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    20 Ansichten72 Seiten

    Basic Metallurgydf

    Hochgeladen von

    Thomas Tucker
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    © All Rights Reserved
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    ( TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING CLM ‘vicaxovocy BASIC METALLURGY TWI Ltd, Training and Examination Services 1. THE STRUCTURE OF METALS The simplest structure in which ions may combine is SIMPLE CUBIC, where each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged ions at equal distance. This is the structure of common salt, a mixture of sodium ions (Na#) and chloride ions (Cr), as sodium chloride (NaCl), The ions are held together weakly by electrostatic attraction. There are a number of jonic structures, many of complicated geometry. Metals are also built up of recognisable structures of atoms (not ions); however, with few exceptions, there are only three main metallic structures, 1. Body centred cubic (B.C.C.) - atoms occur at each corner of a cube with 1 atom in the cube centre, @.g. a ~ Fe (ferrite), Cr, Mo, Na, W. The B.C.C, structure is built up of connected cubes, 2 Face centred cubic (F.C.C.) - atoms occur at each corner of a cube with 1 atom in the centre of each face. 6.9. y ~ Fe (austenite), Ni, Al, Cu, Au. 3. Close packed hexagonal (C.P.H.) ~ atoms are built up in a hexagonal array. e.g. Mg, Cd, Zn, Co. The three main atomic structures have high symmetry and, in general, give ‘metals their ductlity and malleability. Other metals have arrangements of lower symmetry and are somewhat brittle, e.g. Bi and Sb (simple shombohedral), Mn (complex cubic). Unlike ionic structures, electrons in a metal are shared by Several atoms and are thus free to move, giving metals their characteristic high electrical conductivity. There are no bonds between atom and atom in a metal and, in fact, the positively charged cores repel each other. The atomic structure is made coherent by the common negative electron cloud within it, which causes the atoms to pack closely together. Copyright 2004, TWH Lid Clap sisusare THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS THE DIAGRAMS ABOVE INDICATE THE ACTUAL PACKING OF THE ATOMS, ONE LAYER ON ANOTHER, IN THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF STRUCTURE. BELOW, THE RELATIVE POSITIONS. OF THE ATOM CENTRES ARE SHOWN FOR THESE STRUCTURES, a a> ey fp ; DOOYCENTERED CUB FACE-CENTERED CUBIC HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED VANADIUM ‘COPPER, DERYLLIUM MOLYBDENUM SILVER MAGNESIUM TUNGSTEN cous Nc TRON (4) ALUMINIUM. CADMIUM ‘CHROMIUM (4) Lead Conant (#) 1RON(T) CHROMIUM (A) copatt (A) mine PLATINUM ~The three principal types of structure in which metallic elements crystalise, Lattice Parameters The simplest form from which the atomic structure is built up is called the unit cell. The lattice parameter is then the length of the edge of the cube. a .287 nM Y 365 nM 6 283 1M. 1nM = 1x 10M In CPH structures, the lattice parameter is specified by the height/side ratio of the hexagonal unit cell, ‘Atoms are not static but vibrate about a mean point; increasing the temperature increases the vibration and hence increases the lattice parameter. Thus metals expand with increasing temperatures. The differences in lattice parameter and atomic structure account for changes In co-efficient of expansion eg. 7 ~ Fe expands more than a ~ Fe. Twi MATERIALS JOIN CM weesosces Atomic structure and mechanical properties Deformation in metals occurs largaly by a process of slip, where atomic planes slide over each other. Slip occurs on the most densely packed planes. FCC has 4 close packed planes (octahedral places) and 3 possible slip directions giving 12 slip systems. BCC is less closely packed than FCC; however, it has 6 close packed planes (on cube diagonals) and 2 directions, and therefore 12 systems. Slip, however, is more difficult than for FCC. CPH has 1 close packed plane and 3 directions giving 3 slip systems. Because of the limited slip systems CPH metals tend to be more brittle. MORE DUCTILE MORE BRITTLE Fcc. B.C.c. CP. aluminium chromium cadmium copper iron(stee!) cobalt gold molybdenum magnesium lead tungsten zine nickel zircontum silver stainless steel (austenitic) Because of these structure differences, austenitic stainless steels are tough down to very low temperatures but stee! becomes embrittied as temperatures are decreased, 7 TW ane VL “exsoxcan Effects of alloying on atomic structure ‘The addition of alloying elements to a metal results in the formation of solid ‘solutions or compounds. If the added atoms are similar in size to the parent metal atoms then they can occupy thelr position as SUBSTITUTIONAL solid solutions, e.g. Zn in Cu, Cu in Ni. If the added atoms are small enough to fit into the spaces or interstices between the original atoms, they form INTERSTITIAL solid solutions, e.g, C and N in iron. ‘Solid solutions are random mixing of atoms. Some mixtures can also for definite compounds, arrangements of atoms in a particular ratio e.g, Na,Bi are particularly important in the properties of steels. 1400 urquip exe 1200 *c 1000 cu 100 50 0 cu Noo 50 100 wi Copper - Nickel Phase Diagram Tasks Mista cs woRDeLTaE oR Copyright 8 2008, TWH Lid by sirecalsnane Solid Solutions | Sometimes metals which are soluble in the liquid state remain in solution after | crystallization has taken place and are termed Solid Solutions, For this to | happen the elements need to have roughly the same properties and atoms which are approximately the same size (in mast cases). During solidification, if the atoms of one metal replace the atoms of the other within the iattice structure, then a "substitutional solid solution* will resutt. ‘Substitutional Solid Solution ‘Atoms of one metal are replaced by atoms of the other e.g. Chromium and s tron. ’ O@00O @0O0®@ 5 OB0OO Interstitial Solld Solution ‘Smaller atoms are able to fit into the spaces between the larger atoms e.g. mm "OOOO COCO SIO Ifthe atoms of one metal are much smaller than the other, the smaller atoms are able to fit in the voids between the larger atoms. In this case an “Interstitial Solid Solution* resutts. at asic Maal é aasaniae Copyrigin © 2904, 1WI Lad Dg Sass | oO Intermetallic Compounds | ‘Some metals when alloyed will form a complex chemical structure which bears . no resemblance to the parent metals. | Intermetallic compounds usually occur when the metals are different in their physical and chemical properties and usually when one is strongly electro Positive and the other is weakly electro positive. Compounds on their own are of no usa whatsoever as they are hard and britle. ‘However, when combined with solid solutions, they give the resulting alloy the property of hardness, which with the solid solution, makes the metal extremely tough, Dendritic Growth YV@A® ® 1. Nuclei form, sometimes known as seed crystals. r i 2. Dendrites being to form in the direction of cooling. ! 3. Secondary arms form on the Dendrites. j 4. Aims grow until they tough the next Dendrite when the arms begin to thicken. 5. Crystallization is complete and only the grain boundaries are visible. 6. The impurities collect at the grain boundaries, When the temperature of motten metal falis to its freezing point, single units of the crystal lattice begin to form, From these single cells, the dendrites form in the direction of cooling and interlock unt! the grain structure is complete, Basie Metallurzy We Qo Copyright © 2008, TWH Lad rwewsouaer 700 500 re es 100 Pb Sb LrquiD Po+L Pb + Sb 50 50 Lead ~ antimony phase diagram TC «+p (stiver + copper) tg 100 7 Ae cu 0 so 200 cu Silver - copper phase diagram Gis Mealy 7 —— Copysiaht © 2004, TWH Lid Cia TecHALOOY 2. THE INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS 1. 5. Wl @ (b) The importance of C as an alloying element in steel is discussed below. This section looks at the effect of other elements on the property of steels. Alloying elements may have the following effects: go Into solid solution, which causes a mismatch in atomic size, and hence local distortion, and enhances strength. formation of carbides in high C steel, increasing wear resistance, eg. V, W, Mo, Cr. increase in creep strength and resistance to oxidation. Creep Strength improves from a dispersion of fine carbides, e.g. Cr, Mo, V; resistance to oxidation results from stable oxide formation, e.g. Cr, Si. Increase in resistance to hydrogen attack, e.g. Gr, Mo (stabilise Fe,0), increase in corrosion resistance, e.g. Cr, Ni. Classification of alloying elements is difficult because of the wide range of effects. Groupings, however, may be made in terms of: (@) the effect on carbide stability (0) the effect on austenite stability Elements which tend to form carbides: Cr, W, Ti, Nb, V, Mo, Mn Elements which tend to graphitise (break down) carbides: Si, Co, Al, Ni, Elements which stabilise austenite: Ni, Mn, Co, Cu ~ all FCC elements and thus more soluble in FCC austenite than BCC ferrite. Elements which stabilise ferrite: Cr, Mo, W, V, Si - all BCC elements. 9 TW vmoessseron i ‘ Copyright 9 2004, TWH Lid CLM scsi uw ‘The characteristics of the important alloying elements in steel are summarised below: Sulphur Manganese Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium. Tungsten Silicon present as a residual element from manufacture. Forms low melting point FeS (1193°C) and makes steels “hot short" and brittle at high temperatures; therefore limited to 0.05% in most steels, combats effect of S by preferential formation of MnS; forms solid solutions with a-iron and increases strength and hardenability; C-Mn steels have approximately 1.3 — 1.6%Mn. behaves similarly to Mn in increasing strength and hardenabllity improves toughness, e.g. 0.3%C 3.5%Ni steels as crankshafts, axles etc, dissolves in a-Iron and forms carbides; improves strength, hardenability, wear resistance, corrosion and oxidation resistance, e.g. files 1.0%C 1.5%Cr. Mo carbides are very stable and give improved high temperature strength and creep resistance, e.g. C-0.5%Mo in boiler service. forms carbides and improves creep resistance and strength, e.g. 1.0%Cr 0.5%Mo 0.25%V. stable, hard carbides for wear and abrasion resistance, 1.0%C 2.0%W 0.5%Cr for drills and blades. improves oxidation resistance, e.g. automotive valves 8%Cr 3.5%Si. Basie Merl ee EWE viiiescsrinne VET ensue wd Basie Mh Copyright METALLURGICAL DEFINITIONS OF ALLOTROPIC PHASE CHANGES IN STEELS Ferrite a An interstitial solid solution of carbon in body centred cubic iron (also known as alpha iron), the atomic spacing being .287nM, the phase occurs below the upper critical temperature, i.e. below 910°C — 723°C depending on C content, the maximum solubility of carbon being .025% carbon at 723°C. Delta Ferrite 5 ‘Similar to alpha ferrite, the atomic spacing between the lattice being .293nM, the phase occurs in the peritectic region, Austenite An interstitial solid solution of carbon in face~centred cubic iron (also known as gamma iron}, the atomic spacing being .365nM, the phase occurring above the upper critical temperature, i.e. 910 ~ 723°C depending on carbon content. Maximum solubility 2,06% carbon at 1147°C, Cementite An Intermetallic compound of carbon and iron, (Fe,C also known as iron carbide) Pearlite A laminated structure of ferrite and cementite (can also be defined as a mechanical mixture of a solid solution and an intermetallic compound). Martensite A super-saturated interstitial solid solution of carbon in body centred tetragonal iron (caused by rapid cooling from austenite and entrapment of carbon in solution). A rvita a TWI Sa ey PHASE DIAGRAMS The various structures or phases present during mixing of metals may be represented by phase diagrams where alloy composition is plotted versus temperature. The simplest phase system is where both metals completely mix in the solid and liquid states, e.g. Cu-Ni, Note that pure metals melt at one Gefinite temperature but alloys melt (and solidify) over a range of temperatures, In the second type, total mixing occurs in the liquid with no mixing in the solid, ®.g. Pb-Sb. More commonly some mixing does occur in the solid as in the Ag~ Cu systems. “Such phase diagrams are known as EUTECTIC systems, meaning with low melting point. The iron-carbon diagram An outlined Fe-G diagram is presented overleaf. Details of the phases can be added from the following information: Pure iron exists in 3 forms and melts at 1639°C. BCC alpha iron (a-ferrite) < 910°C FCC gamma iron (y-austenite) >910 ~ <1400°C. BCC delta iron (6-ferrite) > 1400°C Carbon dissolves in interstitial solid solution 10.0.025% in a-Fe at 723°C to 1.7% in y-Fe at 1147°C to 0.10% in &-Fe at 1492°C Fe and C form a compound (Fe, C, cementite). ‘The equivalent weight % is 93.3%Fe 6.7%C, A eutectic exists between austenite and cementite at 4,3%C, A eutectoid (similar to a eutectic but in the solid phase) exists between a-ferrite and cementite at 0.83%C. Known as PEARLITE it has a lamellar structure with alternating bands of ferrite and iron carbide, Under equilibrium conditions alloys below 0.83%C consist of mixtures of ferrite and peartite, whilst alloys above 0.83%C consist of mixtures of cementite and pearlite. Most alloys of interest in welded systems are in the range of approximately 0.10-0.25% although steels of higher C levels can be welded. In this range the room temperature structure of the steel consists of ferrite and pearlite, The higher the carbon content then the higher is the strength and hardness of the steel. iatluray a TW] vicnsoeie 49 2004, TWH Ltd ZT reewosr Basie M Copy wy _e& ree 1130 ; x 0.025 0.83, 7 43 6. wre CARBON lron-carbon phase diagram isis Vcallorsy a TWI vonocenrseron Copyright & 2004, TWH Lid CMT sosnosce 4. THE EFFECTS OF COOLING RATE ON STRUCTURE ‘Temperature - time - transformation (TTT) diagrams Very slow cooling of carbon steels gives a soft structure of equilibrium phases of ferrite and pearlite, whilst rapid cooling will produce martensite, a hard and 4 brite phase, which causes a reduction in toughness and ductility of the steel. 2 intermediate cooling rates may produce different levels of hardening and structure variations. ‘The effect of different cooling rates on a stee!'s final structure can be shown in a TTT diagram. Annealing of stee! involves heating to approximately 925°C and slow cooling in a furnace. This produces a relatively large grain size, coarse peariite and a soft 4 d : structure. Notmalising involves alr cooling, from around 926°C which results in both a finer grain size and pearlite spacing and strengthens and hardens the 3 steel. Even faster cooling, such as oll or water quenching, gives increased ' levels of strength and hardness and may produce a non equilibrium phase change to martensite instead of the usual ferrite and pearlite phases. ‘The phase changes that occur depend particularly upon material composition and cooling rate. Low carbon steels, for example, are almost impossible to harden by quenching, whilst increasing carbon levels, which favour a larger 3 proportion of pearite in the structure, lead to increased hardenability. Other elements too, such as manganese, chromium and molybdenum cause an increased hardenability, as seen in carbon-manganese and low alloy steels. The properties of a steel, then, will depend critically on its composition and its heat treatment (or cooling rate). It is evident therefore, that during welding, which involves rapid cooling from high temperatures, significant changes can ccur in the structure of the weldment which may have important implications on the properties of the joint. Basie Metiluray 1% "PWT wouscisran roe Copyright 2004, TW Led Cle aaa a ae ISOTHERMAL COGAN ‘DIAGRAM =:= CONSTANT- RATE. COOLING CURVES 10 605 = TIME (3) (LOGARITHMIC SCALES The relationship between T.T.T. curves and curves representing continuous cooling Matsiluray 15 TW sawannern Copyright © 2008, TWH Lad Cag icessions q ‘TENSILE STRENGTH Ke/na* Effect of carbon on mechanical properties and microstructure of iron re 700 00 300 Me. 2 terme” is. im, an, Log tine Typical T-T-T diagram Copyright 2004, TW1 Led 6 TW sencemnern CLM esses Heat affected zone formation During welding, a region of the parent material adjacent to the solidifying weld metal is heating to high temperature and changes in structure occur, producing a heat affected zone (HAZ). The properties of the HAZ depend critically on material composition and cooling rate. ‘Taking a 0,15%C steel and referring to the iron - carbon diagram, the HAZ structure varies as shown overleaf. Note that the changes that occur in the HAZ on cooling of a weld are solid state changes and therefore require time to take place. If austenite is cooled very rapidly, diffusion of carbon is not possible and a distorted structure of MARTENSITE Is formed. Martensite is a BODY CENTRED TETRAGONAL (BCT) structure, supersaturated with respect to carbon. The high lattice strains induced give martensite its characteristic high hardness and this is influenced by ‘carbon content: %o 04 03 05 07 09 VPN 390 640 810 920 920 By comparison, a-ferrite is $0 VPN and pearlite 200 ~ 450 VPN depending on the fineness of the structure, PW worcvcesnarron Copyright & 2004, TWE Led ap aes Phases Forned Temperature Rany Ferrite and pearlite Ferrite and austenite austenite Liquid metal HAZ formation during welding of steel 8 PW wowscexraeron twi led aris ORNS asic Metall Copyright STRUCTURE OF THE WELDED JOINT Fusion welding involves a very intense heat source which metts the base material and any consumable which is used, forming a weld pool between items being joined, This weld pool solidifies and cools, uniting the base materials. The way in which this takes place has a profound effect upon the properties of the joint, the three most-important characteristics of the welding process being the intensity of the heat sourca, the rate of heat input and the efficiency of the method used to protect the weld from the atmosphere. The welded Joint consists of three distinct areas - the weld metal, the heat affected zones and the unaffected parent material. HEAT INPUT Most welding processes ~ MMA, MIG, TIG, SAW, produce a weld poo! which is roughly semicircular in cross section, the size of the Poo! increasing or decreasing as the heat input is increased or decreased. Deeply penetrating heat sources such as the electron beam or laser, however, give a deep, finger-like weld pool. The heat input rate is govemed by current, voltage and travel speed: yolts x amps : and is one of the most important variables travel speed a sinee it controls heating and cooling rates and weld pool size. in general terms, the higher the heat input rate the lower the cooling rate and the larger Is the weld pool ~ this is very important in the welding of carbon and ferritle alloy steels, since slow cooling rates decrease the chances of hydrogen induced cracking. On the other hand, slow cooling rates increase the grain size in both the HAZ's and the weld metal due to grain growth ~ the longer the time spent above the grain coarsening temperature, the courser the structure in HAZ and weld metal will be ~ electro-slag welding for example has a very long welding thermal ‘cycle and produces very coarse large grained HAZ's and weld metal. 0 TW woocasiceron fa LEM essanooe Basie We Copyriat THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ) The HAZ may be divided into two regions - the high temperature regions in which major microstructural changes such as grain growth occur, and the low temperature ragion in which secondary effects such as precipitation or tempering may take place. The peak temperature which will be reached will be at the fusion boundary which will be at the melting temperature of the weld metal. |n metals which have been cold worked, grain growth may be preceded by recrystallization which will result in a softening and loss of tensile strength. Alloys hardened by precipitation will usually be softened by fusion welding, The time at high temperatures can be reduced by the use of a process which proauces @ deep narrow weld pool and/or by a reduction in neat input. Electron beam and laser welding hava these characteristics and therefore minimize the metallurgical effects in and width of the HAZ. The effects of the various thermal treatments experienced by a welded joint in a single pass fusion weld In carbon steel are illustrated below. hanna gens grove This diagram is for a single pass weld ~ in a multipass weld the same effects are produced except that additionally weld passes are “heat treated” by passes laid on top of them, producing a highly complex range of different structures, 2 TWI wonocesra re Wis session one METALLURGY OF WELDING 5. CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS tn the following sections the major problems associated with the welding of carbon and low allay steels are discussed in terms of the main failure mechanisms, with particular attention given to problems of weldment cracking. Cold Cracking Cold cracking or hydrogen cracking is probably the most important metallurgical defect which occurs in carbon-manganese and low alloy steel welds. This is reflected in the wide terminology used to describe this defect type, which is also often referred to as heat affected zone (HAZ) cracking or underbead cracking, to describe its usual area of occurrence. As its name implies, this cracking phenomenon occurs at low temperatures, usually below about 300°C, It requires a susceptible weldment microstructure, associated with a hardened region, and the presence of hydrogen. The ‘occurrence of significant stress levels In the neighbourhood of the weldment is also likely to increase the tendency for cracking to occur. Hydrogen plays an important role in cold cracking because of its reduced solubility in steel at lower temperatures. During solidification and cooling, hydrogen is rejected from solution and, in a hardened microstructure, promotes cracking. Because of this, welding with low hydrogen processes may bo required. For manual metal arc (MMA) welding, basic electrodes which produce ow weldment hydrogen contents are available. Gas shielded welding (tungsten inert gas, TIG or metal inert gas, MIG) are also low hydrogen processes. Note that appropriate drying of welding consumables is also necessary to minimise hydrogen uptake and this applies equally to coated MMA electrodes and to flux used in the submerged arc welding (SAW) process. Banke Metallur 2 WORLD CENTRE ER ‘Copyeight 12004 WH Led Oey esnsone 11600 1100 ree He CC/100g RON Solubllity of hydrogen in iron TW suger Basie Metaliuray &o © 2004, WL Led at As noted earlier, low carbon steels are not readily hardenable; they are thus not, normally considered susceptible to cold cracking. The presence of manganese, however, in carbon-manganese steels, increases hardenability, This is reflected in the carbon equivalent (CE) formula which is a measure of the hardenabilty of the steel: cE = sc + 4Me For low alloy steels, where other alloying elements increase the hardenabilty a more extensive formula is applied : CE = 46 + DMA , (Er + %Mo + %V) , (NI + %CD 6 5 15 Based on the CE of a particular steel, appropriate precautions may be taken to minimise the risk of cold cracking. The hardness of a particular joint is related not only to the steel composition, and its effect on microstructure, but also on the cooling rate, ‘Thus the joint design and material thickness may also affect the susceptibility to cold cracking. ‘The control of cooling rate, in fact, is an important method for minimising cold cracking, since slowing the cooling rate allows a longer time at higher temperature which permits hydrogen to diffuse away from the joint before cracking can take placa. The cooling rate may be affected by increasing the heat input to a joint or slowing the welding speed. The most common method applied, however, is preheating of the joint which not only allows hydrogen removal at temperatures ‘above the critical cracking temperature but also gives some reduction in HAZ hardness, B TW voupcreeroe CMT ews °) Tat Weal 7 ‘The amount of preheat applied depends on material composition and hence carbon equivalent (CE). In general, with a CE of up to 0.45 preheat is optional. From 0.45 ~ 0.55 a preheat of 150 - 200°C may be applied, whilst from 0.55 ~ 0.60 preheats of 200 - 300°C may be necessary to prevent cracking. For extremely hardenable steels (CE above 0.6) the use of austenitic stainless steel consumables may be considered. Because of the high solubility of hydrogen in austenite there is less risk of hydrogen diffusing to the hardened HAZ. Note that for thick materials In particular, preheat is also often applied at CE levels below 0.45. Where multipass welding is applied, it is important that the weld joint be maintained at the preheat temperature between runs (Le. interpass temperature contral is also important). For hardenable low alloy steels, post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is usually necessary to improve mechanical properties of the weldment, even where the risks of hydrogen cracking have been overcome. British Standard BS 5185: 1984 "Process of arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steels" gives a precise recommendations on welding procedure to avoid hydrogen induced cold cracking. Attention is given to carbon equivalent values, hydrogen fevels, material thickness, arc energies and required preheat levels. 4 FT wono cestnerot CLM Weve APPLICATION OF PRE HEAT oO 150) 108 0 Hydrogen scales ta ee 00g oF ord me 129 vr [ptt ining fo ft J f= a oF 0 fis : io 5 [1 é : ae 5 "I ST VT ok z 109 sree ie (see 21.2 Fos oe See naa i Feopratire «eye y oe iM iuew Jo [oso Joa [oa [oa i py : ae wee [1 [oa four [one | ove | Figwe 4 eominsed) t Are energy ksi te EXAMPLE ONE: CALCULATE THE PRE-HEAT FOR THE FOLLOWING Material Thickness 75mm Material Type Joint Type Single Vee Butt Heat input level 2.0Kj/mm. 5 TW woncesra ron q Hot Cracking (Solidification Cracking) Hot cracking occurs at high temperatures above the solidus temperature. Prerequisites for cracking are that the material should have a low ductility and high contraction stresses should be present, On cooling of a liquid metal, solidification begins at one temperature (the liquidus) and is complete at a somewhat lower temperature (the solidus). Between the two, the alloy forms a coherent incompletely solidified mass, and acquires mechanical strength. It is, however, brittle and has no ductility until cooled to lower temperatures. Alloys solidifying over a wide temperature range have a equivalent wide brittle range and are particularly prone to hot cracking (e.g. certain aluminium and magnesium alloys). Brittleness in the solidus region is caused by intergranular or interdendritic liquid films: under the influence of contraction stresses hot cracking may result. In steel, the main element contributing to cracking Is sulphur (S) which promotes the formation of low melting point iron sulphide (FeS). Other elements are phosphorus (P) and boron (B). The sulphur in steel can be rendered harmless by additions of manganese (Mn) which promotes the formation of manganese ‘sulphide inclusions. As the carbon content of the steel increases, so the level of Mn to Inhibit cracking must also be increased. Weld cracking may also result from inadequate “feeding". This effect is named from foundry casting terminology used to describe the filling or feeding of shrinkage gaps by liquid metal during casting. Fusion welds are normally self- feeding; however, if the penetration is too deep relative to the weld width, shrinkage or solidification cracks may occur. The risk of hot cracking in carbon steel weldments can be minimised by: a maintaining a low C in the weld deposit; i) keeping S and P levels as low as possible (i) keeping Mn sufficiently high to allow for dilution from the parent (and hence ingress of S) 7) minimising restraint and dilution Although less common as a cause of cracking, attention to inadequate weld geometry may also be required. General guidance on the avoidance of solidification cracking is given in BS 5135: 1984, % PWT wonscenern Basie Metall 7 2004, TWH Lad ae aye a ax am oe ———~ sore prenear — —- to PaenEat ed TACK WELD 500 re 270 HW 300 210 HV fee 420 HV i ao ao 50 Time (sec) after 70°C Effect of preheat on cooling rate and hardness so 40 xo sous KG wr crack. 20 ‘CRACKING 10 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 xe Effect of Mn/S ratio and C content on susceptibility of C steel to hot cracking asi Mtr 7 Touseanenn Copyrighn 290 TWH Lad ty sore ae Lamellar Tearing Lameliar tearing is a cracking phenomenon which may occur in thick plate subjected to high transverse welding stresses. The problem is related to elongated non-metallic inclusions (sulphides and silicates) lying parallel to the plate surface and producing poor ductility in the through thickness (short transverse) direction. It is not necessary for the inclusions to be present in large sheets (e.g. as laminations) but often as a large number of small areas in slightly different planes. These may produce stepped cracks originating in the parent material close to the HAZ and progressing through thickness. Where lamellar tearing may be a particularly serious problem (e.g. in offshore platform construction) steels of low sulphur level may be required (e.g. 0.007%). In addition minimum levels of ductility in the transverse direction may be specified. This requires a STRA test, to determine the Short Transverse Reduction in Area. Generally a minimum value of 20% may be specified. ‘Where possible, design should avoid heavy contraction stresses in the through thickness direction (ie. heavy filets and cruciform joints). Since lamellar tearing can also be adversely affected by hydrogen, appropriate precautions to minimise hydrogen levels should be taken (see cold cracking). General guidance on the avoidance of lamellar tearing is given in BS 5135: 1984, WI wooo CLM vem 8 Reheat Cracking Reheat or stress relaxation (or stress relief) cracking can occur in the HAZ of thick wall low alloy steal weld ments subjected to high temperature stress rellet or service (e.g. boller plant). ‘The phenomenon Is the result of both high temperature (600°C) embrittlement of the HAZ and the presence of residual welding stresses. Weldments over approximately 50mm in thickness are most susceptible to failure. During service or stress relief, precipitation of carbides occurs, strengthening the grains within the HAZ. Stress relaxation thus occurs at the weaker grain boundaries leading to intergranular cracking of the HAZ. Mo-V and Mo-8 steels are especially susceptible to this type of failure, although other elements such as Cr, Cu, Nb and Ti can also promote embrittlement. ‘Susceptibility to reheat cracking is determined by hot tensile testing (600°C) of a specimen subjected to a simulated weld thermal cycle. If tensile strength is below that of the parent material and reduction of area is below 20% then susceptibility to reheat cracking is indicated. Coarse grained HAZs are more susceptible than fine grained to cracking; hence tow heat input welding is likely to be beneficial. Other aspects to be considered include restriction of V levels (to 0.1%), design to avold high restraint, the

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