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    Well Formed PDF

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    Foundations [999 1.98 1.99 1.100 1.101 1.102 1.103 1.104 1.105 1.106 (i) Not possible. If #0, then 2a, 3a, ... are in S. So S is infinite, which is not the case. (ii) Possible. Take S= {0, 1, -1} (a) No (addition), No (subtraction), Yes (multiplication), No (di (b) No, No, No, No (©) Yes, No, Yes, No (a) Yes, Yes, Yes, No. (a), (b) Neither commutative nor associative. (c) Commutative but not associative (d) Associative but not commutative n). (a) Homomorphism, monomorphism, not an epimorphism (b) Not a homomorphism (c) Homomorphism, monomorphism, not an epimorphism (d) Not a homomorphism. (a) Homomorphism, monomorphism, epimorphism. (b) Not a homomorphism (c) Homomorphism, monomorphism, epimorphism (If y € R’, then y = ios (4)) » (4) Homomorphism, isomorphism. (a) Always false (b) and (d) True in some cases but not always true. Consider the graphs in Figure 1.37 (c) Always true (by Theorem 1). (a) (b) FIGURE 1.37 Exercise 1.103, Let x be the number of vertices of degree 3. Then 20 = 2(4) + 3x. Sox =4, |V|=6. Let a, band c be vertices of degree 1, x of degree 5 and y of degree 7. As d(y) =7, the vertices a, band care adjacent only to y and so not to x. Also, x is not adjacent to itself (G has no self- loop). So d(x) $4. So such a graph does not exist. ALG! (a) Graph G, (connected) (b) Graph G, (disconnected) FIGURE 18 Exercise 1.106. 1O2|]__Piserete Mathematics Use of Parentheses Parentheses are used to avoid ambiguity. However, we can minimise the number of parentheses used if we have the following hierarchy of operations and parentheses: 1. Connectives within parentheses; among parentheses, innermost first 2. Negation 5 3. aandv 4 5.0. But we use parentheses in most of the occasions just to avoid ambiguity. Well-formed formulas are also called formulas. EXAMPLE 2.1 The following are formulas: (Pv Q)AaR ) (Pv Q) > (PQ) (ii) PO) O>R>P>R) (iv) PAQAR)>S WW) (P2OAO>P) oP. EXAMPLE 2.2 The following are not formulas: PVOAR Gi) (Py QAR>Q) (ii) PAQ> OPV (iv) (Pv O)v (PAQ)V(P>O) (vy) (Pv QAO) AQ/ AP > Q). Note: In algebra, we have identities like a(b + ¢) = ab + ac, (a+ bP = a + 2ab + b°. If we assign the same set of values for the variables a and h, then the values of LHS and RHS of an identity are the same. Ina similar way, two formulas involving the same set of propositional variables are equivalent if the truth values of the formulas are the same when the same set of truth values are assigned to the propositional variables 2.2. TRUTH TABLE OF WELL-FORMED FORMULA Ifwe replace the propositional variables in a formula ocby propositions, we get a proposition involving connectives. The table which gives the truth value of a for all possible assignments of truth value to the propositions replacing the variable is called the truth table of ot EXAMPLE 2.3 Find the truth table for the formula @= (PY Q) > (RV P)AGRVQ) Solution: The truth table for exis given in Table 2.1. Predicate Calculus 103 TABLE 2.1 Truth table for Example 2.3 P Q R PvOQ RVP aR RYO BPO) >B 1 1 r 1 T F T T r T T F T T T T T T r F 1 1 T F F F F r F F r T T T T r I 1 T I T F Tv 1 F 1 F 1 F T I F F F 1 F T F I r F F F F F r F r In the table B= (Rv P)A(aRVO) EXAMPLE 2.4 Construct the truth table for the formula a= (P 3 (QR) 3 (P40) (PR) Solution: The truth table for cis given in Table 2.2 TABLE 2.2. Truth table for Example 24 Po OR Q>R P3@>R P>Q P>R B « 1 I T 1 T 1 1 T T roo P F F T F F T ror T 1 T F 1 T T 1 F F 1 T rf F T T F I r 1 r 1 1 r r FOOT oF F T T T T T F F v 1 T T 1 T T F F F 1 T 1 1 T T In the table 2.3. TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION AND CONTINGENCY B-(P3Q>P>R) There are some formulas whose truth table consists of T alone for all possible assignments of truth values to propositional variables. The formula P v P is one such formula. The truth value of Pv = P is always T irrespective of the truth value of P. Such a formula is called a tautology. Definition 2.3 (a) A tautology or a universally true formula is a well-formed formula whose truth value is T for all possible assignments of truth values to the propositional variables. (b) A contradiction or absurdity is a well-formed formula whose truth value is F for all possible assignments of truth values to the propositional variables. (©) A contingency is a formula which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction 104)] Discrete Mathematies Note: The truth table of a contingency has both truth values T and F. P v +P, P—+ Pand Ps Q— P are tautologies. (This can be verified by constructing truth tables.) The formula given in Example 2.4 is a tautology. We can also construct the truth table of a formula as follows: 1. Whenever the propositional variable occurs, write the corresponding columns under these variables. 2. Write the column corresponding to the connectives appearing inside the innermost bracket Repeat Step 2 until the column corresponding to the last connective is obtained. This column along with the columns of the propositional variables gives the truth table for the given formula This method helps us to construct the truth table correctly. EXAMPLE 2.5 Which of the following formulas is a tautology, contradiction or contingency? (a) P>OQe5PVvO (6) 3(P> 0) > (Rv P) > (Rv O) (c) (PAQ)VR>PAQvR) Solution: We construct the truth tables for the formulas given in (a), (b), (c). TABLE 2.3(a) Truth table for Example 2.5(a) eP > 0 ° = P v o T T T oF F T 1 1 F T F T 120 5 3 1 4 1 The truth table for (P > Q) © (+P v Q) is given by Columns 1, 2 and 5 of Table 2.3(a). It is a tautology. TABLE 2.3(b) Truth table for Example 2.5(b) < ° - Ww > oO > «mv PP > @® T T ror ft T rot oT T T Po? oT T ToT F T ror ot T Tor F T Po? oT F F T T ror oF T Tod T T POF F T T F T ror oF T T F T FOF F T FoF 7 1 5 0 6 12 0 4 13 1 ‘The truth table for (b) is given in Table 2.3(b). As the column under 7 (indicated with the last number 7) has only F's, the formula is a contradiction. Predicate Calculus AA) (b) 1. PAQA AS Premise (iii) 2P Simplification R/; 3. P>(Q>R) Premise (i) 4. QR Lines 2, 3 and modus ponens 5.0 Line 1 and Ris 6 R Lines 4, 5 and modus ponens 7. O3(R>S) Premise (iii) 8 R>S Lines 5, 7 and modus ponens oS Lines 6, 8 and modus ponens 10. 3S Line 1, Rls I. Saas Lines 9, 10 and conjunction 1. F hy Hence the given premises are inconsistent. Note: Hereafier we use MP, MT, DS, HS for modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism and hypothetical syllogism. EXAMPLE 2.27 Test the validity of the following argument: If US tightens visa restrictions, then the demand for BPO will increase. Either US tightens visa restrictions or some computer companies in India close down. The demand for BPO will not increase. Therefore some computer companies in India will close down. Solution: We name the propositions in the following way: R denotes “ US tightens the visa restrictions”. B denotes “The demand for BPO will increase” C denotes “Some computer companies in India will close dow: The given premises are @ RB (RVC Gi) AB The conclusion is C. 1. RB Premise (i) 2. 3B35R Line 1 and f,, 3. AB Premise (iii) 4. 4R Lines 2, 3 and MP 5. RVC Premise (ii) 6. C Lines 4, 5 and DS Hence the argument is valid. EXAMPLE 2.28 Test the validity of the following argument If terrorists take more hostages, then their demands will be met if and only if the media gives extensive coverage to terrorist acts, Either the media will voluntarily restrict the coverage of terrorist acts, or if the media recognise that they are being exploited by the terrorists to extend their area of operation, they will restrict the coverage of terrorist acts. Either the media will recognise that they are being exploited by terrorists or terrorists will take more hostages. The media will not voluntarily restrict the coverage of terrorist acts. Therefore the terrorist’s demands will be met if and only if the media give extensive courage to terrorist acts 120)] Discrete Mathematics Solution: Let us name the propositions as follows: H denotes “The terrorists take more hostages”. D denotes “The terrorists’ demands will be met” ‘M denotes “The media gives extensive coverage to terrorist acts”. W denotes “The media will voluntarily restrict the details” E denotes “The media recognise that they are being exploited by terrorists”. The premises are H>(DOM) (i) VV(EW) (ii) EVH (ivy. The conclusion is D> M. Law Premise (iv) 2. W (EW) Premise (ii) 3. EW Lines I, 2 and DS 4, SWE Line3 and hy 5. 4E Lines 1, 4 and MP 6. EVH Premise (iii) 7H Lines 5, 6 and DS, 8. H-> (DM) Premise (i) 9. DOM Lines 7, 8 and MP Hence the argument is valid. 2.9 WELL-FORMED FORMULAS OF PREDICATE CALCULUS In Section 1.1.2, we had a brief introduction to predicates and quantifiers. A predicate is part of a declarative sentence describing the properties of an object or the relation among objects. A sentence involving a predicate is denoted by P(x), with P denoting a predicate and x denoting a variable representing an object. We also defined the universal quantifier V (for all) and the existential quantifier 3 (there exists). In this section we study well-formed formulas of predicate calculus. Definition 2.15 A well-formed formula (wf) of predicate calculus is a string of variables such as Xie X2, vss %ps COMnectives, parentheses and quantifiers defined recursively by the following rules: Px, «4 Xp) iS. a WAT, where P is a predicate involving n variables x1, 35 6. %n If avis a wif, then — oF is a wit. (iii) If ceand Bare wit’s, then crv B, ct B, ct > B, <> Bare also wif (iv) If eis a wffand x is any variable appearing in ce, then Vx(a), 3x (@) are wis. (v) A string is a wif if and only if it is obtained by finitely many applications of rules (i)-(iv). Note: _ A proposition can be viewed as a sentence involving a pre are wf’s of predicate calculus by rule (i). We call wit’s of predicate calculus predicate formulas for convenience. The well-formed formulas introduced in Definition 2.2 can be called proposition formulas to distinguish them from predicate formulas. ate with 0 variables. So, propositions EXAMPLE 2.29 The following are well-formed formulas: (a) Wx(P@) 4 OG) (b) Vx (PQ) A 3x OG) v Wx (PO) > OG) Predicate Calewlus (420 (c) Ax (= 2y) A (2? + 2x <4) > (<2) 9 (= 2y) (d) Vx dy (R(x, y) A (x Sy (SQ) v

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