Basics of Mechanical Engineering

IC ENGINES

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BASICS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JAMES N. CONTI

IC Engines - Introduction

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Basics of Mechanical Engineering

IC Engines Introduction. The engines in which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder are called internal combustion engines (briefly written as IC engines). The working pressure
and temperature inside the cylinder of an IC engine is very high. The efficiency of IC engines is
about 35-40 percent.
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Two Stroke vs Four Stroke Engines

Two Stroke vs Four Stroke Engines - Advantages and Disadvantages of Two Stroke over Four Stroke
Cycle Engines.
In a two stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution
of the crankshaft. In a four stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four strokes of the
piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of two stroke over four stroke cycle engines :
Advantages
1. A two stroke cycle engine gives twice the number of power strokes than the four stroke
cycle engine at the same engine speed. Theoretically, a two stroke cycle engine should
develop twice the power as that of a four stroke cycle engine.
2. For the same power developed, a two stroke cycle engine is lighter, less bulky and occupies
less floor area.
3. A two stroke cycle engine has a lighter flywheel and gives higher mechanical efficiency than
a tour stroke cycle engine.
Disadvantages
1. The thermal efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is less than that of a four stroke cycle
engine, because a two stroke engine has less compression ratio than that of a four stroke
cycle engine.
2. The overall efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is also less than that of a four stroke
cycle engine.
3. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two stroke cycle engine because of high
operating temperature.
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Sequence of Operations in IC Engine

Each stroke in IC engines forms a sequence of operations in one cycle of IC Engines i.e suction
stroke, compression stroke, expansion stroke, and exhaust stroke.
Strictly speaking, when an engine is working continuously, we may consider a cycle starting from any
stroke. We know that when the engine returns back to the stroke where it started, we say that one
cycle has completed. The following sequence of operation in a cycle is widely used.
1. Suction stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapor in correct proportion, is supplied to the engine
cylinder.
2. Compression stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapor is compressed in the engine cylinder.
3. Expansion or working stroke. In this stroke, the fuel vapor is fired just before the
compression is complete. It results in the sudden rise of pressure, due to expansion of the
combustion products in the engine cylinder. This sudden rise of pressure pushes the piston
with a great force and rotates the crankshaft. The crankshaft, in turn, drives the machine
connected to it.
4. Exhaust stroke. In this stroke, the burnt gases (or combustion products) are exhausted from
the engine cylinder, so as to make space available for the fresh fuel vapor.
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Valve Timing Diagram of Petrol Engine

Valve Timing Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine - The petrol engines are also known as
spark ignition engines. The valve timing diagram for a four stroke cycle petrol engine is shown in
Figure below:

The following particulars are important for a four stroke cycle petrol engine regarding valve timing
diagram :
(a) The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10 20 before top dead center (TDC) and closes 30 40
after bottom dead center (BDC).
(b) The compression of charge starts at 30 40 after BDC and ends at 20 30 before TDC.
(c) The ignition (IGN) of charge takes place at 20 30 before TDC.
(d) The expansion starts at 20 30 before TDC and ends at 30 50 before BDC.
(e) The exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30 50 before BDC and closes at 10 15 after TDC.
Notes:
(i) The inlet valve of a four stroke I. C. engine remains open for 230.
(ii) The charge is compressed when both the valves (i.e. inlet valve and exhaust valve) are closed.
(iii) The charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug.

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(iv) The pressure inside the engine cylinder is above the atmospheric pressure during the exhaust
stroke.

Valve Timing Diagram of Diesel Engine

Valve Timing Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine - The diesel engines are also known as
compression ignition engines. The valve timing diagram for a four stroke cycle diesel engine is shown
in Figure below:
The following particulars are important for a four stroke cycle diesel engine regarding valve timing
diagram:
(a) The inlet valve opens at 10 20 before TDC and closes at 25 40 after BDC.
(b) The fuel valve opens at 10 15 before TDC and closes at 15 20 after TDC.
(c) The compression starts at 25 40 after BDC and ends at 10 15 before TDC.
(d) The expansion starts at 10 15 after TDC and ends at 30 50 before BDC.
(e) The exhaust valve opens at 30 50 before BDC and closes at 10 15 after TDC.
Note: In diesel engines, the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray into the engine cylinder,
which gets ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air.
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Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines

Petrol vs Diesel engines: A comparison - Basic difference between a petrol engine and a diesel
engine based on working, pressures, combustion, compression ratios, speed, efficiency,
maintenance, and running costs. The following points are important for the comparison of petrol
and diesel engines:

SN

Petrol Engines

Diesel Engines

1.

A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol

and air during suction stroke.

A diesel engine draws only air during suction

stroke.

2.

The carburetor is employed to mix air and

petrol in the required proportion and to
supply it to the engine during suction
stroke.

The injector or atomiser is employed to inject

the fuel at the end of compression stroke.

3.

The pressure at the end of compression is

The pressure at the end of compression is

about 35 bar.

4.

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about 10 bar.

Basics of Mechanical Engineering

The charge (i.e. petrol and air mixture) is

ignited with the help of a spark plug.

The fuel is injected in the form of fine spray.

The temperature of the compressed air
(about 600 C at a pressure of about 35 bar)
is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel.

5.

The combustion of fuel takes place

approximately at constant volume. In other
words, it works on Otto cycle.

The combustion of fuel takes place

approximately at constant pressure. In other
words, it works on Diesel cycle.

6.

A petrol engine has compression ratio

approximately from 6 to 10.

A diesel engine has compression ratio

approximately from 15 to 25.

7.

The starting is easy due to low

compression ratio.

The starting is little difficult due to high

compression ratio.

8.

As the compression ratio is low, the petrol

engines are lighter and cheaper.

As the compression ratio is high, the diesel

engines are heavier and costlier.

9.

The running cost of petrol engines is high

because of higher cost of petrol.

The running cost of diesel engines is low

because of the lower cost of diesel.

10.

The maintenance cost is less.

The maintenance cost is more.

11.

The thermal efficiency is up to about 26%.

The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%.

12.

Overheating trouble is more due to low

thermal efficiency.

Overheating trouble is less due to high

thermal efficiency.

13.

These are high speed engines.

These are relatively low speed engines.

14.

The petrol engines are generally employed

in light duty vehicles such as scooters,
motorcycles, cars. These are also used in
aeroplanes.

The diesel engines are generally employed

in heavy duty vehicles such as buses, trucks
and earth moving machines etc.

Scavenging of IC Engines
The scavenging, in an internal combustion engine (IC Engine), is the process of removing the burnt
gases from the combustion chamber of the engine cylinder. Though there are many types of
scavenging, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Crossflow scavenging. In this method, the transfer port (or inlet port for the engine cylinder) and
exhaust port are situated on the opposite sides of the engine cylinder (as in the case of two stroke
cycle engines).

2. Back flow or loop scavenging. In this method, the inlet and outlet ports are situated on the same
side of the engine cylinder.

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3. Uniflow scavenging. In this method, the fresh charge, while entering from one side (or sometimes
two sides) of the engine cylinder pushes out the gases through the exit valve situated on the top of
the cylinder.
Note: The scavenging efficiency of a four stroke cycle diesel engine is between 95 and 100 percent.
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Ignition System of Petrol Engines

The ignition in a petrol engine takes place by means of a spark plug at the end of the compression
stroke. The voltage required to produce a spark across the gap between the sparking points of a plug
is 6000 to 10000 volts. The following two ignition systems of petrol engines are important:
1. Coil ignition system (also known as battery ignition system); and
2. Magneto ignition system.

The coil ignition system has an induction coil, which consists of two coils known as primary and
secondary coils wound on a soft iron core, as shown in figure above. One end of the primary coil is
connected to the ignition switch, ammeter and battery generally of 6 volts. The other end of the
primary coil is connected to a condenser and a contact breaker. A condenser is connected across the
contact breaker for the following two reasons:
(a) It prevents sparking across the gap between the points,
(b) It causes a more rapid break of the primary current, giving a higher voltage in the secondary
circuit.
The secondary coil is connected to a distributor (in a multi-cylinder engine) with the central
terminal of the sparking plugs. The outer terminals of the sparking plugs are earthed together and
connected to the body of the engine.

The coil ignition system is employed in medium and heavy spark ignition engines such as in cars.
The magneto ignition system has the same principle of working as that of coil ignition system,
except that no battery is required, as the magneto acts as its own generator. This type of ignition
system is generally employed in small spark ignition engines such as scooters, motor cycles and
small motor boat engines.
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Supercharging of IC Engines

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Supercharging of IC Engines - It is the process of increasing the mass (or in other words density) of
the air fuel mixture (in spark ignition engines) or air (in compression ignition engines) induced into
the engine cylinder. This is usually done with the help of a compressor or blower known as
supercharger. It has been experimentally found that the supercharging increases the power
developed by the engine. It is widely used in aircraft engines, as the mass of air sucked in the
engine cylinder decreases at very high altitudes. This happens, because atmospheric pressure
decreases with the increase in altitude.
Following are the objects of supercharging the engines:
1. To reduce mass of the engine per brake power (as required in aircraft engines).
2. To maintain power of air craft engines at high altitudes where less oxygen is available for
combustion.
3. To reduce space occupied by the engine (as required in marine engines).
4. To reduce consumption of lubricating oil (as required is all types of engines).
5. To increase the power output of an engine when greater power is required (as required in
racing cars and other engines).
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Lubrication of IC Engines
The lubrication of IC engines is required to reduce tear, vibrations, overheating, and cleaning. The
lubrication of IC engines has the following advantages:
1.
It reduces wear and tear of the moving parts.
2.
It damps down the vibrations of the engine.
3.
It dissipates the heat generated from the- moving parts due to friction.
4.
It cleans the moving parts.
5.
It makes the piston gas-tight.

Governing of IC Engines
The process of providing any arrangement, which will keep the engine speed constant (according to
the changing load conditions) is known as governing of I.C. engines. Though there are many methods
for the governing of I.C. engines, yet the following are important:
1. Hit and miss governing. In this system of governing, whenever the engine starts running at higher
speed (due to decreased load), some explosions are omitted or missed. This is done with the help of
a centrifugal governor. This method of governing is widely used for I. C. engines of smaller capacity
or gas engines.
2. Qualitative governing. In this system of governing, a control valve is fitted in the fuel delivery
pipe, which controls the quantity of fuel to be mixed in the charge. The movement of control valve
is regulated by the centrifugal governor through rack and pinion arrangement.
3. Quantitative governing. In this system of governing, the quality of charge (i.e. air-fuel ratio of

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the mixture) is kept constant. But the quantity of mixture supplied to the engine cylinder is varied
by means of a throttle valve which is regulated by the centrifugal governor through rack and pinion
arrangement.

4. Combination system of governing. In this system of governing, the qualitative and quantitative
methods of governing are combined together.
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Carburetor of an IC Engine
The carburetor is a device for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it with the air in the
varying proportions to suit the changing operating conditions of the engine. The process of breaking
up and mixing the fuel with the air is called carburetion.
* Atomization is the mechanical breaking up of the liquid fuel into small particles so that every
minute particle of the fuel is surrounded by air.
** Vaporization is a change of state of fuel from a liquid to vapor.
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Spark Plug in IC Engines

A spark plug in IC engines is a device used to produce spark for igniting the charge of petrol engines.
It is always screwed into the cylinder head. It is, usually, designed to withstand a pressure up to 35
bar and operate under a current of 10 000 to 30 000 volts. The spark plug gap is kept from 0.3 mm
to 0.7 mm.
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Detonation or Knocking in IC Engines

Detonation or knocking in I.C. Engines - The loud pulsating noise heard within the engine cylinder of
an I.C. engine is known as detonation (also called knocking or inking). It is caused due to the
propagation of a high speed pressure wave created by the auto-ignition of end portion of unburnt
fuel. The blow of this pressure wave may be of sufficient strength to break the piston. Thus, the
detonation is harmful to the engine and must be avoided. The following are certain factors which
causes detonation:
1. The shape of the combustion chamber,
2. The relative position of the sparking plugs in case of petrol engines,
3. The chemical nature of the fuel,
4. The initial temperature and pressure of the fuel, and

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5. The rate of combustion of that portion of the fuel which is the first to ignite. This portion of
the fuel in heating up, compresses the remaining unburnt fuel, thus producing the
conditions for auto-ignition to occur.
The detonation in petrol engines can be suppressed or reduced by the addition of a small amount of
lead ethide or ethyl fluid to the fuel. This is called doping.
The following are the chief effects due to detonation:
1. A loud pulsating noise which may be accompanied by a vibration of the engine.
2. An increase in the heat lost to the surface of the combustion chamber.
3. An increase in carbon deposits.
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Octane Number - Rating of S.I. Engine Fuels

What is Octane Number? How rating of SI Engines (Spark ignition engines) is done using an octane
number?

The hydrocarbon fuels used in spark ignition (S.I.) engine have a tendency to cause engine knock
when the engine operating conditions become severe. The knocking tendency of a fuel in S. I.
engines is generally expressed by its octane number. The percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in a
mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane, which exactly matches the knocking intensity of a given
fuel, in a standard engine, under given standard operating conditions, is termed as the octane
number rating of that fuel. Thus, if a mixture of 50 percent iso-octane and 50 percent normal
heptane matches the fuel under test, then this fuel is assigned an octane number rating of 50. If a
fuel matches in knocking intensity a mixture of 75 percent iso-octane and 25 percent normal
heptane, then this fuel would be assigned an octane number rating of 75. This octane number rating
is an expression which indicates the ability of a fuel to resist knock in a spark ignition engine.

Since iso-octane is a very good anti-knock fuel, therefore it is assigned a rating of 100 octane
number. On the other hand, normal heptane has a very poor anti-knock qualities, therefore, it is
given a rating of zero octane number. These two fuels, i.e., iso-octane and normal heptane are
known as primary reference fuels. It may be noted that higher the octane number rating of a fuel,
the greater will be its resistance to knock and higher will be the compression ratio. Since the power
output and specific fuel consumption are functions of compression ratio, therefore we may say that
these are also functions of octane number rating. This fact indicates the extreme importance of the
octane number rating in fuels for S. I. engines.
Note: The octane number of petrol, generally available, is 80 to 100.

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Cetane Number - Rating of CI Engine Fuels

What is Cetane Number? How rating of fuels used in C. I. Engines (Compression Ignition Engines) is
done using Cetane number and other parameters?
The knocking tendency is also found in compression ignition (C. I.) engines with an effect similar to
that of S. I. engines, but it is due to a different phenomenon. The knock in C. I. engines is due to
sudden ignition and abnormally rapid combustion of accumulated fuel in the combustion chamber.
Such a situation occurs because of an ignition lag in the combustion of the fuel between the time of
injection and the actual burning.
The property of ignition lag is generally measured in terms of cetane number. It is defined as the
percentage, by volume, of cetane in a mixture of cetane and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that
produces the same ignition lag as the fuel being tested, in the same engine and under the same
operating conditions. For example, a fuel of cetane number 50 has the same ignition quality as a
mixture of 50 percent cetane and 50 percent alpha-methyl-naphthalene.
The cetane which is a straight chain paraffin with good ignition quality is assigned a cetane number
of 100 and alpha methyl-naphthalene which is a hydrocarbon with poor ignition quality, is assigned a
zero cetane number.
Notes:
1. The knocking in C. I. engines may be controlled by decreasing ignition lag. The shorter the
ignition lag, the lesser is the tendency to knock.
2. The cetane number of diesel oil, generally available, is 40 to 55.
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Testing of IC Engines

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Testing of IC Engines - why is it done? The purpose of testing an internal combustion engine (IC
Engine) are:
(a) To determine the information which cannot be obtained by calculations.
(b) To conform the data used in design, the validity of which is doubtful.
(c) To satisfy the customer regarding the performance of the engine.

An internal combustion engine (IC Engine) is put to thermodynamic tests, so as to determine

efficiency and performance indicators.
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Thermodynamic Tests for I.C. Engines

Why thermodynamic tests are done on IC Engines? An internal combustion engine (IC Engine) is put
to thermodynamic tests, so as to determine the following quantities:
Indicated mean effective pressure

Indicated mean effective pressure

The indicated mean effective pressure of an IC engine is obtained from the indicator
diagram drawn with the help of an engine indicator. Mathematically, mean effective
pressure (in bar)

It may be noted that the mean effective pressure calculated on the basis of theoretical
indicator diagram, is known as theoretical mean effective pressure. If it is based on the
actual indicator diagram, then it is called actual mean effective pressure.
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Indicated power of an IC Engine

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The indicated power of an IC engine (briefly written as I.P.) is the power actually developed
by the engine cylinder. Mathematically,

where
K = Number of cylinders,
pm = Actual mean effective pressure in bar (1 bar = 100 kN/m2),
L = Length of stroke in meters,
A = Area of the piston in m2,
n = Number of working strokes per minute
= Speed of the engine for two stroke cycle engine
= Half the speed of the engine for four stroke cycle engine.
Note : The I.P. of a multi-cylinder of spark ignition engine is determined by Morse test.
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Brake power of IC Engine

The brake power (briefly written as B.P.) of an IC Engine is the power available at the
crankshaft. The brake power of an I.C. engine is, usually, measured by means of a brake
mechanism (prony brake or rope brake).
In case of prony brake, brake power of the engine,

where
W = Brake load in newtons,
l = Length of arm in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m.
In case of rope brake, brake power of the engine,

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where
W = Dead load in newtons,
S = Spring balance reading in newtons,
D = Diameter of the brake drum in metres,
d = Diameter of the rope in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m.
Note : The brake power (B.P.) of an engine is always less than the indicated power (I.P.) of
an engine, because some power is lost in overcoming the engine friction (known as
frictional power). Mathematically,
Frictional power, F.P. = I.P. B.P.
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Efficiency of an IC Engine

The efficiency of an IC engine (Internal Combustion Engine) is defined as the ratio of work
done to the energy supplied to an engine. The following efficiencies of an 1.C. engine are
important:

(a) Mechanical efficiency. It is the ratio of brake power (B.P.) to the indicated power
(I.P.).
Mathematically, mechanical efficiency,

Since B. P. is always less than I.P. , therefore mechanical efficiency is always less than
unity (i.e. 100%).
(b) Overall efficiency. It is the ratio of the work obtained at the crankshaft in a given time
to the energy supplied by the fuel during the same time. Mathematically, overall
efficiency,

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where
B.P. = Brake power in kW,
mf = Mass of fuel consumed in kg per hour, and
C = Calorific valve of fuel in kJ / kg of fuel.
(c) Indicated thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kW hour to
the heat in the fuel per I.P. hour, Mathematically, indicated thermal efficiency,

Note : The following ratio is Known as specific fuel consumption per I.P. hour:

(d) Brake thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kW hour to the
heat in the fuel per B.P. hour. Mathematically, brake thermal efficiency,

Note: The following ratio is known as specific fuel consumption per B. P. hour:

(e) Air standard efficiency. The general expression for the air standard efficiency is given
as

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(f) Relative efficiency. It is also known as efficiency ratio. The relative efficiency of an I.
C. engine is the ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency.
(g) Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the actual volume of charge admitted during
the suction stroke at N.T.P to the swept volume of the piston.
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Indicated mean effective pressure

The indicated mean effective pressure of an IC engine is obtained from the indicator diagram drawn
with the help of an engine indicator. Mathematically, mean effective pressure (in bar)

It may be noted that the mean effective pressure calculated on the basis of theoretical indicator
diagram, is known as theoretical mean effective pressure. If it is based on the actual indicator
diagram, then it is called actual mean effective pressure.
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Indicated power of an IC Engine

The indicated power of an IC engine (briefly written as I.P.) is the power actually developed by the
engine cylinder. Mathematically,

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where
K = Number of cylinders,
pm = Actual mean effective pressure in bar (1 bar = 100 kN/m2),
L = Length of stroke in meters,
A = Area of the piston in m2,
n = Number of working strokes per minute
= Speed of the engine for two stroke cycle engine
= Half the speed of the engine for four stroke cycle engine.
Note : The I.P. of a multi-cylinder of spark ignition engine is determined by Morse test.
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Brake power of IC Engine

The brake power (briefly written as B.P.) of an IC Engine is the power available at the crankshaft.
The brake power of an I.C. engine is, usually, measured by means of a brake mechanism (prony
brake or rope brake).
In case of prony brake, brake power of the engine,

where
W = Brake load in newtons,
l = Length of arm in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m.
In case of rope brake, brake power of the engine,

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where
W = Dead load in newtons,
S = Spring balance reading in newtons,
D = Diameter of the brake drum in metres,
d = Diameter of the rope in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m.
Note : The brake power (B.P.) of an engine is always less than the indicated power (I.P.) of an
engine, because some power is lost in overcoming the engine friction (known as frictional power).
Mathematically,
Frictional power, F.P. = I.P. B.P.
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