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III. Substances
All homogeneous matter
a. Fixed composition
b. Always made of the same amount of matter
2 Types of Substances: Elements and Compounds
I. Elements
Contain all atoms of a single type
Cannot be decomposed
Common elements: Oxygen,Nitrogen,Carbon,Hydrogen
2. Compounds
Contains more than 1 type of element
Chemically combined in fixed ratio
Can be decomposed chemically but not physically
Binary Compounds- 2 Elements, like NaCl
Ternary Compounds- 3 Elements, like KNO
III. Mixtures
Consists of 2 more elements that differ in property and
composition
Substances are physically mixed
The composition/ratio of substances vary
Can be separated physically
2 Types: Homogenous and Heterogenous.
Homogenous- Uniformly mixed throughout the mixture
a. Also called Solutions
i. Dissolved particles in solution (Na in H2O)
ii. Aqueous solution dissolved in water
Metallic Properties
--M=Mass of substance
--C=Specific heat capacity of substance (J/GC)
--T=Temperature Final-Temperature Initial
Q=MCT is used only when there is a change in temperature
Specific Heat Capacity- Amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a
substance by 1C (Water=4.18J/GC)
Heat of Fusion
The amount of heat needed to melt 1g of a substance
Q=MHf is used when calculating how much heat is absorbed
when a substance melts
Remember:
Heat absorbed during melting goes into raising the potential
energy of the Substance
Kinetic energy is constant (constant temperature therefore you
cannot useQ=MCT
The value for heat of fusion is 334 J/G
Heat of Vaporization
The amount of heat needed to vaporize/boil 1g of a substance
Q=MHv is used to calculate how much energy is absorbed
when a substance vaporizes
The heat of vaporization of water is 2260 J/G
Mole Concept-Avogadros Number
Based off of the atomic mass of Carbon
1 Gram of Hydrogen=1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
12 Grams of Carbon= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
24 Grams of Magnesium= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
Example: Magnesium Nitrate Mg(NO3)2
Mg (1)(24)=24g
II.Charles Law
Pressure=Constant
V1/T1=V2/T2
V2=V1/T1
As temperature increases, volume increases
Directly proportional
II.GayLussacsLaw
Volume=Constant
P1/T1=P2/T2
P1T2=P2T1
P2=P1T2/T1
As pressure increases, temperature increases
Directly proportional
Gas Laws for Closed Systems
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Charles Law - Temperature always in
Kevin, increased volume in anexpandable container (constant
pressure)
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 Gay-Lussacs Law - Temperature always
in Kelvin, increased pressure in arigid container (constant
volume)
Increase in average kinetic energy causes increase in
momentum, which causes an increasein collision frequency
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Boyles Law- Temperature always
in Kelvin, Increase in pressure causesa decrease in pressure
(temperature remains constant)
The Kernel
Includes the nucleus and all non-valence electrons
Quantum Numbers
Schrdinger- Mathematically treated the electron as a wave
The 4 quantum numbers in Schrdingers equation are used in
describing electron behavior
N,L,M,S
Principle Quantum Number- N
Second quantum number indicated by L describes sublevels.
Each energy level (N) has nsublevels.
Level Sublevel
1 1 s2 1,2 s,p3 1,2,3 s,p,d4 1,2,3,4 s,p,d,f
The third quantum number m represents the number of orbitals
in a sublevel
Sublevels- only 1 orbital m=0
Sublevels- 3 orbitals (x,y,z) m=01
Sublevels- 5 orbitals m=012
Sublevels 7 orbitals m=012
Only 2e- in each orbital
Spin Quantum Number- Describes the spin of an atom (Pauli)
clockwise
Paulis Exclusion Principle- No two electrons in an atom can
have the same set of 4 quantumnumbers
Examples:I. Hydrogen- 1s1
II.He 1s2
III.Lithium - 1s22s1
IV.Carbon 1s22s22s2
V. Neon 1s22s22p6
VI.Magnesium - 1s22s22p63s2
BondingIonic Bonding
Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic
compounds
Characterized by the transfer of electrons- Representative unit
is the formula unit
Composed of metal cations and nonmetal anions.
Cation- Ion with positive charge
Anion- Ion with negative charge
Anions and cations have opposite charges and attract one
another with electrostatic forces
Properties:
I.Solid at room temperature
II.Have high melting points
III.Conduct an electric current whenDissolved/melted in water
Use brackets diagram to illustrate electrontransfer based off of
oxidation numbers andValence electrons - to satisfy the octet
rule (to obtain 8 valence electrons to achieve stability-likethe
noble gases)
Example: Calcium and Chlorine (Metal and
nonmetal)Calciums electron configuration: 2-8-8-2Chlorines
electron configuration: 2-8-7You need to remove 2 electrons
from calcium to achieve 8 valence electrons*Use Lewis Electron
When electrons are lost during oxidation at the anode, the travel
through the wire to the cathode
The material being reduced gains electrons
E0Cell= E0Reduction-E0Oxidation
Non-Spontaneous Reactions- Electrolysis
Electricity is used to force a chemical reaction
Used to obtain active elements such as sodium and chlorine by
the electrolysis of fused (molten cells)
2NaCl (l) -> 2Na(s) + Cl2(aq)
Used to electroplate metals onto a surface
Have several things in common with a voltaic cell:
Both use redox reactions
The anode is the side of oxidation
The cathode is the site of reduction
The electrons flow through the wire from anode to cathode
Acids, Bases and SaltsI.Theories
I.Arrhenius (1887)
Acid - H+ is released (H2SO4, HCl)
Bases- OH- is released (NaOH, Ca(OH)2
I I . b r nsted-Lowry (1923)
An acid donates a H+ (proton) and is a proton donor
A base accepts a H+ (proton) and is a proton acceptor
HF + H2O -> F-+ H3O+---HF is acid, F is conjugate base,
H2O is base, H3O is conjugate acid.
Conjugate acid is what is formed after a base gains a H+ ion
Conjugate base is what remains after the acid donates its H+
ion.
Base + Acid -> Conjugate Acid + Conjugate Base
Acid becomes conjugate base
plastic)
Alkyne- Unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains triple bond
(Ethyne, acetylene, fuels welding torches)
I V.I s o m e r s
Same molecular formula, but different structural formula
MethyL propane C4H10
Butane- has 2 isomers
2,2 Di-MethyL Propane(3 Radicals)V.Alkane- Paraffins
CNH2N
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane
Ends in ANE
Single Bond
VI.Alkenes- Olefins- Ethylene Series
CNH2N
Ends in ENE
Ethene, Propene, Butene, Pentene
Double Bond
VII.Alkynes- Acetylene Series
CNH2N-2
Ends in YNE
Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne, Pentyne
Triple Bond
VII.Organic Reactions
Substitution: Reactions in which a H atom of a hydrocarbon is
replaced by another atom or group (Exists only between
alkanes)