Lahars and Their Effects--Pathways of Destruction

A lahar carries away a bridge spanning the Toutle

River about 55 km downstream from Mount St.
Helens volcano on May 18, 1980. Before arriving at
the bridge, the lahar swept through a logging camp
and picked up thousands of neatly cut and stacked
logs from along the river. This lahar originated from
the huge landslide that started the eruption at 8:32 in
the morning.

What is a Lahar?
Lahar is an Indonesian term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water and rock
fragments flowing down the slopes of a volcano and (or) river valleys. When moving, a
lahar looks like a mass of wet concrete that carries rock debris ranging in size from clay
to boulders more than 10 m in diameter. Lahars vary in size and speed. Small lahars less
than a few meters wide and several centimeters deep may flow a few meters per second.
Large lahars hundreds of meters wide and tens of meters deep can flow several tens of
meters per second--much too fast for people to outrun.
As a lahar rushes downstream from a volcano, its size, speed, and the amount of water
and rock debris it carries constantly change. The beginning surge of water and rock debris
often erodes rocks and vegetation from the side of a volcano and along the river valley it
enters. This initial flow can also incorporate water from melting snow and ice (if present)
and the river it overruns. By eroding rock debris and incorporating additional water,
lahars can easily grow to more than 10 times their initial size. But as a lahar moves
farther away from a volcano, it will eventually begin to lose its heavy load of sediment
and decrease in size.
Numerous terms are used by scientists to describe the properties of lahars (for example,
mudflows, debris flows, hyperconcentrated flows, and cohesive and non-cohesive flows).

What triggers a lahar?

Eruptions may trigger one or more lahars directly by quickly melting snow and ice on a
volcano or ejecting water from a crater lake. More often, lahars are formed by intense
rainfall during or after an eruption--rainwater can easily erode loose volcanic rock and
soil on hillsides and in river valleys. Some of the largest lahars begin as landslides of
saturated and hydrothermally altered rock on the flank of a volcano or adjacent hillslopes.
Landslides are triggered by eruptions, earthquakes, precipitation, or the unceasing pull of
gravity on the volcano.

Mount Rainier,
Washington

Lahars almost always occur on or near stratovolcanoes because

these volcanoes tend to erupt explosively and their tall, steep
cones are either snow covered, topped with a crater lake,
constructed of weakly consolidated rock debris that is easily
eroded, or internally weakened by hot hyrothermal fluids. Lahars
are also common from the snow- and ice-covered shield
volcanoes in Iceland where eruptions of fluid basalt lava
frequently occur beneath huge glaciers (for example, at
Vatnajokull, Iceland).

The scenarios listed below illustrate most of the mechanisms by which lahars are
generated. For convenience, we've grouped the mechanisms according to whether a
volcano is erupting, has erupted, or is quiet. Each mechanism is illustrated with one or
more case studies.

Lahars During Eruptions

Melting of snow and ice by pyroclastic flows and lava flows

Lahars After Eruptions

Heavy rainfall can lead to erosion and lahars

Sudden release of water caused by lake breakouts
Lahars Without Eruptions
Sudden landslides at volcanoes can trigger lahars

Effects of lahars
Lahars racing down river valleys and spreading across flood plains tens of kilometers
downstream from a volcano often cause serious economic and environmental damage.
The direct impact of a lahar's turbulent flow front or from the boulders and logs carried
by the lahar can easily crush, abrade, or shear off at ground level just about anything in
the path of a lahar. Even if not crushed or carried away by the force of a lahar, buildings
and valuable land may become partially or completely buried by one or more cement-like
layers of rock debris. By destroying bridges and key roads, lahars can also trap people in

areas vulnerable to other hazardous volcanic activity, especially if the lahars leave
deposits that are too deep, too soft, or too hot to cross.
After a volcanic eruption, the erosion of new loose volcanic deposits in the headwaters of
rivers can lead to severe flooding and extremely high rates of sedimentation in areas far
downstream from a volcano. Over a period of weeks to years, post-eruption lahars and
high-sediment discharges triggered by intense rainfall frequently deposit rock debris that
can bury entire towns and valuable agricultural land. Such lahar deposits may also block
tributary stream valleys. As the area behind the blockage fills with water, areas upstream
become inundated. If the lake is large enough and it eventually overtops or breaks
through the lahar blockage, a sudden flood or a lahar may bury even more communities
and valuable property downstream from the tributary.

Lahars can...

...destroy by direct
impact.

...lead to increased
deposition of sediment.

...block tributary
streams.

...bury valleys and

communities with
debris.

Case studies of historical lahars

What's that cloud upriver? An eyewitness account of a lahar

triggered by rainfall in Guatemala.

Mount St. Helens, Washington

Muddy River, May 18, 1980

Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, 1989-90
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

Heavy rain triggers lahars

Lake breakout causes lahar, 1994
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985
Huila Volcano, Colombia, 1994
Casita Volcano, Nicaragua, 1999
Otake volcano, Japan, 1984

Villarica volcano, Chile, 1984

Real-time warning of lahars

USGS Lahar detection system and how it works

First test case: Redoubt Volcano 1990-1991
Pilot Project: Mount Rainier lahar-warning system

erms Often Used to Refer to Lahars

Scientists often use more specific terms than lahar when referring to moving masses of
water and rock debris. The various terms are defined by the relative amounts of rock
debris (sediment) and water in the flow, often as a ratio of sediment to water. And
because a flow of water and sediment can erode or deposit sediment and incorporate
water along its journey downstream, this ratio changes with increasing distance from a
volcano. So, for even a single flow, scientists will commonly use different terms when
describing the flow.
Debris Flow
Dense flows that consist of a relatively high percentage of coarse rock particles are debris
flows. The size of sediment transported by debris flows ranges in size from clay and silt
(less than 0.06 mm) to boulders as large as 10 m in diameter. A typical debris flow
consists of about 2 parts sediment for every one part water. Thus, debris flows may
consist of more than 80 percent sediment by weight!
Mudflow
A debris flow composed of relatively small rock particles, dominantly sand and silt-sized
particles (less than 2 mm in diameter), is often called a mudflow. Even though mudflows
can transport large boulders and can have sediment concentrations as great as debris
flows, their sediment composition typically consists of at least 50 percent sand, silt, and
clay-size particles ("mud" refers to silt- and clay-size particles). Mudflow is probably the
most familiar and commonly used term by nonscientists to describe dense mixtures of
flowing sediment and water.
Hyperconcentrated Streamflow
A flow containing between 40 and 80 percent sediment by weight is often referred to as
hyperconcentrated streamflow. Debris flows and mudflows represent the most dense and

concentrated mixtures of flowing sediment and water; they commonly are composed of
more than 80 percent sediment by weight. Normal streamflow, which may contain as
much as 40 percent sediment by weight, is the least dense and concentrated mixture of
flowing sediment and water. Hyperconcentrated flows are finer grained than debris flows
and mudflows, usually consisting of predominantly of sand-size particles. As a debris
flow or mudflow moves down a river valley, they will eventually become more dilute by
mixing with water in the river and by losing some of the sediment. When the percentage
of sediment by weight drops below 80 percent, the flow transforms into hyperconcentrate
streamflow.
Cohesive Lahars
Debris flows or mudflows that contain more than 3 to 5 percent of clay-size sediment are
sometimes referred to as cohesive lahars. Scientists may sometimes conclude that a
relatively high concentration of clay in these flows indicates it began as a large landslide
from the flank of a volcano. The interior parts of many volcanoes have been
hydrothermally altered and consist of many clay particles.
Non-cohesive Lahars
Debris flows or mudflows that contain less than 3 to 5 percent of clay-size sediment are
sometimes referred to as non-cohesive lahars. Such a relatively low proportion of clay in
this volcanic debris is considered by some scientists to be evidence that the lahar did not
originate as a volcanic landslide, but rather in another way. For example, by the mixing of
water melted from snow and ice with volcanic debris.

Photo Information

Photograph courtesy of Magns Tumi Gumundsson

Science Institute, University of Iceland

October 1, 1996, 12:30 p.m.

Two cauldrons above an erupting fissure beneath the Vatnajkull glacier, located in
Central Iceland. An eruption started beneath the glacier during the evening of September
30. When this image was taken on October 1, part of the glacier's surface had subsided to
form two cauldrons, each about 1-2 km wide. This part of the glacier, located on the north
flank of Grmsvtn volcano, was about 400-600 m thick before the eruption. A 4-km-long
fissure eruption beneath the glacier quickly melted the ice; the resulting meltwater drained
into the Grmsvtn caldera. During one 4-hour period, scientists observed the surface subside
by about 50 m! Note the many fractures in the ice on the margins of the cauldrons.

Photograph courtesy of Magns Tumi Gumundsson

Science Institute, University of Iceland
October 3, 1996, 4:30 p.m.

View of eruption crater and ash-covered Vatnajkull glacier about 36 hours after the
eruption had broken through the ice. By this time, the area of subsidence had grown to
about 9 km long and 2-3 km wide. The eruption continued for about another 10 days, and
meltwater from the glacier flowed into the Grmsvtn caldera. On October 1, water level in
the caldera's subglacial lake was about 1410 m; by October 16, the water level had risen to
1504 m, an increase of 94 m! According to scientists monitoring the activity, lava erupting
from the fissure was piled up on the ground beneath the glacier, "forming a mountain ridge
which in places is expected to be 200 m high."
On October 16, scientists stated that the meltwater, which had been accumulating under the
ice shelf in the Grmsvtn caldera lake, could begin draining at any time to trigger a
jkulhlaup (glacial outburst flood). On November 5 the expected jkulhlaup began.

More information about the Vatnajokull eruption

Chronology of the October 1996 eruption from the Science Institute, University of
Iceland

Photographs of the eruption: | October 1-3 | October 9-19 | Resulting

jkulhlaup |

Lahars Triggered by Melting Snow and Ice

Mount St. Helens, Washington

Dark pathways created by lahars streak the sides of Mount
St. Helens during its catastrophic eruption on May 18,
1980. The lahars were triggered by the sudden melting of
snow and ice from hot volcanic rocks ejected by the initial
explosive activity and subsequent pyroclastic flows.

Many of the largest and most destructive historical lahars accompanied eruptions from
volcanoes mantled by a substantial cover of snow and ice. Pyroclastic flows are the most
common volcanic events that generate lahars--even relatively small pyroclastic flows can
quickly melt large quantities of snow and ice. The hot flowing rock debris erodes and mixes
with snow and ice to form water and trigger snow avalanches on steep slopes. Lava flows
moving slowly across snow usually do not melt snow and ice rapidly enough to form large
lahars but the eruption of lava beneath a glacier can result in substantial ponding of water,
which may lead to enormous outpourings of water. The largest historic lahars in terms of
discharge (volume of material per second) have occurred in Iceland, where these glacial
outburst floods are called Jkulhlaups.

Number and type of volcanic events

known to have generated lahars by
melting snow and ice during
historical eruptions. This 1989 study
was based on 108 historical
eruptions from around the world
(see references below).

Snowmelt triggered by pyroclastic flows, surges, and directed blasts

Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 13 November 1985

Mount St. Helens, Washington, Muddy River, 18 May 1980

Snowmelt triggered by surficial and subglacial lava flows

Villarica Volcano, Chile, 1985

Vatnajkull, Iceland, 1996

Reference
Major, J.J, and Newhall, G.C., 1989, Snow and ice perturbation during historical
volcanic eruptions and the formation of lahars and floods, Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 52,
p. 1-27.

Heavy Rain Leads to Erosion and Lahars

Photograph by K. Scott on June 24, 1990

Leading edge of a debris flow triggered by heavy rain crashes down the Jiangjia Gully in
China. The flow front is about 5 m tall. Such debris flows are common here because there is
plenty of easily erodible rock and sediment upstream and intense rainstorms are common
during the summer monsoon season.
These conditions commonly prevail after eruptions that kill vegetation over extensive areas
and spread loose volcanic rocks over the landscape. During subsequent rainy seasons,
swollen rivers will erode the new deposits and sometimes generate lahars that are
dangerous to people downstream. Even if no lahars occur, the erosion can lead to frequent
floods because of the deposition of sediment along the river channels.

Rain-triggered lahars at Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

School buried by lahar; photograph taken on October 12, 1991

Like thousands of other buildings downstream from Mount Pinatubo, this school house was
buried by a lahar after the enormous eruption on June 15, 1991. In the first three months
after the enormous eruption, more than 200 lahars swept Mount Pinatubo, destroyed roads
and bridges, and buried farmland and towns with sediment. Thousands of lahars have
occurred since 1991, and nearly all were triggered by intense rainfall.

Pyroclastic Flows Fill Valleys

View southeast up Maraunot River; June 6, 1991

Landscape before and after

eruption. Pyroclastic flows
erupted by Mount Pinatubo
profoundly changed the landscape
around the volcano by filling river
valleys with hot volcanic rocks as
thick as 200 m and killing
vegetation on nearby hillslopes.
The pre-eruption landscape (upper
photograph) consisted of
unconsolidated prehistoric
pyroclastic-flow deposits that
were deeply eroded.

View northeast up Marella River valley; June 29, 1991

Pyroclastic flows from the June

15 eruption swept down each of
the volcano's river valleys as far
as 12 to 16 km (light-colored
areas in lower photograph). With
rainfall averaging between 2 to 4
m per year in this part of the
Philippines, most of it falling in
the monsoon season from June to
October, thousands of small but
destructive lahars originated from
these pyroclastic-flow deposits.

Water Erodes Gullies and New Stream Channels

New gullies in pyroclastic-flow deposits

During heavy rain after the

eruption, water first collected in
surface depressions on the
pyroclastic-flow deposits and then
spilled into adjacent low-lying
areas. Within months, flowing
water had eroded an elaborate
network of deep gullies and
stream channels into the deposits.
Since the erosion took place in
still-hot pyroclastic-flow deposits,
sudden "steam" explosions were

common in the first few years and

the resulting lahars downstream
were dangerously hot (40-70 C).
Sediment Raises River Channels

Flooding along Abacan River

Heavy rain and erosion caused

lahar after lahar downstream from
Mount Pinatubo. During the
rainiest periods in 1991, three to
five lahars a day were common.
As each new lahar carried
sediment from the pyroclasticflow deposits downstream, the
volcano's river channels filled
with sediment. Rising river
channels caused frequent
overbank flooding, even during
normal streamflow. Here in the
lower Abacan River east of Mount
Pinatubo, floods and lahars spread
into adjacent communities and
valuable farmland.

Lahars and Floods Displace Thousands of People

Flooded community

Destroyed home

The human consequences of these post-eruption lahars at Mount Pinatubo have been
enormous. In the first five years following the eruption, lahars destroyed the homes of more
than 100,000 people; each year during the rainy seasons, the threat of lahars forced another
100,000 people to evacuate their homes and farmland. Lahars also covered about 120,000
hectacres (roughly 300,000 acres) with sediment to an average depth of about one meter, and
floods spread rock debris over an area at least several times larger.

More images of lahars at Mount Pinatubo

Images and video of post-eruption lahars available from the webserver at

Michigan Technological University

References
Newhall, C.G., Punongbayan, R.S. (eds.), 1997, Fire and mud: Eruptions and lahars of
Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon
City and University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1126 p. Online version of Fire and
Mud
Pierson, T.C., and Janda, R.J., 1992, Immediate and long-term hazards from lahars
and excess sedimentation in rivers draining Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines: U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-4039.

Lahars Caused by Lake Breakouts

Lake breakouts commonly occur weeks to months after a river or one of its tributaries
become blocked by a landslide or other volcanic deposits, especially pyroclastic flows
and lahars. The most frequent cause of a lake breakout is the overflow of water across the
newly formed dam and subsequent erosion and rapid downcutting into the loose rock
debris. As more water rushes from the lake, the initial channel grows deeper and wider,
which allows even more water to surge downstream. By eroding the blockage and river
channel downstream, the initial surge of water will incorporate a tremendous volume of
sediment and increase in volume two to four times or more as it races downvalley.

Castle Lake, Mount St. Helens, Washington

Blocked by the massive landslide that slid from Mount
St. Helens during an eruption on May 18, 1980, Castle
Creek quickly filled with water to form a lake (center
left). In 1981, concern among scientists and public
officials about the possibility of a sudden lahar caused
by the breakout of water from Castle Lake led the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers to excavate an outlet channel
and line it with heavy wire mesh and boulders. The new
channel prevented the lake from overtopping its new
debris dam. The water level and stability of the
blockage is still monitored by scientists of the U.S.
Geological Survey.
Photograph by S. Brantley
September 29, 1992

Lake breakout causes lahars at Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

Hundreds of lahars triggered by heavy rain formed after the 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo. The rainwater eroded loose, hot pyroclastic flow deposits (shown here) that filled
river valleys around the volcano to depths of 220 meters. The lahars not only covered large
areas downstream with sediment,destroying homes and farmland, but also temporarily
blocked tributary streams.

Lahars Block Tributary

Pyroclastic-flow deposits from the 1991 eruption
filled the south fork of the Pasig-Portrero River,
which flows from right to left. After the
formation and breakout of several lakes from this
valley, a new lake began to form in 1994 during
the Philippine's summer monsoon season.

July 5, 1994

Lake Forms Behind Lahar Deposits

Full development of the lake. The primary cause
of this new lake was the deposition of sediment
by lahars along the main channel of the river
during the 1994 rainy season. The sediment
prevented water flowing into the south fork from
entering the main river.

August 30, 1994

Lake Breakout Generates Lahar
After a moderate rainfall, water flowing over the
blockage severely eroded through the lahar and
pyroclastic-flow deposits during the night. The
resulting lake breakout generated a lahar that
swept downstream and killed approximately 25
people.

September 22, 1994

Community Before Lake Breakout
Town of Bacolor (foreground) along the leveebounded Pasig-Portrero River, downstream of
the lake. The gray area in the upper left is
covered with sediment deposited by lahars and
normal streamflow in 1992. New lahar outbreaks
through the levee in July 1994 had begun to
encroach at the top right.

July 27, 1994

Community After Lake Breakout

Lahars from September 1994 though and after

the date of this photograph buried Bacolor to
depths of 5 meters in the town and more than 10
meters in some outlying villages.

September 6, 1995