvement can be obtained by
using linear interpolation.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

QUESTIONS