Fundamentals of Hay Wafering

G. E. Pickard, W. M. Roll, and J. H. Ramser

MEMBER ASAE

Assoc. MEMBER ASAE

ONSIDERABLE material has re

WAFER, 0.265 LBS. OF 20% MOISTURE HAY
2990 Ft. LBS.
COMPRESSED THICKNESS 0.47 INCHES
cently been published on hay pel
THICKNESS ON LEAVING PRESS 0.47 INCHES
leting and hay wafering. A wafering
WORK OF COMPRESSION 1000 FT. LBS.
rather than a pelleting process appears
FOR THIS SIZE OF WAFER THIS IS 3770 FT. LBS./LB.
to be desirable in order (a) to use either
OR 3.8 H.P./TON/HR. ( 19 H.P. FOR 5 TONS/HR.)
long or chopped hay to eliminate the
WITH EXTRUSION PROCESS EXTRA FRICTION AODS 56 H.P.
power-consuming grinding process, (b)
IOOQFT.
to avoid the preforming drying opera
tion required in the pelleting process,
and (c) to get away from the extrusion
process that is so wasteful of power.
10/2 INCH STROKE
Pelleting, however, produces a product
with more desirable handling and flow
FIG. 1 Pressure-displacement diagram for hay compression. (The useful work of wafer
characteristics.
ing is very moderate compared to the wasted frictional work of extrusion.)
Grinding hay for pelleting requires
about the same power as is required
Descriptions of experiments in form most cases all of these factors are in
for subsequent pelleting (5)* and, in ing actual wafers under a variety of volved to some degree. An attempt is
addition, produces a product that is to conditions to discover the effects of being made to isolate these mechanisms
some degree unsatisfactory for certain these conditions and their interactions in order to study and evaluate them
ruminants (1, 6). The drying required form the second part of this paper. separately and to determine the ef
for grinding is a complete waste be These experiments, in common with fect of varying hay conditions and ma
cause this moisture is subsequently re most reported research and practice, nipulations on each.
turned by the pelleting steam, which in indicate that producing a satisfactory
The first study involved the effects
itself represents an additional cost. wafer from hay having more than of pressure and adhesion that were not
Whether used in pelleting or in wafer about 25 percent moisture (4, 7, 8) is related to interlacing and cylinder-wall
ing, the extrusion process, by its very uncertain at best. However, our objec conditions. Stems in layers placed at
nature, is wasteful (Fig. 1), depending tive must be field wafering at moisture right angles to each other like cordwood
as it does upon friction forces to produce levels when leaf droppage of legume were subjected to pressure to study ad
the pressure required to compress the hay is at a minimum. It does not hesion and the effects of stem moisture
hay. The open area of the curve re appear likely that this aim will be and pressure. At 13 percent moisture
presents the useful work of compres achieved without a much better under the stems showed almost no adhesion
sion; the shaded area is the work of standing of the basic mechanisms of at pressures varying from 3,000 to
extrusion or friction. A process that cohesion of wafers. For this reason, a 15,000 psi. Microscopic examination
compresses the hay, as in a closed cylin study was undertaken (a) to determine showed a few isolated points of adhe
der, is desired to prevent the wasteful the mechanisms that hold a wafer to sion on the stem where protoplasm,
friction work which far exceeds the gether, (b) to establish the relative im which is high in adhesive protein and
work of compression.
portance of each mechanism under var pectin, had oozed out at a break in
A typical diagram for actual work ious conditions, and (c) to determine the stem wall. At 20 percent moisture
on a pellet 3V2 in. in diameter and 1 in. the effect of these conditions on each there was only very slight adhesion.
thick, having a density of 45 lb per mechanism.
Rather good adhesion occurred at 20
cubic foot, and weighing 0.265 lb is
percent when alternate layers of leaf
1,000 ft-lb. This represents about 3.77 Mechanism of Wafer Cohesion
and stem were compressed. This ap
hp per ton per hour of capacity a
There appear to be three possible me peared to be due to the flow of ad
far cry from the 20 to 30 hp per ton chanisms, namely, (a) complete crush hesive material from the fragile leaf
per hour required of pelleting and ing of plant stems, (b) adhesion, and structure.
wafering machine working on the ex (c) interlacing of stems and leaves. In
At 30 percent moisture, there was a
trusion process (1, 7). While the field
considerable amount of adhesion. In
power requirement of a machine would
this case, there was an appreciable out
be increased by addition of bearing fric
ward flow of the material, causing
tion in the mechanism and by auxiliary
breakage of stems (Fig. 2). This flow re
equipment, such as pickup and feed
sulted in internal friction and macera
ing mechanism, there is good reason
tion of stem walls which, in conjunc
to hope for a saving of at least 50 per
tion with the stem breakage, liberated
cent in power by eliminating the ex
adhesive material from the stems. This
trusion process.
maceration and exposure of fluid was
Paper presented at the Winter Meeting of the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers at
Chicago, 111., December 1958, on a program ar
ranged by the Electric Power and Processing Di
vision (revised 1961).
The authorsG. E. PICKARD, W. M. ROLL,
and J. H. RAMSERare, respectively professor
(deceased), graduate assistant, and assistant pro
fessor (deceased) of agricultural engineering, Uni
versity of Illinois, Urbana.
* Numbers in parentheses refer to the ap
pended references.

1961

TRANSACTIONS or THE ASAE

FIG. 2 Internal flow occurred in stacks of

unconfined stems when subjected to pres
sure. Resulting maceration led to adhesion.

plainly visible under the microscope.

At 49 percent moisture, there was
greater flow of the stem material, re
sulting in heavy maceration, and ad
hesion was good.
The adhesion of these stems at vary
ing moisture levels is just the reverse
of what happens in forming wafers in a
65

FIG. 3 An alfalfa stem from a wafer of

20-percent-moisture hay shows consider
able cell structure still intact.
cylinder, where the drier hay makes
more dense pellets with moderate pres
sure. This suggests that adhesion alone
may play a minor role in wafering and
that the interlacing, which was absent
in this study, may be a dominant fac
tor. Other factors closely related to in
terlacing are looping of stems to form
a sort of secondary interlocking, and
complete crushing of the stems with
little springback. Without this complete
and permanent flattening, the interlac
ing and looping are only partly effec
tive.
Failure of the hay to hold wafer
shape at high moisture levels even
though adhesion occurs in the stacked
stems appears to be due almost en
tirely to the trapping of this moisture
and the related protoplasm in the stems.
This has two effects: (a) failure to ob
tain complete flattening of the stems
and (b) inability to provide adhesive
protoplasm between the stems.
The moisture is trapped because
there is nowhere for it to go, since there
is little opportunity for internal flow
of the hay under compression, When
trapped in the plant cells, the moisture
resists the applied pressure and thereby
prevents complete flattening. This lack
of flattening has two effects: (a) it per
mits the stems to spring back radially
and from the effects of transverse bend
ing because the mechanical structures
are not broken and (b) it hinders the
release of adhesive protoplasm due to
the absence of failures in the epidermal
cell walls. Thus the trapping of mois
ture within the stems appears to be a
major cause of poor wafer stability. In
addition, the mechanical structures
within the stems are more resilient at
higher moisture. In fact, nature pro
vides a lubricant in the inner lamella,
located between the cell walls, to per
mit the stem to adjust to growth. At
higher moisture levels this natural lubri
cation encourages rebound after pres
sure is removed and also reduces break
age of stem structures that would re
duce springback and promote adhesion
by liberating protoplasm.
The success in securing adhesion of
stacked stems at high moisture levels,
due to maceration and liberation of
protoplasm, may point to a method of
wafering high-moisture hay, if an eco
66

nomical means of maceration can be

developed. Examination of stems from
wafers made from hay of 10, 20, and
30 percent moisture bears out these
hypotheses. In the 10 percent wafer,
the stems were very flat and indi
vidual cells had almost completely dis
appeared. Bent stems were sharply
creased, and the wafer was an effec
tively interlaced mass. The 20 percent
stems were well crushed, but still some
of the mechanical structure of the stem
was undamaged (Fig. 3), permitting a
considerable amount of spring-back
after pressure was released. The 30
percent wafer, which had expanded to
nearly three times its compressed thick
ness, showed stems only moderately
flattened and much of the cellular struc
ture intact (Fig. 4). There was, of
course, equal interlacing, but resilience
of the uncrushed stems had permitted
them to spring apart when pressure was
released.
It is believed that continuing this
phase of the study will do much to im
prove the understanding of factors af-

FIG. 4 Stems from a wafer of 30-percentmoisture hay shows how the moisture has
resisted stem crushing.
fecting wafer formation and may point
the way to the design of an effective
and economical machine.
The Wafering Experiment
Concurrently with the studies of the
mechanisms of cohesion, a wafering ex
periment was performed to provide
basic information for more use. The
design of new equipment can only be
A hit-or-miss matter until the machine
requirements are determined.
The specific objectives of this experi
ment were:
(a) To determine the pressure-vol
ume relationships of hay
(b) To study the size stability and
durability of wafers
(c) To study the drying characteris
tics of wafers
(d) To determine how these proper
ties were affected by hay condi
tions such as moisture and ma
turity, and by wafer qualities
such as density and configuration.

The variables that could affect the

wafering characteristics of hay can be
divided into two classifications: first,
those associated with the hay and, sec
ond, those related to the machine.
Some of the variables associated with
the hay are the species of hay, the
stage of maturity, the moisture con
tent, and the form of the hay (chop
ped versus long, and crushed versus
uncrushed). Variables associated with
the machine in which the wafer is made
might be the pressure (which influences
wafer density), time of pressure hold,
and thickness (or shape) of the wafer.
This list of variables contains only
those studied in the experiment to be
described. It is by no means complete,
especially the machine variables.
To study the effects of these vari
ables, a series of wafers was made in a
closed-end cylinder. The levels of each
of the variables were as follows: The
species was limited to one level, which
was alfalfa. Maturity was studied at
two levels, which were called young
and mature. The hay was considered
to be in its early stage of maturity
when it was about one foot high and
had not begun to bloom. Late maturity
was about one week after the hay had
reached full bloom. These are arbitrary
definitions of maturity, and the opti
mum for making good hay would lie
somewhere between.
Moisture content was studied at 10,
20, and 30 percent on the wet-weight
basis. Half of the wafers were made
from hay that was chopped with the
machine set for a theoretical length of
cut of 1% in. The rest were made from
long hay. Since crushing is often done
to speed up field drying, the effect of
using crushed versus uncrushed hay
was also studied.
The wafers were made at five density
levels: 30, 40, 45, 50, and 54 lb per
cubic foot. Density was based on the
size of the wafer immediately after the
pressure was released. Density is in

FIG. 5 Toggle press in which the wafers

were made.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE

1961

EFFECT OF MATURITY
ON
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

14,000 12,000.

yf
/

Effect of Hay Maturity on Pressure

Requirement

Pressure requirement is a rather

vague term unless it is qualified. The
S^
/
'
pressure required to form a wafer
epoo.
MATURE
- * a ^ ^ ^
'
means nothing unless the density is
4P00specified. Also, the manner in which
2poothe pressure is applied, held, and re
^ l ^ ~
i
0.
leased is important. In this experiment
the pressure was applied and released
in the same way for all wafers. Only
FIG. 6 Less pressure was required to the time of pressure hold was changed.
make a wafer of given density from young
The effect of maturity on the pres
than from mature hay.
sure required to form a wafer of a
given density was studied in hay at
pounds of 15 percent moisture hay per 20 percent moisture only (Fig. 6). The
cubic foot of wafer. The time of pres values of the pressure requirements are
sure hold was studied at three levels: averaged from one and two-inch waf
V2, 10, and 60 sec. The wafers were all ers and from the three times of pres
formed in the same 3V2-in. diameter sure hold. As was stated before, these
cylinder, but they were 1 and 2 in. arbitrary definitions of maturity repre
sented extreme conditions. At every
thick.
A factorial experiment was designed density level a significant difference was
in which two wafers were made at each found in the pressure required to form
the wafers from these two maturities.
level of each of these variables.
The actual values on these curves are
A number of measurements were
made on each wafer to evaluate the
effects of each of these variables. A
EFFECT OF MOISTURE
14,000
ON
pressure-displacement diagram was re
12,500
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS
corded for each wafer. The area un
I 0,0 0 0
der this diagram represents the amount
: 8,000
20V. MOISTURE
of work put into the formation of
6,0 0 0
the wafer. The wafers were made in a
! 4,000
closed-end cylinder so that a minimum
amount of the work of compression
would be lost to friction.
DENSITY LB/CU-FT.
Size stability of the wafers was stud
ied by measuring their thickness un
FIG. 7 More pressure was required to
der pressure and at various time inter make
high-density wafers from 20-percent
vals after pressure was released. A than from 10-percent-moisture hay.
measure of durability was made to de
termine how well the wafers would probably not important from a design
stand handling. Since some of them standpoint when all of their qualifica
were made from hay that was above tions are taken into account. They do,
the safe storage moisture, their drying however, point out the fact that hay
characteristics were studied.
maturity is something that must be
The part of the tests which perhaps considered when experimental work is
did not give a true picture of the sit done with wafers.
uation was the durability tests. These
tests were performed in a roto-tap sieve Effects of Moisture on Pressure
shaker. The sieves were replaced by Requirement
two special chambers which were lined
The amount of moisture in the hay
with sharp sheet-metal fins. The wafers will affect its compressibility and also
were shaken and bounced in these the size stability of the finished wafer.
chambers for 10 minutes, and the
At the low densities, there was little
amount of material lost from the wafer difference in the pressure required for
was weighed. This is chiefly a meas the 10 percent and 20 percent wafers
ure of the abrasion resistance of the (Fig. 7). At these low densities the
wafer. To completely determine how stems are not completely flattened or
well the wafers would stand handling pressed into a solid mass, as they are
and storage, the resistance to shatter at higher densities. At the high den
ing when dropped and the resistance sities the stems must be flattened com
to crushing by dead weight should also pletely. The moisture that is trapped
be included in the measure of dura within them causes them to resist this
bility.
flattening and thus raised the pressure
Data were obtained for 816 wafers. requirement. The tests for 30 percent
Interpretation of the data has shown moisture were not very successful, and
the following relationships which have there were not enough data to draw a
statistical significance.
similar curve for this moisture. At the
ALFALFA WAFERS
20 PERCENT MCHSTURE
3 5*DIA. I " i 2 " THICKNESS

IQOOOJ

-;

ajooo.

PRES SURE

OL'

S^

j f

1961

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE

higher density levels, about 50 percent

more pressure was required to form
a wafer of a given density from hay
with a moisture content of 20 percent
than at 10 percent.
Although less pressure was required
to form the wafer from 10 percent
hay, this does not necessarily make it
more desirable. The wafers made from
low-moisture hay were strong, but they
had a low abrasion resistance because
the material on their surfaces was very
brittle and easily broken loose by hand
ling.
Effect of Time of Pressure Hold on
Pressure Requirement
The wafers in these tests were all
made from alfalfa at 20 percent mois
ture (Fig. 8). The wafers were all 3V2
in. in diameter and 1 and 2 in. thick.
Maximum pressure was held on the
wafers for V2 sec, 10 sec, and 60 sec.
Speed of compression was constant
throughout all the tests. To make any
given density of wafer, the amount of
pressure that is required depends on
how long this pressure is held on the
wafer.
This range in time of pressure hold
is somewhat unrealistic for use with
present wafering machinery. If the pres
sure were held for even V2 sec in most
machines, it would reduce their ca
pacity. This range of holds was chosen
only to study the trend with changes
in time.
These curves do show that increas
ing the time of pressure hold is one
possible way of reducing the pressure
requirements in future machinery.
Size Stability of the Wafers
In these tests the size of the wafers
immediately after pressure release was
a controlling variable.
The straight line in the center of
the diagram represents this thickness
(Fig. 9). The lower line represents the
thickness of the wafer when it was un
der pressure. The upper line represents
the thickness after % hour. At this time
size had become fairly stable. There is
some increase in thickness after % hour,
but it is very small compared with the
increase during the first V2 hour. The
important thing shown in this diagram

14,000
12,000
-

10/300

8,000

6,000

4,000

EFFECT OF TIME OF PRESSURE HOLD

ON
/+'
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS
/ o
ALFALFA HAY 20% MOISTURE
3.5"DIA. WAFERS l'4 2* THICKNESS
1/2 SEC. H O L D - ^ ^ '
- V ' l O SECj,"
^--^HOLD-^-^

,
"*
* '

S * "
.

^
-^

2,000

DENSITY -

LB/CU.FTi

FIG. 8 Maximum pressure requirement as

affected by the duration of pressure hold.
67

GROWTH IN THICKNESS
ALFALFA WAFERS - 20v. MQISTURC
3.V0IA. I' 8.2" THirx
^.THICKNESS AFTER 1/2 HOUR

SS AFTER PRESSURE RELEASE

,-COMPRESSEO THICKNESS

FIG. 9 The expansion measurements show

that the final thickness of the wafers is
more than twice their compressed thickis the ratio between the compressed
thickness and the thickness after Vz
hour. The wafer must be compressed to
less than half the thickness it will have
when finished.
These curves are averages from the
1 and 2-in. wafers and from the three
times of hold. These factors, which
have been averaged, do have some in
dividual effects on these curves, but
they do not have much effect on the
ratio between compressed thickness and
finished thickness.
Drying Rate
Drying characteristics were studied
in the wafers made at moistures that
were too high for safe storage.
These data are for wafers that were
dried from 20 to 15 percent moisture,
calculated on a wet basis (Fig. 10). The
curves are average drying rates, or
percentage points of moisture lost per
hour. The air temperature was con
trolled at 120 F, and the air velocity
was about 360 fpm. The wafers were

ROADSIDE SEDIMENT
PRODUCTION AND
CONTROL
(Continued

from page 64)

Crown vetch is one of the most promis

ing perennial plants tested; however,
it establishes slowly from either seed
or plants.
In studying many sites on roads
which were several years old, numerous
plants like broomsedge and other na
tive plants were found on the roadside
areas. Several such areas were ferti
lized, limed and mulched without seed
ing. A protective cover of these plants
resulted by the end of the first year.
Mulch applied at the rates of 1%
to 2 tons per acre was beneficial in
securing uniform stands. Soil under
mulch remained moist a little longer

68

placed only one layer deep in a wire

drying rack.
These curves show that the drying
rate of wafers will be affected by their
density and also by the distance which
the moisture has to move to escape
from them. In no situation was the re
moval of moisture so difficult that it
would appear to make the cost of dry
ing prohibitive.

DRYING

8.07.o-

~
^ w

* 6.0.

(/)

g 5-0.
a 4,0-

RATE

3.5" DIA. ALFALFA WAFERS

DRIED FROM 20V. TO 15% MOISTURE
|
^ S , A I R TEMPERATURE - I20'F VELOCITY 360 F.P.M. 1

^s^

^s.
^ * S N < ^ - - " 1 " THICKNESS

^ V

^ \ " ^ \ ^ ^

5 3.0O 2.0

<

2" THICKNESS^

^ ^ " ^ - - o

^*'**^^,--^

1.0

Conclusions
Although wafers made by the extru
sion process derive much of their
strength and stability from adhesion at
the edges caused by heat and friction,
this means of securing cohesion must
be questioned in the long-range view
because of the excessive power that is
required.
In a non-extrusion process, cohesion
of wafers made from low-moisture hay
will be based almost entirely on thor
ough crushing and interlacing of stems
and leaves.
Since pressure alone is not effective
as a means of permanently crushing and
bending high-moisture stems, the wat
ering of hay in this desirable condition
may require preliminary maceration to
break down the mechanical structure
of the plant stems.
Further study will be required to
determine whether adhesion or simple
interlacing and compression without ex
cessive springback will be the major
factors in the cohesion of high-mois
ture wafers.
The pressure required to form a
wafer of a given density increases as
the hay matured.
As the amount of moisture in the

FIG. 10 The drying rate is affected by

the required distance of moisture move
ments.

than unmulched soil, which aided in

germination. Benefits derived from
mulch also varied with slope of bank,
species and planting date. On steep
slopes as 1 to 1, mulch was essential
to anchor seed and fertilizers in place
and to reduce drifting down the slope.
Round seed, such as vetch, drifted
worst than long seed, such as rye grass.
In the mulch materials study, it was
found that different straws were about
equal in effectiveness when applied
at the rate of 1 to 2 tons per acre.
Paper mesh was not effective as a mulch
material. Sawdust did not give erosion
control, but it did prevent crusting.
Grass mat, a commercial product with
seed attached, was not successful on the
roadside slope. Clear plastic caused
condensation of moisture and produced
thicker stands, quicker than any of the
mulches used, but resulted in sun scald

when not removed quickly after germ

ination. Stands and growth developed
under white plastic similar to that un
der plant mulch.

hay is reduced, less pressure is required

to form high-density wafers.
If free expansion is allowed, the
wafers increase to more than twice
their compressed thickness in the first
half-hour after the pressure is released.
They increase very little after the first
half-hour.
Wafering appears to introduce no
special drying problem.
References
1 Bruhn, H. D. Engineering problems in pelletized feeds. Agricultural Engineering 38:(7)522525, 1957.
2 Bruhn, H. D., Zimmerman, Arnold, and
Niedermeier, R. P. Developments in pelleting
forage crops. Agricultural Engineering 40:(4)204207, 1959.
3 Butler, J. L. and McColly, H. F. Factors af
fecting the pelleting of hay. Agricultural Engi
neering 40:(8)442-446, 1959.
4 Dobie, J. B. Engineering appraisal of hay
pelleting. Agricultural Engineering 40:(2)76-77,
92, 1959.
5 Dobie, J. B. Production of hay wafers. Ag
ricultural Engineering 41:(6)366-369, 1960.
6 Morton, G. A. Pelleting, a feeding innova
tion. Report Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 7, Purdue Univer
sity, 1958.
7 The Story of "Hayfers." Brochure of Albers
Milling Co., Foragizer Division.
8 May, P. L. Hay pelletizing, Presented at
Chicago Section meeting of A.S.A.E., Chicago,
Mimeo. Report, p. 4, September 8, 1958.

Summary
The Coosa Watershed study in north
west Georgia, thus far, has revealed that
heavy annual soil and water losses oc
curred from bare road cuts and high
way ditches. These losses are a serious
problem to agriculture, reservoirs,
streams, and highway maintenance.
Adaptable plants on well-fertilized areas
developed effective cover for control
of erosion on these areas. Mulches were
essential for development of cover on
the steeper cuts and for those plants
that slowly developed a complete
cover. Benefits derived from this study
will be applicable to other areas simi
lar to North Georgia.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE

1961