IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 28, NO.

1, JANUARY 2013

467

Performance Enhancement of the Transformer

Restricted Earth Fault Relay
Mahdi Davarpanah, Member, IEEE, Majid Sanaye-Pasand, Senior Member, IEEE, and Reza Iravani, Fellow, IEEE

AbstractThe restricted earth fault (REF) relay is one of the

protection units of the transformer digital protection system which
typically has a fast response and thus is prone to maloperation.
Based on measurement results and time-domain simulation results,
this paper provides a comprehensive performance evaluation of
the REF relay which is an augmented-based adaptive restraint current approach for performance stabilization. The investigation results provide justifications to introduce modification to the relay to
improve its performance during transients and, thus, improve the
relay security. This paper also introduces and evaluates a scheme
to modify the REF relay performance. The proposed scheme has
been implemented in the field, and the results indicate performance
improvement.
Index TermsCurrent-transformer (CT) saturation, inrush current, relay maloperation, relay transient test, restricted earth fault
(REF) relay, transformer protection.

I. INTRODUCTION

IFFERENTIAL relay can theoretically provide the desired level of security and dependability for transformer
protection. However, in practice, its operation can be adversely
affected by the inrush current [1], [2]. A variety of methods has
been proposed to overcome this problem [3][5] which are not
necessarily readily implementable nor can guarantee proper operation under all scenarios. It is also possible that a differential
relay improperly blocks when a low phase-to-ground fault current is accompanied by the inrush current [1]. Moreover, the differential relay cannot fully cover the total length of winding for
phase-to-ground faults, especially in a case where the winding
is not directly grounded.
The restricted earth fault (REF) relay is utilized as a complementary protection unit to partially resolve the aforementioned
problems. The transformer REF relay is a differential type protection which operates for phase-to-ground faults of a grounded
winding. This relay also can be employed for the delta winding
protection, if a grounding transformer is installed between the
current transformers (CTs) and the delta winding [6].
Manuscript received May 23, 2012; accepted July 06, 2012. Date of publication December 12, 2012; date of current version December 19, 2012. This work
was supported by the University of Tehran under Grant 8101064-1-04. Paper
no. TPWRD-00521-2012.
M. Davarpanah and M. Sanaye-Pasand are with the Electrical and Computer
Engineering School, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran
14395-515, Iran (e-mail: m.davarpanah@ut.ac.ir; msanaye@ut.ac.ir).
R. Iravani is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G4 Canada (e-mail: iravani@ecf.
utoronto.ca).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2012.2208204

The simplest approach for REF relaying is to connect the

time-overcurrent relay between the common point of phase
CTs and the neutral CT [7]. This requires CTs with high
knee-point voltages to avoid deep saturation and, therefore, to
provide relay stability during external faults and inrush current
[8], [9]. To improve performance during deep CT saturation,
the high-impedance differential relay is an option [6]. This
also requires the CTs to have closely similar knee-point voltages, turns ratios, and magnetizing curve [9]. Low-impedance
microprocessor-based REF relays are also widely used to
protect a transformer winding which 1) do not need the same
CT characteristics and 2) are more sensitive compared with
high-impedance REF relays.
The low-impedance REF relay is insensitive to inrush current and onload transformer tap-changer variations and does
not require a time delay for coordination with other protection
schemes. Therefore, it is the most sensitive and fairly fast unit
for transformer protection [6], [10]. However, the REF relay is
prone to maloperation during power system disturbances, especially in the presence of CT saturation. Directional supervision
[10], [11] and adaptive restraint current method [12] can improve the REF relay performance.
This paper presents the evaluation and improvement of an
REF relay which exploits the adaptive restraint current method
against a group of system disturbances. To achieve this object:
1) a set of experiments and digital time-domain simulation test
cases were conducted to demonstrate the REF relay misoperation and 2) a method to enhance the REF relay performance
is proposed and verified based on simulation studies. The proposed method is equally applicable to a wide class of digital
REF relays.
II. REF RELAY PERFORMANCE UNDER ACTUAL
DISTURBANCES
This section presents a set of test cases for which the REF
relay misoperates. To further analyze such relay maloperation
scenarios, a typical REF relay algorithm, including the phasor
estimation method, antialiasing filter, and protection scheme
[12], is implemented in the MATLAB platform and used for the
following case studies.
A. CT Saturation Due to Transformer Energization
The transformer inrush current is random in nature and depends on the voltage angle at the switching instant and the magnetic core remanent flux. Since unidirectional inrush current
contains a large and slowly decaying dc component, the transformer CTs may saturate and impact the REF relay performance.

0885-8977/$31.00 2012 IEEE

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Fig. 1. Inrush current registered by the relay disturbance recorder.

Fig. 4. Calculated current trajectory based on the modeled REF relay with
adaptive restraint current.

B. Failure of CT Secondary Circuit

Fig. 2. Comparison of the measured and calculated zero-sequence currents.

Fig. 3. Calculated current trajectory based on the modeled conventional relay.

Fig. 1 shows a digital REF relay recorded inrush current corresponding to a 230/63 kV, 180 MVA transformer which reaches
to 4.4 p.u. and exhibits distortion at the end of the third cycle
subsequent to energization. The peak current values of the other
two phases are 2.5 and 3 p.u., based on the CT rated current of
5 A. Fig. 2 highlights the difference between the actual zero-sequence current measured by the neutral CT
and the calculated value
by adding up the three-phase currents [7].
To analyze the adaptive restraint current method, its performance is compared with the conventional REF relay algorithm
which utilizes the summation of
and
as the restraint current [7]. The relay characteristic slope and the pickup current are
25% and 0.2 p.u., respectively. Fig. 3 shows that the current trajectory enters the operational region, and the conventional REF
relay incorrectly issues a trip command. Fig. 4 illustrates the
current trajectory when the adaptive restraint current results in
shifting of the calculated currents toward the stable region of the
relay characteristic. However, the shift is not adequate and the
relay misoperates. The test concludes the severe CT saturation,
caused by the inrush current, and can lead to REF relay maloperation despite the adaptive restraint current scheme. Therefore,
there is a need to improve the performance of the relay.

If the CT secondary side, between the CT and the relay, experiences an open circuit or a short circuit, the REF relay measures a false current which leads to an artificial differential current. Such a condition is known as the CT failure. The relay
blocking, upon detection of a CT failure, is widely reported
[13]. Thus, the REF relay should be equipped with a reliable
CT failure detection algorithm to block the relay and issue an
alarm. This requirement is experimentally investigated in the
REF relay during a CT failure as explained in the following.
Fig. 5 shows measured current waveforms of a 230/63 kV,
160 MVA transformer. The sequence of events that lead to zero
current in each half-cycle in phase-A are due to the following:
A loose connection is present in the CT secondary circuit
which behaves as an open circuit and interrupts the CT
output current.
The CT open circuit results in an impulse overvoltage and
leads to a short circuit at a weak insulation part of the CT
secondary circuit [14] and causes an arcing fault.
Current division between the arc fault resistance and the
remaining part of the CT circuit supplying the relay causes
the CT output current to pass mainly through the short circuit, and the input relay current becomes almost zero.
The arc fault energy decreases significantly around the next
current zero-crossing point. Therefore, low fault current
passing through the insulation of a plastic-type cable is
interrupted near the current zero-crossing instant due to
reseal of the cable insulation [15], [16]. In this case, the
relay measures the actual CT secondary current.
The field observations indicate that after replacement of the
CT secondary cable, the relays connected to the CT do not experience the aforementioned problem. This scenario highlights the
fact that the REF relay must remain stable and not issue a false
trip command when the CT current, due to the CT secondary
issues, becomes (almost) zero.
As illustrated in Fig. 6, the false trip command, due to the
first current interruption, was issued by the REF unit of the
transformer low-voltage (LV) side, third row of Fig. 6. The
recorded signals are analyzed by the modeled relay which
uses the adaptive restraint current. Fig. 7 shows that the calculated zero-sequence current passing through the neutral
CT is insignificant, except during the two half-cycle current

DAVARPANAH et al.: PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF THE TRANSFORMER REF RELAY

469

Fig. 9. Recorded current waveform in the differential relay.

Fig. 5. Measured currents waveforms during the CT secondary circuit failure.

Fig. 10. Calculated current trajectory based on the modeled REF.

Fig. 6. Registered digital signals in a differential relay fault recorder.

the CT failure, it would correctly remain stable. This scheme is

discussed in the following sections.
C. Lightning Strike on the Transmission Line

Fig. 7. Comparison of measured and calculated zero-sequence currents.

Fig. 8. Calculated current trajectory based on the modeled REF.

interruptions. Fig. 8 shows the corresponding current trajectory

and indicates its entry in the relay operation region.
It should be noted that the studied relay is composed of REF
and differential units. The study results show that the differential current in three phases contain a large amount of second harmonic component which blocks the differential unit. Therefore,
if a proper scheme is employed by the REF unit to recognize

Subsequent to a lightning strike on a transmission line, protective relays can be subject to interferences via coupling paths,
for example, radiated electromagnetic waves, instrument transformers, and cable shields [17], [18]. Consequently, the performance of fast and sensitive protective relays can be impacted.
Figs. 9 and 10 show the recorded peak line current and its corresponding calculated trajectory by the REF relay model, subsequent to a lightning strike, respectively. Fig. 9 shows the current
reaches 28 p.u., and the trajectory enters the relay operation zone
as shown in Fig. 10. The field records also show that the REF
relay of the transformer LV side incorrectly issues a trip command due to the high current. The measured waveform of Fig. 9
corresponds to a 230/63-kV substation which is connected to
two 230-kV lines through two 90-MVA transformers and multiples unshielded 63-kV lines.
The reported event clearly shows that the adaptive restraint
current technique cannot prevent the REF relay maloperation
when subjected to severe disturbances and, thus, requires performance enhancement.
III. REF RELAY RESPONSE SUBSEQUENT
SIMULATED DISTURBANCES

TO

The reported field test results of Section II demonstrated that

the REF relay is prone to misoperation under system transients.
To evaluate the REF relay performance under worst scenarios
and to propose countermeasures to prevent misoperation, this
section reports a set of test cases based on digital time-domain
simulation studies [19]. Fig. 11 shows the test system used for
the case studies. The system is composed of a power transformer

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 2013

Fig. 11. Single-line diagram of the study system.

and the corresponding CTs which their parameters are given in

the Appendix.
The power transformer model is developed in the PSCAD/
EMTDC software environment to evaluate the impact of internal faults at the LV and high-voltage (HV) windings [20]. To
represent the hysteresis characteristic of the transformer magnetic core, a scalar model is adopted [21], [22]. The model is capable of generating symmetric and asymmetric hysteresis minor
loops, and the remanent flux which is essential for inrush current calculations.
To represent the actual hardware system conditions, the kneepoint voltage of the corresponding CTs are calculated based on
the CT requirement of the studied relay [23]. The same scalar
model is also utilized to model the CT core hysteresis characteristic to enable considering the CT remanent flux. Since a similar core material has been used by the transformer and the CT
manufacturers, only the CT hysteresis loops are measured. The
measurement is carried out at the frequency of 1 Hz to decrease
the resulting error caused by winding stray capacitances [24].
A grounding transformer (GT) with the vector group of YNd
is connected to the power transformer LV side, and its zerosequence impedance is determined so that the LV side phase-toground fault current is limited to the power transformer-rated
current. The impedance is 66.1 .
A. Test Procedures
The procedures for the REF relay testing, for each transient
scenario, are as follows.
Step 1) The test system of Fig. 11 is simulated (offline) in the
PSCAD/EMTDC platform.
Step 2) The CT output currents, at both sides of the transformer, are obtained from Step 1) and converted to
COMTRADE format [25].
Step 3) The converted digital signals from Step 2) are provided to the relay test equipment and converted to
analog signals.
Step 4) The analog signals are fed to the relay under test by a
real-time playback unit [26], and the corresponding
relay response is evaluated.
The test cases are as follows.
B. Inrush Current Considering Remanent Flux
After energization of the power transformer, CTs can be saturated by the large dc component of the inrush current. A large
inrush current can be generated subsequent to transformer energization at zero voltage angle, especially if the remanence has

Fig. 12. Calculated zero-sequence current compared with the measured neutral
current.

Fig. 13. Calculated current trajectory based on the modeled REF.

the same polarity as that of the produced flux. Fig. 12 shows

phase-A inrush current after the transformer energization at the
voltage zero-crossing instant which results in the CT saturation
at about 350 ms after the energization instant, that is, at sample
650, based on the sampling frequency of 1600 Hz. The CT saturation generates a fictitious zero-sequence current. Therefore, as
illustrated in Fig. 13, the calculated current trajectory enters the
REF relay operation region. Accordingly, the adaptive restraint
current [12] is not able to prevent the REF relay maloperation.
It should be noted that the same result is obtained from the transient test of the real REF relay.
Twenty similar simulation case studies, at different transformer energization instants, were conducted. The results
indicate the REF relay misoperates 4 out of 20 times. This set
of case studies indicates that considering the impact of transformer core remanent flux, the rate of REF relay misoperation
is 20% and, thus, justifies provisions for countermeasures.
C. Short Circuit Fault at the LV Side
One of the challenges associated with the use of differentialtype relays is to guarantee the relay security subject to severe CT
saturation during external faults. In the studied system (Fig. 11)
during a three-phase external fault which is accompanied by
the largest decaying dc component at the LV side of the power
transformer, the CT is saturated at about 5 cycles after the fault
inception, if the CT remanent flux is negligible. This resembles
a fictitious zero-sequence current with the peak value of 11 p.u.
(Fig. 14). Fig. 15 shows that as a result, the current trajectory of
the LV side REF relay enters the operation region. Therefore,
if the short circuit fault is not cleared within 5 cycles, the REF
relay operates incorrectly. It should be noted that the relay could

DAVARPANAH et al.: PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF THE TRANSFORMER REF RELAY

Fig. 14. Calculated zero-sequence current compared with the neutral current.

Fig. 15. Calculated current trajectory for a three-phase fault based on the modeled REF.

471

Fig. 17. Calculated current trajectory for a phase-to-phase fault, considering

the CT remanent flux, based on the modeled REF.

where
is the calculated raw adaptive restraint current,
is the actual restraint current used in the REF unit, represents
a new sample,
represents the previous sample, and is a
constant
.
This approach provides a decaying memory to the restraint
signal of (1). Thus, when the raw restraint current
significantly drops, especially after CT saturation, the actual restraint
current
is not instantly reduced. It should be noted that
the CT deeply saturates at 7.5 ms after the CB recloses.
The studied relay also incorrectly operates for some phasephase or three-phase faults at the transformer LV side when
the CT remanent flux is considered. This occurs despite utilization of the modified adaptive restraint current calculated by (1).
Thus, the REF unit should be improved to remain stable during
CT saturation.
IV. REF RELAY PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
To improve the REF relay performance subject to system
transients, an approach based on improved configuration relay
is proposed and evaluated.

Fig. 16. Phase-A current of the transformer HV side after reclosure.

A. Proposed Method for Relay Configuration Improvement

remain stable if its characteristic slope is more than 35%, which
is more than a typical setting.
Case studies corresponding to phase-to-phase and phase-toground external faults indicate the REF relay remains stable if
the CT remanent flux is not considered. Since the remanent flux
can remain in closed-core CTs for a long period of time, its effect
on the REF relay must be evaluated.
A phase-to-phase short circuit fault, at the beginning of one
of the 63 kV lines connected to the power transformer LV side,
is studied. The fault is cleared by the line circuit breakers (CBs)
after 100 ms. Subsequently, the breakers are reclosed after the
dead time of 500 ms while a large remanent flux is present in
the CTs. Fig. 16 shows severe CT saturation under this condition. Fig. 17 illustrates that the current trajectory enters the
operational region of the HV side relay, although the adaptive
restraint currents are included in the relay.
To improve the relay performance subject to severe CT saturation during external faults, the relay can be equipped with
the postprocessing filter (1) after calculation of the adaptive restraint current [12].
(1)

The REF relay should operate only for earth faults on the protected winding during the interval that current flow through the
neutral CT is inevitable. However, the previous reported studied
cases indicate the REF relay can incorrectly operate when there
is no significant neutral current.
An earth-fault (EF) relay operates when the measured zerosequence current is more than the preset pickup value. The zerosequence current can be measured based on the sum of the threephase currents
. However, the saturated CT current due to
a short circuit can generate an artificial zero-sequence current.
Therefore, to determine the actual zero-sequence current value,
the current through the transformer neutral should be examined.
An EF relay cannot discriminate between the transformer and
the system phase-to-ground faults. Therefore, a large delay is
often imposed to avoid the relay maloperation due to external
faults.
It must be noted that drawbacks associated with the REF and
EF relays can be compensated by the scheme of Fig. 18 where
the trip command of the REF unit is not issued, if the instantaneous EF unit does not operate. Thus, the protection scheme
reliability is highly dependent on proper EF unit operation as
follows.

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Fig. 18. Proposed scheme to improve the REF relay performance.

Fig. 20. Current ratio for the earth fault at the solidly grounded star winding.

Fig. 19. Calculated current trajectory for a phase-to-ground fault at 20% of the
HV winding by the differential unit.

The transformer digital differential relays consist of several

units, especially differential, REF, and EF units. Therefore, implementation of the proposed technique does not need a new
relay and only requires a software modification in the existing
relay configuration.
1) Proposed EF Unit Setting: Simulation studies for internal
faults at the transformer HV winding show that earth faults
within the lower 10% of the solidly grounded winding, close
to the neutral point, are not detectable by the differential unit.
Therefore, this region should be covered by the REF unit. Consequently, to preserve the proposed scheme dependability, the
EF unit pickup current
can be set to the maximum possible value for which the differential current reaches the REF
unit pickup value
for the internal faults within 10%
of the winding.
Fig. 20 shows that the current through the neutral of the
solidly grounded star winding
is considerably higher than
the calculated zero-sequence current
, when an earth fault
occurs near the neutral point. Based on Fig. 20,
is more than
10.2 times of
for the phase-to-ground fault within the lower
10% of the star winding. Therefore, the EF unit can be set to
0.91 times
. To consider a safety factor,
is proposed to be 0.8 of
. For example, if
%,
the EF unit can be set at 16%. It should be noted that the
differential current caused by a phase-to-ground fault at more
than 10% of the winding length is much higher than the pickup
value of the REF unit and, therefore,
becomes more than
0.16%. Moreover, the differential unit can also cover the internal faults of this region. For example, as shown in Fig. 19,
the differential current is about 4 times the specified differential
unit pickup value for an internal fault at 20% of the winding
length. Therefore, the combined scheme can operate for all
faults for which the REF relay should operate and, therefore,
does not jeopardize the proposed scheme dependability. This
technique increases the security of the REF unit and prevents
misoperation for all cases that were discussed in this paper.

Fig. 21. Single-line diagram of the studied substation.

For the delta winding of the studied transformer (Fig. 21),

the ratio of
to
depends on the grounding systems of the
downstream transformers and the number of GTs connected to
the same 63-kV bus. Since the HV side of the downstream transformers (63/20 kV) is not grounded, they do not contribute to the
transformer internal earth fault current. As shown in Fig. 21, two
GTs are connected to the 63 kV bus and, therefore,
is equal
to
. Consequently, the EF unit setting for the transformer LV
side should be 50% of the REF unit pickup current to provide
the protection security.
It should be noted that the proposed approach is readily applicable and can be easily employed in most digital relays. This
has been applied to power transformer relays of four grid substations in Tehran, Iran, for more than two years. Since no REF
unit misoperation has been observed after the aforementioned
modification, the proposed technique highly improves the protection security.
2) Evaluation of the Proposed Scheme: Typical pickup current of the REF unit is 20%. Consequently, the proposed EF unit
setting can be considered equal to 16% for the transformer HV
winding protection. For some of the previously studied system
disturbances including: 1) CT secondary circuit failure; 2) lightning strike on a phase conductor; and 3) simulated external
faults, there is no current through the neutral point. Therefore,
the proposed scheme is stable.
For the actual transformer energization scenario, discussed
in Subsection II-A, the rms value of the inrush current zero sequence, passing through the neutral CT, is illustrated in Fig. 22

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473

APPENDIX
TRANSFORMER AND CT PARAMETERS
TABLE II
CT1- AND CT2- RATED VALUES

Fig. 22. Neutral current rms value during transformer energization.

TABLE I
MAXIMUM NEUTRAL CURRENT RMS VALUE DURING INRUSH CURRENT
TABLE III
CT3- AND CT4-RATED VALUES

which is less than the prespecified pickup current (16%). Moreover, based on the simulation studies, the REF unit incorrectly
operates in four cases for which the maximum rms values of the
corresponding inrush currents are 11%, 9.8%, 9.2%, and 9.5%
(Table I). Since there is a large margin between the pickup current of the EF unit and the aforementioned inrush current rms
values, the modified REF protection scheme is also stable during
power transformer energization.
Time-domain simulation studies show that the EF unit often
operates before the REF unit and there is a delay of less than
1 ms only in a few cases. Therefore, the combined protection
scheme imposes almost no additional delay compared with the
REF unit. Consequently, the combined scheme does not jeopardize the REF relay dependability.

TABLE IV
POWER TRANSFORMER-RATED VALUES

V. CONCLUSION
The transformer REF relay is inherently a sensitive relay due
to its low-setting value and fast response. Therefore, it is intrinsically prone to maloperation when subjected to the inrush
current due to transformer core saturation and severe power
system disturbances, for example, lightning strikes. This paper
provides a comprehensive performance evaluation of an REF
relay, which is augmented with an adaptive restraint current
method for stabilization. The results reveal the REF relay maloperation when subjected to: 1) three-phase faults in conjunction with CT saturation; 2) phase-to-phase faults in conjunction
with deep CT saturation; 3) CT saturation during low-amplitude
current with a prolonged dc component, for example, inrush
current; and 4) system disturbances with low restraint current,
for example, CT failure and impulse currents entering the relay
analog input. Since digital relays are configurable by combining
specific functionalities of independent internal units, this capability is exploited to improve the relay performance by combining an earth fault (EF) unit with the REF unit. The proposed
settings of EF pickup current at the HV side star winding and LV
side delta winding are 0.8 and 0.5 times the corresponding REF
pickup current, respectively. The investigation results, based
on experiments and simulation test cases, indicate the modified
relay scheme is stable during all studied disturbances.

Fig. 23. Measured major hysteresis loop of the magnetic core material.

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[25] IEEE Standard Common Format for Transient Data Exchange (COMTRADE) for Power Systems, IEEE Standard C37.111, Mar. 1999, 2nd
ed.
[26] Advanced Protection-Package User Manual, OMICRON Electronics, Jul. 2001.

Mahdi Davarpanah received the B.Sc. degree in

electrical engineering from the Power and Water
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 2002,
the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from The
University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 2005, and
is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Tehran.
Currently, he is a Visiting Scientist at the University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. His research
interests include power system protection and the
study of electromagnetic transients in power systems
and apparatus.

Majid Sanaye-Pasand (M98SM05) received

the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from The
University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 1988, and the
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from The University of Calgary, Calgary, AB,
Canada, in 1994 and 1998, respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor with the School of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran. His research interests include
power system protection, control, and transients.

Reza Iravani (M85SM00F03) received the

B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Tehran
Polytechnic University, Tehran, Iran, in 1976, and
the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada, in 1981 and 1985, respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor with the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University
of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. His research interests include power electronics and power system
dynamics and control.