Name:

______________________________________________

Date of lab:

______________________

Section number:

M E 345._______

Lab 8

Precalculations Individual Portion

Strain Gage Lab: Measurement of Strain
Precalculations Score (for instructor or TA use only):

_____ / 20

1. What are the color bands on a 120 resistor?

2. Look up and report the value of Youngs modulus for aluminum. Be sure to give the reference and the units.
Write it down somewhere before you turn in these Precalculations, because you will need it to complete the lab.

3. In the cantilever beam setup sketched in the Introduction, determine which strain gage (top or bottom) would
have positive strain (tension), and which would have negative strain (compression).

4. If a positive output voltage is desired when weight is added to the cantilevered beam, which strain gage (top or
bottom) should be used in place of resistor R3 in the quarter bridge Wheatstone bridge circuit? Explain.

5. Why might it be advantageous to have two strain gages (top and bottom) rather than just one?

6. Develop equations for the theoretical axial stress and axial strain on the cantilevered beam as functions of applied
force (weight) F, moment arm L, beam width b, beam thickness h, and modulus of elasticity, E. Note: The
equation you derive here for theoretical strain will be used to compare to the strain measured experimentally, so
write it down before you turn in these Precalculations.

Cover Page for

Lab 8

Lab Report Group Portion

Strain Gage Lab: Measurement of Strain
Name 1:

___________________________________________________

Section M E 345._______

Name 2:

___________________________________________________

Section M E 345._______

Name 3:

___________________________________________________

Section M E 345._______

[Name 4:

___________________________________________________

Section M E 345._______ ]

Date when the lab was performed:

______________________

Group Lab Report Score (For instructor or TA use only):

Lab experiment and results, plots, tables, etc.
Discussion
Neatness & grammar
TOTAL

_____ / 50
_____ / 20
_____ / 10
______ / 80

Comments (For instructor or TA use only):

NOTE: The instructor or TA reserves the right to deduct points for any of the following:

Arriving late to lab or leaving before your lab group is finished.

Not participating in the work of your lab group (freeloading).
Causing distractions, arguing, or not paying attention during lab.
Other (at the discretion of the instructor or TA).

Strain Gage Lab: Measurement of Strain

Author: John M. Cimbala, Penn State University
Latest revision: 24 February 2009

Introduction and Background (Note: To save paper, you do not need to print this section for your lab report.)
Axial stress is defined as force per unit area. Axial strain is the fractional change in length (change in length divided
by length) of a material. Although it is difficult to directly measure stress, it is fairly straightforward to measure
strain. Fortunately, stress is linearly proportional to strain for non-deforming loads on beams; thus, stress can be
measured indirectly by measuring strain.
Strain is traditionally measured with resistive-type strain gages. Strain gages work on a simple
principle when a wire is stretched, its resistance increases. The effect is more pronounced if the
wire is long; the longer the wire, the greater the increase in resistance. An effectively longer wire
can be achieved by looping the wire back and forth in the direction of the desired strain
measurement. A modern commercially available strain gage consists of a thin metal foil, etched
into a looped pattern (grid), and attached to a thin, flexible substrate, as shown to the right. Wires
are soldered to the copper leads at the bottom. The direction of axial strain for the orientation of
the strain gage shown here would be vertical (up or down), so that the grid is stretched or
compressed in the direction of the long segments of metal foil on the grid. When stretched, the
resistance of the strain gage wire increases; when compressed, the resistance decreases. (The
resistance also changes a little if the strain gage is stretched or compressed in the direction normal
to the long segments of metal foil, but this effect is negligible.)
In this laboratory setup, two commercially available strain gages have been glued to the surfaces of an aluminum
beam of rectangular cross section. The beam is clamped to a lab bench so as to become a cantilevered beam. A sketch
of the beam and its cross section is provided below to help identify the parameters. Note that in this setup, there are
two strain gages on the beam, one on the top and one on the bottom of the beam. When a load is applied, the top
strain gage stretches (tension), while the bottom gage compresses (negative tension).

Clamp

Cantilevered beam
Bench

AA

Strain gages (on top and bottom)

Cross section AA

Elementary beam theory, combined with Hookes law, yields a simple relationship between axial stress and axial
Mc
, where a is the axial stress, a is the axial strain, E is Youngs modulus (also called the
strain, a = E a =
I
modulus of elasticity), M is the bending moment ( M = FL ), F is the applied force, L is the moment arm from the
strain gage to the applied force, c is the distance from the centroid of the beam cross section to the strain gage
location, and I is the moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam. For a beam with uniform rectangular cross
bh3
R2 = potentiometer
, where h is the beam thickness (or
section, the moment of inertia is I =
12
R2
R1
height in the above figure), and b is the beam width, as sketched above. The
+
centroid of a rectangular cross section is right in the middle of the rectangle;

Vs = supply
+
hence, for a strain gage mounted on either the top or bottom of the beam, c is
V
o
voltage
simply the half-thickness of the beam, c = h / 2 .

R4
R3
Due to the very small change in resistance of the strain gage, conventional
resistance measurement techniques, such as an ohm meter, are not usually used.
R3 = strain gage
Instead, changes in strain gage resistance are measured through the use of a
comparative measurement system such as a Wheatstone bridge, as sketched to the right. In the schematic diagram
above, Vs is the supply voltage (a DC power supply, typically around 5 V), Vo is the voltage output, and R1, R2, R3,

and R4 are resistors that make up the bridge circuit. When the bridge is balanced, the output voltage across the bridge
is zero. Ideally, this occurs when R1 = R2 = R3 = R4. However, in practice the four resisters do not have exactly the
same resistance. Thus, a variable resistance (potentiometer) is often supplied in place of one of the resistors (in this
case R2) to fine-tune the resistance on that leg of the bridge, in order to balance the bridge.
Three kinds of Wheatstone bridges are described in the web lecture, namely quarter bridge, half bridge, and full
bridge circuits. A quarter bridge circuit (as sketched above) is the simplest one, in which a single strain gage replaces
one of the four bridge resistors (in this case R3). For a half bridge, two strain gages replace two of the resistors, while
a full bridge circuit contains strain gages in place of all four resistors. As discussed in the web lecture, we need to be
careful of the sign of the strain when wiring the bridge circuit.
The sensitivity of the bridge circuit is defined as the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in resistance
of a strain gage under strain. A half bridge theoretically yields twice as much bridge sensitivity as a quarter bridge,
while a full bridge yields four times as much sensitivity as a quarter bridge.
Suppose a quarter bridge circuit is balanced (Vo = 0) when no load is applied to the beam. When the beam is loaded
(when a strain is applied to the strain gage), its resistance changes, which unbalances the bridge. In principle, we
could re-balance the bridge with the variable resistor, record the change in resistance, and calculate the new
resistance of the strain gage. In practice however, during strain measurements, it is simpler and more desirable to
operate the Wheatstone resistance bridge in unbalanced mode. In unbalanced mode, the change in output voltage
turns out to be proportional to the change in strain gage resistance, which is convenient for measurement. However,
the imbalance should always be small to avoid resistive heating of the strain gage. Resistive heating is undesirable
because changes in resistance lead to a bias in the resulting strain measurement. The strain gage manufacturer usually
specifies the maximum tolerable voltage drop across the gage.
As discussed in the web lecture, the strain is calculated from analysis of the Wheatstone bridge circuit, and the result
4 (Vo Vo,reference ) 1
is a
where n is the number of active gages (n = 1 for a quarter bridge, n = 2 for a half bridge,
n
Vs
S
and n = 4 for a full bridge), and S is the nondimensional strain gage factor, which depends on the type of metal used
in the strain gage (those purchased for this lab have a strain gage factor of approximately 2.09). We note that the
relative voltage is used in place of the actual voltage for the general case in which the bridge is originally
unbalanced. In the derivation of the above equation, it is assumed that positive strain gages (R1 and R3) are chosen for
positive strain (tension), and negative strain gages (R2 and R4) are chosen for negative strain (compression). If instead
we wire the circuit such that the positive gages are in compression and the negative gages are in tension, a negative
sign would appear in the above equation.
Objectives
1. Learn how strain gages are wired.
2. Learn how to build and test a Wheatstone bridge.
3. Build a quarter bridge Wheatstone bridge circuit to measure strain with a strain gage.
4. Measure strain in a cantilevered beam, and compare with theory.
5. Build a half bridge Wheatstone bridge circuit, and compare results to those of the quarter bridge circuit.
6. Use a strain gage to measure stress on the outside of an aluminum soda can.
Equipment
Measurements Group strain gage (with lead wires soldered on)
aluminum beam with two mounted strain gages, held to the bench by a C-clamp
digital multimeter
powered breadboard and jumper wires
miscellaneous BNC, alligator, and banana jack cables
several 120 resistors
mass set with hooks
various tools and supplies tape measure, micrometer, super glue (Krazy Glue), masking tape
unopened soda can at room temperature
disposable latex gloves

Procedure
Preliminary Measurements and Set-up
1. Measure the resistance of each of four nominally 120 resistors.

Measured resistance, R1 = ___________

Measured resistance, R2 = ___________

Measured resistance, R3 = ___________

Measured resistance, R4 = ___________

2. Study the strain gages that are glued to the aluminum beam. Follow the lead wires to the grid of etched metal
foil, and determine which wires are connected to the top strain gage, and which are connected to the bottom.
Note: One of the wires is connected to both strain gages. (This is useful later on when wiring a half bridge
circuit.) In the space below, draw a sketch, identify each wire by color, and indicate where it is connected.

3. Measure the resistance of each strain gage independently to ensure that the strain gage is not damaged. (If the
resistance is not close to 120 , consult the instructor or teaching assistant either you are measuring
incorrectly, or there is a broken connection somewhere that will need to be re-soldered.)
Measured resistance, top strain gage, Rtop = ___________
Measured resistance, bottom strain gage, Rbottom = ___________
4. Create a ground bus on the breadboard. (A long bus is recommended to serve as the ground bus.)
5. Create a bus for the +5 V DC voltage supply. (Again, a long bus is recommended.)
6. Using the DMM, measure the voltage on the +5 V DC bus to make sure that it is working properly the
voltage should be close to 5 V. (If this power output does not work, either get a different breadboard or use a
separate 5 V DC power supply instead.)
Measured voltage from the +5 V DC power supply, Vs = ___________ V
Set-up of the Wheatstone Bridge
1. For safety reasons, turn off the power to the breadboard while building or modifying circuits.
2. On the breadboard, create a Wheatstone bridge circuit, using the four fixed 120 resistors. Dont forget to
wire the top junction to the +5 V DC bus and the bottom junction of the bridge to the ground bus.
3. Turn on the +5 V DC power supply, and measure the bridge output voltage in units of millivolts.
Measured bridge output voltage, Vo = ___________ mV
Is the bridge output voltage exactly zero? (

Yes

No

Quarter Bridge with Cantilever Beam [If there are not enough cantilever beams, do the soda can experiment first.]
1. Clamp the cantilever beam to the edge of the work table using the C-clamp. The beam should be
perpendicular to the table edge with the gage portion of the beam hanging over the edge at least two inches
from the end of the bench (see above sketch). Be careful not to damage the strain gages! The exact amount of
overhang is irrelevant since the bending moment is applied between the end of the beam and the gage.
2. Measure the distance from the strain gages to the hole at the end of the beam (where weights will be hung).
Do not damage the strain gages! Also measure the width and thickness of the beam in the units shown below.
Measured distance from strain gages to end of beam, L = ___________ cm
Measured width of the beam, b = ___________ cm
Measured thickness of the beam (use the micrometer for best accuracy), h = ___________ mm

3. On the circuit, replace resistor R3 with the appropriate strain gage attached to the beam (see Precalculations),
so as to construct a quarter bridge Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram.
4. Turn on the power supply and measure the bridge output voltage. Note: Use the appropriate range setting on
the DMM so as to get the best possible resolution.
Measured bridge output voltage, Vo = ___________ mV
Is the bridge output voltage exactly zero? (

Yes

No

5. Note: Even if the bridge cant be balanced exactly, the relative voltage can be measured by pushing the REL
button (sometimes button) on the multimeter. After pushing the REL button, the DMM simply measures
subsequent voltages relative to the present voltage it zeroes the present reading. Warning: This is a nice
feature of modern multimeters, but is also a dangerous feature if you forget that it has been turned on!
6. Test that the bridge circuit is operating properly by loading the beam with a 500 gram mass. The load should
cause an output voltage change. When the weight is removed, the meter reading should return to
approximately the same value as before the load was added.
7. If the output voltage is negative when the load is applied, check the wiring typically either the wrong strain
gage has been selected, the wrong resistor has been replaced by the strain gage, or the leads from the
multimeter are backwards.
8. When satisfied that the system is operating properly, and with no load on the beam, push the REL (or )
button on the multimeter in order to zero the multimeter. (Note: On most multimeters, the letters REL
appear on the display when the relative button is turned on.)
9. Load the beam with a 50 gram mass. Allow enough time for the beam to stop oscillating. (The beam
oscillations can also be suppressed manually to speed things up.) Record the output voltage.
Measured relative bridge output voltage with a 50 gram mass, Vo = ___________ mV
10. Strain gages suffer from relatively large zero drift as the temperature in the room changes with time.
Therefore, the REL button should be used in this lab to help remove zero drift between each reading. Just
before adding a new mass, remove the previous mass, push the REL button (to turn the relative voltage
feature off), and then push the REL button again after a couple seconds to re-zero the relative voltage
reading. The reading should be zeroed with no mass loading every time you are ready to add a new mass.
11. Carefully load the beam in 50 gram increments up to 500 grams. Record the meter reading and the mass at
each loading. Do not exceed 500 grams of loading. Enter your data into an Excel spreadsheet.
12. For one of the applied loads, show sample calculations of the theoretical bending (axial) stress at the location
of the strain gage. Calculate the stress in units of kilopascals (1 kilopascal = 1 kN/m2).
For a loading of ___________ grams,

Calculated axial stress, a = ___________ kPa

13. For that same applied load, show sample calculations of the theoretical axial strain at the location of the
strain gage. (Use the value of modulus of elasticity for aluminum reported in the Precalculations section.)

Calculated axial strain, a = ___________ .

Half Bridge with Cantilever Beam
1. Replace another resistor on the bridge circuit with the strain gage mounted on the other side of the beam, so
as to create a half bridge circuit. Note: Be careful to choose an appropriate resistor to replace.
2. Test the circuit to ensure that the output voltage is positive when a load is applied.
3. Repeat the loading experiment (load the beam in 50 gram increments up to 500 grams). Record the voltage
and the mass at each loading, re-zeroing each time. Enter the data as another column in the spreadsheet.
4. Remove the weights from the beam, disconnect the wiring, and unclamp the beam from the lab bench; set the
beam aside, being careful not to damage the strain gages.
5. Generate a table containing one row for each applied load, including zero load, and the following columns:
applied mass (load), relative output voltage from the quarter bridge circuit, relative output voltage from the
half bridge circuit, theoretical stress, theoretical strain, experimental strain from the quarter bridge circuit,
and experimental strain from the half bridge circuit.
See attached, Table number ___________ .
6. Generate a graph of output voltage as a function of applied mass. Plot both the quarter bridge and half bridge
output voltages on the same graph for comparison.
See attached, Figure number ___________ .
7. Generate a second graph of experimental strain as a function of applied mass. Plot the results of both the
quarter bridge and the half bridge on the same graph. Also on the same graph, plot theoretical strain for
comparison.
See attached, Figure number ___________ .
8. On a separate graph, plot theoretical stress versus experimental strain. Plot the results of both the quarter
bridge and the half bridge on the same graph. Also on the same graph, draw a best-fit straight line through
the data points for each case. (Regression analysis in Excel is useful for this part.)
See attached, Figure number ___________ .
9. From the regression analysis, calculate Youngs modulus in units of megapascals for the beam used in this
lab. Show your calculations below, including unit conversions.

Youngs modulus, E = ___________ MPa

Some Fun with a Can of Soda
1. Now turn your attention to the unmounted strain gage.
2. Measure and record the resistance of the unmounted strain gage. This is most
easily done as follows:
o Set the multimeter to the 200 resistance scale.
o Plug two banana-to-alligator clip cables into the multimeter.
o Connect each alligator clip to a lead wire coming from the strain gage.
o Measure the resistance of the strain gage.

Strain gage

Measured strain gage resistance, Rstrain gage = ___________

3. Connect this strain gage in place of resistor R3 in a quarter bridge circuit.
Note: Make sure the other three resistors are fixed resistors (120 ), so that
the bridge is once again a quarter bridge.
4. Connect the bridge output voltage to the DMM. Zero the reading by using
the REL function on the DMM, as described previously.
5. One lab group member needs to put on the disposable latex gloves (to
protect the strain gage from contamination due to oily skin, dirt, etc.). That

Masking tape
Soda can

person is the one to do the following exercise:

o With the bridge output voltage still being measured (with REL turned on), carefully remove the strain
gage from its protective plastic cover.
o Firmly grasp the soldered end of the strain gage between the thumb and forefinger of one hand. Do not
grasp the wires - grasp the strain gage itself.
o With the other hand, gently tug on the other end of the strain gage so as to put it in tension. Dont pull
too hard or the strain gage will rip.
o Compare the voltage readings for the two cases: (stain gage free no tension, and strain gage in tension).
Measured bridge output voltage no tension, Vo = ___________ mV
Measured bridge output voltage in tension, Vo = ___________ mV
Has the bridge output voltage gone up as expected? (
Yes
No
). If not, you probably have
something wired incorrectly.
6. The person with the gloves on should also do the following:
o Carefully spread some super glue on the bottom side of the
Strain gage Lead wires
strain gage, Note: Put glue only on the business end
Do not glue this part (with
(bottom) of the gage; do not put glue on the end where the
the soldered connections)
leads are soldered to the lead wires.
o Press the strain gage onto the middle of the full soda can, as
Glue only the bottom of the active part
sketched above. Make sure the portion of the strain gage with
of the strain gage
the soldered lead wires is not glued down to the can, as I have
attempted to draw in the sketch to the right. A piece of masking tape is recommended to hold down the
wires while the glue is drying.
o Allow a minute or two for the glue to dry.
o If the bridge output has drifted, push the REL button on the DMM off, and then on again a few seconds
later to re-zero the reading.
o With the soda can standing upright, pop off the top of the soda can and record the voltage reading.
Measured bridge output voltage after top popped off, Vo = ___________ mV
o

Carefully peel off the strain gage from the can. Do this by grabbing the soldered end of the strain gage,
which is sticking up, and pulling gently so as to slowly peel up the rest of the gage. Try to do this without
damaging the strain gage so that it can be re-used by a later lab group. If you rip it, give it to the
instructor or TA they will recycle the wires onto a new strain gage for later use.
When the strain gage is off of the can (and if it is still alive), record the bridge voltage again.

Measured bridge output voltage after strain gage removed from can, Vo = ___________ mV
Has the bridge output voltage returned to its original (zeroed) value? (

Yes

No

).

o Put the strain gage back into its protective plastic cover so that it is ready for the next group.
7. If someone in the group likes warm soda, he or she can drink the soda. Otherwise, carry it to the sink and
spill it out. Toss the empty can into the recycling box.
8. When finished, disconnect all circuit wiring, turn off all instruments, and return the work station to the same
conditions as when the lab began.

Discussion Questions
1. Why were you unable to exactly balance the Wheatstone bridge when using the four fixed resistors?

2. With regard to the graph of output voltage as a function of applied mass, comment on the differences (if any)
between the quarter bridge output and the half bridge output. Which one is better, and why?

3. Is the output voltage from either bridge linear, as predicted by theory? Justify your answer.

4. Comment on the discrepancy, if any, between the published value of Youngs modulus (the modulus of
elasticity) and your experimentally measured value. List possible reasons for the discrepancy.

5. Explain (qualitatively only) what happened when the soda can was opened, and why it happened.