Automatic Night Lamp With Morning Alarm

Automatic
lamp with morning alarm
INTRODUCTION
Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 1

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1. INTRODUCTION
This circuit automatically turns on a night lamp when bedroom light is switched off.
The lamp remains ‘on’ until the light sensor senses daylight in the morning. A yellow LED is
used as the night lamp. It gives bright and cool light in the room. When the sensor detects the
daylight in the morning, a melodious morning alarm sounds.
The circuit utilizes light-dependant resistors (LDRs) for sensing darkness and light in the
room. The circuit is designed around the popular timer IC NE555, which is configured as a
monostable. NE555 is activated by a low pulse applied to its trigger pin 2. Once triggered, output
pin 3 of NE555 goes high and remains in that position until until timer is triggered again at its
pin 2. The musical tone of the alarm is generated by UM66 IC. The circuit can be easily
assembled on a general purpose PCB. Enclose it in a good-quality plastic case with provisions
for LDR and LED. Use a reflective holder for LED to get a spotlight effect for reading. Place
LDRs away from the LED, preferably on the backside of the case, to avoid unnecessary
illumination. The speaker should be small so as to make the gadget compact.
1.1Circuit Diagram:

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2.Components used:
2.1. IC NE555N
2.2 . LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
2.3.MUSIC GENERATOR UM66
2.4. 8Ω, 4.5W SPEAKER
2.5. RESISTORS 220Ω, 560Ω, 580Ω, 1k, 120k, 150k

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2.6. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
2.7. ZENER DIODE
2.8. TRANSISTOR BC548
2.9. CAPACITOR 0.01µF

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3. NE555 TIMER

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3.1. Introduction:
The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the
SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only
commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively
cheap, stable and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications.
The 555, come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T' package or the more
familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the
standard (SE/NE types). The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package,
the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case.I nside the 555 timer, are the
equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2 diodes, depending of the manufacturer. The
equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing the functions of control, triggering, level sensing
or comparison, discharge, and power output. Some of the more attractive features of the 555
timer are: Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt, supply current 3 to 6 mA, and a Rise/Fall
time of 100 nSec. It can also withstand quite a bit of abuse. The Threshold current determine the
maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation the maximum total resistance forR (Ra +Rb)
is 20 Mega-ohm. The supply current, when the output is 'high', is typically 1 milli-amp (mA) or
less.
3.2. General Description:
The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation.
Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of
operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For astable
operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled
with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling
waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits.

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3.3. Features:
• Direct replacement for SE555/NE555
• Timing from microseconds through hours
• Operates in both astable and monostable modes
• Adjustable duty cycle
• Output can source or sink 200 mA
• Output and supply TTL compatible
• Temperature stability better than 0.005% per °C
• Normally on and normally off output
• Available in 8-pin MSOP package
3.4. Pin Diagram:

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Pin 1 (Ground):The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device,
which is normally connected to circuit common (ground)
when operated from positive supply voltages.
Pin 2 (Trigger):This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in
turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable
operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of
1/3V+(or,in general,one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5).
Pin 3 (Output):The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of
transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their
Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+
supply level used.
The state of the output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic state of the latch, and this
fact may be seen by examining
Since the latch itself is not directly accessible, this relationship may be best explained in terms
of latch-input trigger conditions. To trigger the output
Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The
reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is required to
reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+ level; thus the reset
input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an overriding function; that is,
it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs.
It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to
"off", etc. Delay time from reset to output is typically on the order of 0.5 µS, and the minimum
reset pulse width is 0.5 µS.
Pin 5 (Control Voltage):This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point, the
reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows

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indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 - R9) from this point to the
lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does
allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the
comparator, etc. When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltage-controlled
operation ranges from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this
is not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be
confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this pin, it is
possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the RC network. The control voltage
may be varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode, making it possible to control
the width of the output pulse independently of RC.
Pin 6 (Threshold):Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used
to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low.
Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage
level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive,
allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the
threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed thethreshold current, must also
flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 0.1µA, and will define
the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either timing configuration
operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega- ohm. For 15 volt operation, the maximum
value of resistance is 20 MegaOhms.
Pin 7 (Discharge):This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14), the
emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is
turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected
between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state
of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to
ground) when the output is low and "off" (high resistance to ground) when the output is high. In
both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to clamp the
appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Saturation voltage is typically below 100mV
(milli-Volt) .

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Pin 8 (V +):The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the
555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts
(maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and +15 volts. The device will
operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period.
Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which
increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of
time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. There are special and
military devices available that operate at voltages as high as 18 volts.
3.5. Monostable Multivibrator Circuit details

Pin 1 is grounded. Trigger input is applied to pin 2. In quiescent condition of output this input is
kept at + VCC. To obtain transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state, a negative-
going pulse of narrow width (a width smaller than expected pulse width of output waveform)
and amplitude of greater than + 2/3 VCC is applied to pin 2. Output is taken from pin 3. Pin 4 is
usually connected to + VCC to avoid accidental reset. Pin 5 is grounded through a 0.01 u F
capacitor to avoid noise problem. Pin 6 (threshold) is shorted to pin 7. A resistor RA is connected
between pins 6 and 8. At pins 7 a discharge capacitor is connected while pin 8 is connected to
supply VCC.
3.6. 555 monostable-multivibrator-operation
The operation of the circuit is explained below:
Initially, when the output at pin 3 is low i.e. the circuit is in a stable state, the transistor is on and
capacitor- C is shorted to ground. When a negative pulse is applied to pin 2, the trigger input
falls below +1/3 VCC, the output of comparator goes high which resets the flip-flop and
consequently the transistor turns off and the output at pin 3 goes high. This is the transition of the
output from stable to quasi-stable state, as shown in figure. As the discharge transistor is cutoff,
the capacitor C begins charging toward +VCC through resistance RA with a time constant equal to
RAC. When the increasing capacitor voltage becomes slightly greater than +2/3 VCC, the output
of comparator 1 goes high, which sets the flip-flop. The transistor goes to saturation, thereby
discharging the capacitor C and the output of the timer goes low, as illustrated in figure.Thus the

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output returns back to stable state from quasi-stable state. The output of the Monostable
Multivibrator remains low until a trigger pulse is again applied. Then the cycle repeats. Trigger
input, output voltage and capacitor voltage waveforms are shown in figure.
3.7. Monostable Multivibrator Design Using 555 timer IC

The capacitor C has to charge through resistance RA. The larger the time constant RAC, the
longer it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach +2/3VCC. In other words, the RC time constant
controls the width of the output pulse. The time during which the timer output remains high is
given as
tp=1.0986RAC
where RA is in ohms and C is in farads. The above relation is derived as below. Voltage across
the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as
vc = VCC (1- e-t/RAC)
Substituting vc = 2/3 VCC in above equation we get the time taken by the capacitor to charge from
0 to +2/3VCC.
So +2/3VCC. = VCC. (1 – e-t/RAC) or t – RAC loge 3 = 1.0986 RAC
So pulse width, tP = 1.0986 RAC s 1.1 RAC
The pulse width of the circuit may range from micro-seconds to many seconds. This circuit is
widely used in industry for many different timing applications.
In this mode of operation, the timer functions as a one-shot. The external capacitor is
initially held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon application of a negative trigger
pulse of less than 1/3 VCC to pin 2, the flip-flop is set which both releases the short circuit
across the capacitor and drives the output high. The voltage across the capacitor then increases
exponentially for a period of t = 1.1 RA C, at the end of which time the voltage equals 2/3 VCC.
The comparator then resets the flip-flop which in turn discharges the capacitor and drives the

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output to its low state. Since the charge and the threshold level of the comparator are both
directly proportional to supply voltage, the timing interval is independent of supply.
3.4.1. Monostable Mode
3.4.2. Waveforms generated in this mode of

operation.

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4. MUSIC GENERATOR
UM66
4.1. General Description

UM66 is a pleasing music generator IC which works on a supply voltage of 3V. The
required 3V supply is given through a zenor regulator. Its output is taken from the pin no1 and is
given to a push pull amplifier to drive the low impedance lowd speker. A class A amplifier
before pushpull amplifier can be used to decrease the noise and improve output. UM66 is a 3 pin
IC package just looks like a BC 547 transistors.

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Here is the simplest melody generator circuit you can make using an IC.The UM66 series are
CMOS IC’s designed for using in calling bell, phone and toys. It has a built in ROM
programmed for playing music. The device has very low power consumption.Thanks for the
CMOS technology.The melody will be available at pin3 of UM66 and here it is amplified by
using Q1 to drive the speaker.Resistor R1 limits the base current of Q1 within the safe
values.Capacitor C1 is meant for noise suppression.
4.2. Features:
62 Note ROM Memory
Voltage rating: 1.3V to 3.3 V
Power on reset
4.3. Pin Diagram:

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5. LIGHT
DEPENDENT RESISTER
(LDR)
5.1. Light Dependent Resistor figure:

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5.2. Operation:
A light dependent resistor or photo resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referenced as a photoconductor. A photo resistor
is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms,
and outdoor clocks.
LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when
they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
The animation opposite shows that when the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR
falls, allowing current to pass through it.
When the light level is low the resistance of the LDR is high. This prevents current
from flowing to the base of the transistors. Consequently the LED does not light.
However, when light shines onto the LDR its resistance falls and current flows into the base
of the first transistor and then the second transistor. The LED lights. The preset resistor can be
turned up or down to increase or decrease resistance, in this way it can make the circuit more or
less sensitive.

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A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a
photoconductor.A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on
the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its
hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own
charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only
available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to
excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called
dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons
do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
5.3. Applications
Photoresistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios,
alarms, and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with
a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction. Lead sulfide
(PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent resistor) are used for the mid
infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors
available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

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6. TRANSISTOR
6.1 Pin diagram
BC548:
6.2. FEATURES

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Low current (max. 100 mA)

Low voltage (max. 65 V).
6.3. APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification.
6.4. DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

PNP complements: BC548.
6.5. PIN DESCRIPTION

1 emitter
2 base
3 collector

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7. IC7806
7.1. THREE-TERMINAL POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS
These voltage regulators are monolithic integrated circuits designed fixed-voltage

regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation. These regulators
employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-area compensation. With adequate
heat sinking they can deliver output currents in excess of 1.0 ampere. Although designed
primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these devices can be used with external components to
obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
7.2. ADVANTAGES

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• Output Current in Excess of 1.0 Ampere
• No External Components Required
• Internal Thermal Overload Protection
• Internal Short - Circuit Current Limiting
• Output Transistor Safe-Area Compensation
• Output Voltage Offered in 2% and 4% Tolerance

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8. DIODES
8.1. INTRODUCTION

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There are a number of different electronic devices which tend to be called diodes. Although
they're made differently they all have three things in common.
• They have two leads like a resistor.
• The current they pass depends upon the voltage between the leads.
• They do not obey Ohm's law!
The function of a diode is to allow current in one direction and to block current in the opposite
direction. The terminals of a diode are called the anode and cathode.
Figure 1
The schematic symbol for a diode. When current flows in the direction of the triangle (anode to
cathode) then it is in forward bias
8.2. Characteristics and Equations

Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing
through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode.
It is called the 'forward voltage drop' and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made
from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing
through the diode.
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a
very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very
much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a

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maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and
pass a large current in the reverse direction; this is called 'breakdown'.
8.3. Types of Diodes

Zener Diodes
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable
and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across
their terminals.
Figure 2 Schematic symbol of a zener diode.
Light Emitting Diodes
Very similar to the basic diodes already talked about but with the added bonus that they light up
when in forward bias (and the voltage is high enough).
Figure 3 Schematic symbol of an LED.
Packages
Most diode packages have at least one indicator as to which leg is the anode and which is the
cathode. The cathode is usually marked by a band at one end and has the shorter of the two legs.
LED's will also have a flattened edge on the cathode side so you can still tell the difference easily
once you've chopped the legs off to solder them in!

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Figure 4 Various diode packages.
8.4. Zener diode
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage
known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener,
who discovered this electrical property.

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Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volt. Notice the
change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased
(negative) direction.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its
reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias
(current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-
in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor
material and the doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as
to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the
conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow
the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode
with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias
voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for
applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a
voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons
to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type
material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band
electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these
bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both

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sides.[1] The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While
tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%.
Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200
volts.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche
diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present
in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant
effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche
effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient[1]. In a 5.6 V diode,
the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other out,
thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications. Modern
manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible
temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature
coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term
of "Zener diode".
Zener diode shown with typical packages. Reverse current − iZ is shown.
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage
across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is
reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown
voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across
the diode at that value.

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In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, UIN, is regulated down to
a stable output voltage UOUT. The intrinsic voltage drop of diode D is stable over a wide current
range and holds UOUT relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a
fairly wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, Resistor R
is used to limit current through the circuit.
In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohms
law and the known voltage drop across the resistor R. IDiode = (UIN - UOUT) / RΩ
The value of R must satisfy two conditions:
1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The
value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common
BZX79C5V6[2] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of
5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then UOUT will be unregulated, and less
than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage regulator tubes where the
output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When
calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not
shown in this diagram, connected across UOUT.
2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the
current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation
PMAX, then IDVB < PMAX.
A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the zener stays in
reverse breakdown, the diode will provide a stable voltage source to the load.
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A Zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt voltage regulator (shunt, in this context,
meaning connected in parallel, and voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a
stable voltage across any load). In a sense, a portion of the current through the resistor is shunted
through the Zener diode, and the rest is through the load. Thus the voltage that the load sees is
controlled by causing some fraction of the current from the power source to bypass it—hence the
name, by analogy with locomotive switching points.
Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to
avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage concurrent with
high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making
for a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller
loads.
Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage
regulator circuits.
These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a base-emitter junction, in transistor
stages where selective choice of a device centered around the avalanche/Zener point can be used
to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor PN junction. An
example of this kind of use would be a DC error amplifier used in a stabilized power supply
circuit feedback loop system.
Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes.
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage
known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener,
who discovered this electrical property.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its
reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias
(current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-
in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor
material and the doping concentrations.

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A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as
to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the
conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow
the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode
with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias
voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for
applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a
voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons
to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type
material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band
electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these
bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both
sides.[1] The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While
tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%.
Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200
volts.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche
diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present
in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant
effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche
effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient[1]. In a 5.6 V diode,
the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other out,
thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications. Modern
manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible
temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature
coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term
of "Zener diode".
Zener diode shown with typical packages. Reverse current − iZ is shown. Zener diodes are widely
used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits.

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When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener
diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point
on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.
In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, UIN, is regulated down to
a stable output voltage UOUT. The intrinsic voltage drop of diode D is stable over a wide current
range and holds UOUT relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a
fairly wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, Resistor R
is used to limit current through the circuit.
In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohms
law and the known voltage drop across the resistor R. IDiode = (UIN - UOUT) / RΩ
The value of R must satisfy two conditions:
1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The
value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common
BZX79C5V6[2] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of
5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then UOUT will be unregulated, and less
than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage regulator tubes where the
output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When
calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not
shown in this diagram, connected across UOUT.
2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the
current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation
PMAX, then IDVB < PMAX.
A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the zener stays in
reverse breakdown, the diode will provide a stable voltage source to the load.
A Zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt voltage regulator (shunt, in this context,
meaning connected in parallel, and voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a
stable voltage across any load). In a sense, a portion of the current through the resistor is shunted
through the Zener diode, and the rest is through the load. Thus the voltage that the load sees is
controlled by causing some fraction of the current from the power source to bypass it—hence the
name, by analogy with locomotive switching points.

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Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to
avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage concurrent with
high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making
for a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller
loads.
Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage
regulator circuits.
These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a base-emitter junction, in transistor
stages where selective choice of a device centered around the avalanche/Zener point can be used
to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor PN junction. An
example of this kind of use would be a DC error amplifier used in a stabilized power supply
circuit feedback loop system.
Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes.
8.4.1. GENERAL FORM OF ZENER DIODE

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9. LIGHT EMITTIG DIODE

(LED)
9.1. INTODUCTION.
A light-emitting-diode lamp is a solid-state lamp that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the
source of light. Since the light output of individual light-emitting diodes is small compared to
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, multiple diodes are used together. LED lamps can
be made interchangeable with other types. Most LED lamps must also include internal circuits to
operate from standard AC voltage. LED lamps offer long life and high efficiency, but initial
costs are higher than those of fluorescent lamps.

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Technology overview
General purpose lighting requires white light. LEDs by nature emit light in a very small band of
wavelengths, producing strongly colored light. The color is characteristic of the energy bandgap
of the semiconductor material used to make the LED. To create white light from LEDs requires
either mixing light from red, green, and blue LEDs, or using a phosphor to convert some of the
light to other colors.
The first method (RGB-LEDs) uses multiple LED chips each emitting a different wavelength in
close proximity to create the broad white light spectrum. The advantage of this method is the fact
that one can adjust the intensities of each LED to "tune" the character of the light emitted. The
major disadvantage is the high manufacturing cost, which is important in commercial success.
The second method, phosphor converted LEDs (pcLEDs) uses a single short wavelength LED
(usually blue or ultraviolet) in combination with a phosphor, which absorbs a portion of the blue
light and emits a broader spectrum of white light. (The mechanism is similar to the way a
fluorescent lamp produces white light from a UV-illuminated phosphor.) The major advantage
here is the low cost, while the disadvantage is the inability to fine tune the character of the light
without completely changing the phosphor layer. So while this will not yield high CRI (color
rendering index) values without sacrificing some other performance property, the low cost and
adequate performance makes it the most suitable technology for general lighting today.
To be useful as a light source for a room, a number of LEDs must be placed close together in a
lamp to add their illuminating effects. This is because an individual LED produces only a small
amount of light, thereby limiting its effectiveness as a replacement light source. If white LEDs
are used, their arrangement is not critical for color balance. When using the color-mixing
method, it is more difficult to generate equivalent brightness when compared to using white
LEDs in a similar lamp size. Furthermore, degradation of different LEDs at various times in a
color-mixed lamp can lead to an uneven color output. LED lamps usually consist of clusters of
LEDs in a housing with both driver electronics, a heat sink and optics.
9.2. Application
LED lamps are used for both general lighting and special purpose lighting. Where colored light
is required, LEDs come in multiple colors, which are produced without the need for filters. This

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improves the energy efficiency over a white light source that generates all colors of light then
discards some of the visible energy in a filter.
White-light light-emitting diode lamps have the characteristics of long life expectancy and
relatively low energy consumption. The LED sources are compact, which gives flexibility in
designing lighting fixtures and good control over the distribution of light with small reflectors or
lenses. Due to the small size of LEDs, control of the spatial distribution of illumination is
extremely flexible,[1] and the light output and spatial distribution of a LED array can be
controlled without efficiency loss.
LED lamps have no glass tubes to break, and their internal parts are rigidly supported, making
them resistant to vibration and impact. With proper driver electronics design, an LED lamp can
be made dimmable over a wide range; there is no minimum current needed to sustain lamp
operation. LEDs using the color-mixing principle can produce a wide range of colors by
changing the proportions of light generated in each primary color. This allows full color mixing
in lamps with LEDs of different colors.[2] LED lamps contain no mercury.
However, some current models are not compatible with standard dimmers. It is not currently
economical to produce high levels of lighting. As a result, current LED screw-in light bulbs offer
either low levels of light at a moderate cost, or moderate levels of light at a high cost. In contrast
to other lighting technologies, LED light tends to be directional. This is a disadvantage for most
general lighting applications, but can be an advantage for spot or flood lighting.
The world's first mass-installation of LED lighting is in the Manapakkam, Chennai office of the
Indian IT company iGate.[3] It spent Rs. 37 lakh (U$80,000) to light up 57,000 sq feet of office
space. The company expects the LED lighting to completely pay for itself within 5 years.
In 2008, SSL (Solid-State Lighting) technology advanced to the point that Sentry Equipment
Corporation in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, USA, was able to light its new factory almost entirely
with LEDs, both interior and exterior. Although the initial cost was three times more than a
traditional mixture of incandescent and fluorescent bulbs, the extra cost will be repaid within two
years from electricity savings, and the bulbs should not need replacement for 20 years.

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10. CAPACITORS
10.1. INTRODUCTION
Capacitors store electric charge and have many uses. In series with a resistor they take time to
charge up and can be used in timing circuits. Since they take time to charge and discharge they
can also be used to smooth (slow the rate of change) signals. once they are full they block DC
currents so are used to filter signals and remove DC offsets. Capacitors are rated in Farads (F)
and this is a measure of how much charge they can store. The higher the rating the bigger the
charge resevoir. Usually larger capacitors (> 1&muF) are polarised and smaller ones (< 1&muF)
are un polarised - read on to find out what this means.
10.2. Unpolarised
Unpolarised capacitors don't mind which direction they are charged up from, the potential
difference across them can be in either direction.
Figure 1 - The schematic symbol of a capacitor, measured in Farads (F).
10.3. Polarised
Polarised capacitors have a positive and a negative connection, if connnected the wrong way
wround they will leak and often go pop! While not a huge disaster, it does make a mess you will
have to clear up and the fluids inside them can be quite nasty so be careful when using them.

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Figure 2- Schematic symbol of a polarised capacitor
10.4. Variable
You can also get variable capacitors which do exactly what they say on the tin! However unlike
resistors it is not always possible to reduce them to zero capacitance so they will usually specify
a minimum as well as a maximum capacitance value.
Figure 3- Schematic symbol of a variable capacitor
10.5. Characteristics and Equations

The charge that a capacitor can store is given by the equation:
Q=CV
Equation 1
Where Q is the charge in coloumbs, C is the capacitance in Farads and V is the voltage in Volts.
The current in a capacitor (I) is equal to the capacitance multiplied by the voltage change with
time (dV/dt) :
I=CdV/dt

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Equation 2
As can be seen above, if there is no change in the voltage then there's no current flowing,
because of this, in a DC circuit once a capacitor has reached its aiming voltage it will stop
conducting current until it has been discharged or a larger voltage is applied across it.
Because of the above characteristic a capacitor's impedance is related to the frequency of the
signal flowing though it:
ZC=-1/jωC
Equation 3
Where ω is the angular velociy and j is the complex conjugate showing phase shift, this shows
that the current in a capacitor is 90 degrees ahead of the voltage.
Capacitors in Parallel
Figure 4 - Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel (figure 4) their combined capacitance is equal to the
individual capacitance added together. For example if capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in
series their combined resistance, C, is given by:
C=C1+C2
Equation 4
This can be extended for more capacitors:
C=C1+C2+C3+C4+...
Equation 5

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Note that the combined capacitance in parallel will always be greater than any of the individual
capacitances.
Capacitors in Series
Figure 5 - Capacitors in series
When capacitors are connected in series (figure 5) their combined resistance is less than any of
the individual capacitances. There is a special equation for the combined capacitance of two
capacitors C1 and C2:
C=(C1×C2)/(C1+C2)
Equation 6
For more than two Capacitors connected in series add up the reciprocal ("one over") of each
capacitance to give the reciprocal of the combined capacitance, C:
1
/C=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3+1/C4...
Equation 7
Note that the combined capacitance in series will always be less than any of the individual
capacitances.
Packages
Capacitors come in a multitude of packages (figure 6), generally the larger the capacitance the
larger the capacitor. With polarised capacitors such as the electrolytics shown in figure 7it is
important to determine which leg is the positive and which the negative. In the case below the
negative leg is marked in 2 ways, the first on the case ith a black stripe containing a minus sign
and the second by the negative leg being shorter. The second test is not a reliable test unless you
have removed the capacitor from the packaging yourself... who's to say that someone hasn't been
tampering with the stocks and cut the legs to random lengths?

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Figure 6- Examples of capacitor packages
Figure 7 - Electrolytic capacitors
Below in figure 8 are shown 2 types of variable capacitor, on the left is a large variable air
capacitor which uses teeth to change the gap between the contacts and therefore change the
capacitance. The second is a smaller variable capacitor more suited for mounting on PCBs etc,
however it will also be of a smaller capacitance.

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11. DESCRIPTION

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This circuit automatically turns on a night lamp when bedroom light is switched off. The lamp
remains ‘on’ until the light sensor senses daylight in the morning. A super-bright white LED is
used as the night lamp. It gives bright and cool light in the room. When the sensor detects the
daylight in the morning, a melodious morning alarm sounds. The circuit is powered from a 6V
DC supply. The circuit utilises light-dependant resistors (LDRs) for sensing darkness and light in
the room. The resistance of LDR is very high in darkness, which reduces to minimum when LDR
is fully illuminated. LDR1 detects darkness, while LDR2 detects light in the morning. The circuit
is designed around the opular timer IC NE555 (IC2), which is configured as a monostable. IC2 is
activated by a low pulse applied to its trigger pin 2. Once triggered, output pin 3 of IC2 goes
high and remains in that position until IC2 is triggered again at its pin 2. When LDR1 is
illuminated with ambient light in the room, its resistance remains low, which keeps trigger pin 2
of IC2 at a positive potential. As a result, output pin 3 of IC2 goes low and the white LED
remains off. As the illumination of
LDR1’s sensitive window reduces, the resistance of the device increases. In total
darkness, the specified LDR has a resistance in excess of 280 kiloohms. When the resistance of
LDR1 increases, a short pulse is applied to trigger pin 2 of IC2 via resistor R2 (150 kiloohms).
This activates the monostable and its output goes high, causing the white LED to glow. Low-
value capacitor C2 maintains the monostable for continuous operation, eliminating the timer

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effect. By increasing the value of C2, the ‘on’ time of the white LED can be adjusted to a
predetermined time. LDR2 and associated components generate the morning alarm at dawn.
LDR2 detects the ambient light in the room at sunrise and its resistance gradually falls and
transistor T1 starts conducting. When T1 conducts, melody-generator IC UM66 (IC3) gets
supply voltage from the emitter of T1 and it starts producing the melody. The musical tone
generated by IC3 is amplified by single-transistor amplifier T2. Resistor R7 limits the current to
IC3 and zener diode ZD limits the voltage to a safer level of 3.3 volts.
The circuit can be easily assembled on a general-purpose PCB. Enclose it in a good-quality
plastic case with provisions for LDR and LED. Use a reflective holder for white LED to get a
spotlight effect for reading. Place LDRs away from the white LED, preferably on the backside
of the case, to avoid unnecessary illumination. The speaker should be small so as to make the
gadget compact.
12. CONCLUSION

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13. REFERENCE

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REFERENCE
Text Books
1. The SCRIBD electronic circuits----------------------------- Williamjlee

2. IETL Electronics labs------------------------------------------ Fairchild
Website
1. www.efy.com
2. www.electronics.com
3. www.google.com
4. www.scridb.com
5. www.ipdia.com
6. www.digikey.com

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lamp with morning alarm

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 1

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 2

2.2 . LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

2.3.MUSIC GENERATOR UM66

2.4. 8Ω, 4.5W SPEAKER

2.5. RESISTORS 220Ω, 560Ω, 580Ω, 1k, 120k, 150k

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 3

2.6. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

2.7. ZENER DIODE

2.8. TRANSISTOR BC548

2.9. CAPACITOR 0.01µF

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 4

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 5

3.2. General Description:

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 6

3.4. Pin Diagram:

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 7

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 8

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 9

3.5. Monostable Multivibrator Circuit details

3.6. 555 monostable-multivibrator-operation

The operation of the circuit is explained below:

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 10

3.7. Monostable Multivibrator Design Using 555 timer IC

vc = VCC (1- e-t/RAC)

So +2/3VCC. = VCC. (1 – e-t/RAC) or t – RAC loge 3 = 1.0986 RAC

So pulse width, tP = 1.0986 RAC s 1.1 RAC

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 11

3.4.1. Monostable Mode

3.4.2. Waveforms generated in this mode of

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 12

4.1. General Description

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 13

4.3. Pin Diagram:

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 14

5.1. Light Dependent Resistor figure:

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 16

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 17

6.1 Pin diagram

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 18

Low current (max. 100 mA)

General purpose switching and amplification.

NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

6.5. PIN DESCRIPTION

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 19

7.1. THREE-TERMINAL POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS

These voltage regulators are monolithic integrated circuits designed fixed-voltage

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 20

• Output Current in Excess of 1.0 Ampere

• No External Components Required

• Internal Thermal Overload Protection

• Internal Short - Circuit Current Limiting

• Output Transistor Safe-Area Compensation

• Output Voltage Offered in 2% and 4% Tolerance

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 21

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 22

• They have two leads like a resistor.

• They do not obey Ohm's law!

8.2. Characteristics and Equations

Dept.of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur. Page 23