Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Technical paper

Water hyacinths as a resource in agriculture and energy production:

A literature review
a,* b
Carina C. Gunnarsson , Cecilia Mattsson Petersen
a
Department of Biometry and Engineering, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
b
Department of Mathematics, Science and Environment, Dalarna University College, SE-781 88 Borlange, Sweden

Accepted 6 December 2005

Available online 31 March 2006

Abstract

Water hyacinths are becoming a problem in lakes, ponds and waterways in many parts of the world. This paper contains a literature
study of dierent ways to use water hyacinths, mainly in agricultural or alternative energy systems.
The literature review indicated that water hyacinths can be rich in nitrogen, up to 3.2% of DM and have a C/N ratio around 15. The
water hyacinth can be used as a substrate for compost or biogas production. The sludge from the biogas process contains almost all of
the nutrients of the substrate and can be used as a fertiliser. The use of water hyacinth compost on dierent crops has resulted in
improved yields. The high protein content makes the water hyacinth possible to use as fodder for cows, goats, sheep and chickens. Water
hyacinth, due to its abundant growth and high concentrations of nutrients, has a great potential as fertiliser for the nutrient decient soils
of Africa and as feed for livestock.
Applying the water hyacinths directly without any other processing than sun drying, seems to be the best alternative in small-scale use
due to the relatively small losses of nutrients and workload required. To meet the ever-growing energy demand, biogas production could
be one option but it requires investments and technological skills that would impose great problems in developing countries where the
water hyacinth is often found. Composting as an alternative treatment has the advantage of a product that is easy to work into the soil
compared with dried water hyacinths, because of the decomposed structure. Harvesting and transport of water hyacinths can be con-
ducted manually on a small scale and does not require a new harvesting technique to be introduced. Transporting of fresh water hya-
cinths means, if used as fertiliser in amounts large enough to enhance or eect crop growth, an unreasonably large labour requirement.
Based on the labour need and the limited access to technology, using dried water hyacinths, as green manure is a feasible alternative in
many developing countries.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction with shing, obstruction of shipping routes and losses of

The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a free oat-
ing aquatic weed originated in the Amazon in South Amer-
ica (Bolenz et al., 1990) where it was kept under control by
natural predators (Lee, 1979). The plant has, through
introduction by man, spread throughout the whole tropical
zone (Aweke, 1993). Due to its fast growth and the robust-
ness of its seeds, the water hyacinth has since then caused
major problems in the whole area, e.g., a reduction of sh.
Other eects of the fast growth are physical interference
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 18 672578.
E-mail address: Carina.Gunnarsson@bt.slu.se (C.C. Gunnarsson).
water in irrigation systems due to higher evaporation and
interference with hydroelectric schemes and increased sed-
imentation by trapping silt particles. It also restricts the
possibilities of shing from the shore with baskets or lines
(Aweke, 1993) and can cause hygienic problems (Moursi,
1976a; Becker et al., 1987; Abdelhaz, 1989, from Abdelh-
amid and Gabr, 1991).
Attempts to control the weed have caused high costs and
labour requirements, leading to nothing but temporary
removal of the water hyacinths. Since the most favourable
conditions for the growth of the water hyacinth often are
found in developing countries, very limited resources have
been put into curbing them. Fighting the water hyacinth

0956-053X/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2005.12.011
118 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
generates neither food nor income, and the weeds are there-
fore left to cover the lakes. Fast growth is a feature valued
in crops grown by man. The water hyacinth would, there-
fore, have a great potential if seen as raw material for
industries or if incorporated into agricultural practice. This
paper contains a literature review on utilisation of water
hyacinths, mainly in an agricultural or alternative energy
system.
2. The water hyacinth
2.1. Growth and harvest
Water hyacinths regenerate prolically from fragments
of stems and the seed can remain viable for more than
six years. These ways of regeneration make it very dicult
to control the weed (Lee, 1979). The number of plants can
more than double in seven days in conditions of high tem-
perature and humidity (Lareo and Bressmi, 1982, from Tag
El-Din, 1992) and up to 140 ton of DM/ha and yr are pro-
duced (Abdelhamid and Gabr, 1991). The plant normally
forms cohesive oating mats and can cover large areas of
the water surface. The spreading of the water hyacinth is
also thought to be enhanced by winds (Gay, 1960, from
Aweke, 1993). The plant ourishes in nutrient-rich waters
and on shallow shores with mud rich in nutrients.
To estimate how much of a certain water hyacinth prod-
uct (soil amendment, fertiliser, gas, fodder, etc.) can be pro-
duced, it is necessary to make approximations of how
much biomass can be harvested. Thomas and Eden
(1990) estimate the possible harvesting of water hyacinths
to 320 ton of DM/ha and yr. The gure above is based
on conditions in Bangladesh, and nothing is said about
how much water hyacinth was present before the harvest
started. In order to not over-estimate the yield, we assume
that no more than the yearly production of biomass can be
harvested, i.e., 140 ton of DM/ha and yr (Abdelhamid and
Gabr, 1991). The water hyacinth mats are driven by the
wind. The harvest possibilities will, therefore, depend on
the local conditions and winds.
2.2. Chemical analysis
The water hyacinth has an excellent ability to take up
nutrients and other chemicals from its environment, and
the chemical composition of the water hyacinths depends
strongly on its environment (Musil and Breen, 1977, from
Poddar et al., 1991). Poddar et al. (1991) reported a nitro-
gen content of 1.78% (db) in water hyacinths growing in
marshy land where the nitrogen level in the water was only
2.40 mg/L. Abdelhamid and Gabr (1991) state the nutrient
content is lower in the stem and root compared with the
nutrient content in the leaves.
Several studies on the chemical composition of the
water hyacinths have been reported. Abdelhamid and
Gabr (1991) and Bolenz et al. (1990) made studies to eval-
uate the water hyacinths nutritional value for ruminants.
Chanakya et al. (1993) and Patel et al. (1993a) analysed
water hyacinths as a substrate for anaerobic digestion.
The analysis by Poddar et al. (1991) compared the nutrient
content of water hyacinths grown in dierent habitats. The
gures in Table 1 are for water hyacinth grown in a pond.
Polprasert et al. (1980) evaluated water hyacinth as a sub-
strate for compost. In the analysis of water hyacinths from
Lake Victoria, Kenya (Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997)
the plants were not washed; hence the analysis also
included sand etc. found in the roots. In Table 1 the chem-
ical composition of the water hyacinths from dierent
sources is summarised.
2.3. Health aspects
The increased growth rate of the water hyacinths has led
to worsened health conditions for the people living in the
aected areas. The oating water hyacinth mats can serve
as a breeding ground for vector organisms carrying
malaria, bilharziosis and river blindness (Moursi, 1976a;
Becker et al., 1987; Abdelhaz, 1989, from Abdelhamid
and Gabr, 1991). At some places precautions against water
snakes, hippos and crocodiles need to be taken. The water
hyacinths consume so much oxygen when decaying that it
leads to less oxygen remaining in these waters. The
decreased oxygen content in the water leads to less oxygen
in the sh. This, combined with fewer algae and other food
sources for the sh, cause the meat of the sh to go bad fas-
ter than before. Decreased possibility to store sh leads to
lower income and food security (Sunday Standard, Kenya,
12/1-1997). This means that decreasing the amount of
water hyacinths could hopefully improve the health
situation.
When working in water hyacinth infested areas, one of
the problems is the risk of catching waterborne diseases,
in the case of Lake Victoria especially Schistosomiasis.
The problem is that the snails that serve as a host for
the bilharzia parasites are very likely to be found in water
hyacinths. If drying the water hyacinths is to be a success-
ful way of eliminating the risk of catching bilharzia
depends on if the water hyacinth can be harvested without
snails.
2.4. Harvesting
Harvesting the water hyacinths means a mechanical
control of growth. Presently, the water hyacinths are only
harvested to control their propagation where chemical or
biological (e.g., introduction of water hyacinth eating
insects) methods are prohibited or unsuccessful. This is,
according to Petrell and Bagnall (1991), because mechani-
cal harvesting is too expensive and time-consuming. The
advantages of mechanical control of water hyacinths are,
according to Verbandt (1990):
 The removal of superuous nutrients.
 The immediate result without damage to the ecosystem.
 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129 119

Table 1
Chemical analysis of water hyacinths according to dierent sources
Parameter Abdelhamid and Bolenz et al. Chanakya et al. Patel et al. Poddar et al. Polprasert et al. Gunnarsson
(% on DM basis) Gabr (1991)a (1990) (1993) (1993a) (1991)b (1980) and Mattsson
(1997)
Fresh Driedc
Dry matter (% on wb) 9.5 6.2 9.4
Organic matter (VS) 74.3 83.65 83.61
Crude protein 20 11.9 16.25
Ether extract 3.47 1.61
Crude bre 18.9 16.34
Nitrogen free extract 31.9 49.41
Ash 25.7 15 20.2 16.39 35.6 52.07
C/N ratio 15.8 23.5 25.1
Neutral detergent bre 62.3 56.14
Acid detergent bre 29.0 37.72
Hemicellulose 33.4 22 33.97 43.4 18.42
Cellulose 19.5 31 18 17.8 25.61
Lignin 9.27 7 26.36 7.8 9.93
Water soluble 21.68
Phosphorus 0.53 0.53 0.5 0.26 0.32
Carbon 27.6 18.54
Nitrogen 2.76 2.9 1.18 0.74
Magnesium 0.17
Calcium 0.58 2.29
Potassium 2.44 4.53 2.27
Metabolizable energy 6.35
for ruminants (MJ/kg)
a
Abdelhamid and Gabr (1991) made the chemical analysis on water hyacinths collected from a canal and a ditch at Mansoura, Egypt.
b
The cell wall composition was fractioned according to Van Soest (1963) and Van Soest and Wine (1967) from Poddar et al. (1991).
c
Dried 13 days with full natural aeration.

 Waterbodies can be used more widely (e.g., for irriga-
tion of agriculture areas and drinking water supply).
 Mechanical methods are possible in open owing as well
as in closed water systems.
Another advantage of harvest is that it makes it possible
to use the water hyacinths in, for example, agricultural
practice.
A weed screen cleaner with continuously moving rakes is
being developed in Belgium. The plan is to construct a
back-raked screen that is mobile by being mounted on a
converted military amphibian (Verbandt, 1990). Another
possibility might be to use agricultural harvesting machin-
ery such as conveyor belts. In the Philippines they are
reported to use barges with some kind of hand powered
winch when harvesting open-water water hyacinths (Tho-
ren, 1997). When the hyacinths are close to the shoreline,
one person can, in an easy and sustainable tempo, harvest
approximately 200 kg of fresh water hyacinths per hour
(Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997).
If the water hyacinths are not growing directly on the
shoreline, they must be transported there. Petrell and
Bagnall (1991) conducted a study to determine drag prop-
erties of water hyacinths. The maximum towing velocity,
before the mat became unstable and the leading edge
started to roll forward under the water, was found to be
0.40 m/s. The maximal size of the mats in this experiment
was 2.44 by 1.22 m.
2.5. Transport
When using water hyacinths in agricultural practise,
transport of the fresh or treated plant is necessary. The need
and design of the transport vary depending on the treatment.
The design also depends on the scale of the operation. In
anaerobic digestion, the water hyacinths will have to be
transported to the biogas digester that also requires a low
dry matter concentration. The sludge from the process, also
having a high water content, must be transported to the eld
for spreading. In alternatives with compost or green manure,
it is advantageous if the treatments are taking place close to
where the water hyacinths are harvested. That means less
transport of the water hyacinths while they still have a high
water content, and thus less transport of water that might
need to be added to the compost. The compost product could
be transported to the eld in baskets carried on the head
(Eklund, 1996). The dried water hyacinths used as green
manure could be carried in nets or pieces of cloth.
In Table 2 is a summary of the transport requirements
for providing 1 kg of plant available nitrogen.
3. Treatment
3.1. Carbonisation
The main product from this three-stage process (gasi-
cation, pyrolysis and carbonisation) is charcoal, as a
120 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129

Table 2 hyacinth in that aspect is a good roughage for ruminants.

Transport requirements for providing 1 kg plant available N through Tag El-Din (1992) found that using water hyacinth hay
water hyacinth products (Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997)
as a sole roughage greatly reduced the average daily weight
Parameter Anaerobic Compost Green Unit gain. They concluded that for growing sheep, up to 30% of
digestion manure
the roughage (bean straw) can be substituted with hay
Fresh water 3676 8351 2973 kg wh (wb) made from dried water hyacinths, without a loss in growth
hyacinth to harvest
Dry matter 349 795 284 kg wh (DM)
rate.
to harvest According to Bolenz et al. (1990), the stalk tissues of the
Dry matter 243 459 270 kg wh (DM) water hyacinths contain intercellular spaces lled with air,
after process which soak up water while the animals are digesting. That
Dry matter 10 70 85 % leads to excessive water consumption and the animals feel
of product
Amount to spread 2378 649 324 kg wh
replete, although having little material of nutritional value
product (wb) in their rumens. Bolenz et al. (1990) also found, when
wh = water hyacinth.
examining the water hyacinth tissue in microscope, sharp
needles formed of calcium oxalate. Bolenz et al. (1990)
assumed that these needles could damage the digestive tract
by-product gas is obtained that can be used for internal of animals fed with water hyacinths, if they were not dis-
processes (Thomas and Eden, 1990). solved by digestive acid. To avoid these problems, Bolenz
There are two problems in using the water hyacinth for et al. (1990) suggested the following preparation of the
making charcoal. First, there is a need to reduce the water water hyacinths used for feeding animals: Chop the tissues
content, and second the ash content (40% according to to eliminate the air included and to negate its ability to
Thomas and Eden, 1990) of air-dried water hyacinth is absorb water. After chopping, the solid material should
too high to get a good fuel as an end product. The high be separated from the soluble components in the juice by
investments and technological level necessary also make pressing and centrifuging. The solid phase could be washed
carbonisation an unfavourable alternative in developing with acid to eliminate the acid-soluble calcium-oxalate and
countries (Thomas and Eden, 1990). then processed to a ruminant fodder. The juice could be
concentrated, dried and used as a protein enriched fodder
3.2. Hydrolysis and fermentation component (Bolenz et al., 1990).
It is possible to produce silage from water hyacinths, but
Hydrolysis together with fermentation will give a liquid the water hyacinths need to be chopped into ne pieces to
fuel, for example, ethanol. The process is well suited for remove the air in the tissues; otherwise these could lead to
material with a high moisture content, which would make growth of aerobic moulds during the fermentation. Also
aquatic weeds a good substrate. Hydrolysis and fermenta- sorbic acid can be added to suppress the moulds. For suc-
tion also require yeast fermentable sugars that are available cessful fermentation the pH needs to be lowered (below 4),
only to a very low extent in water hyacinth and other aqua- which is achieved by adding sugar. The water hyacinths
tic weeds. Some kind of pre-treatment is, therefore, needed were calculated to contain 0.52% fermentable sugar in rela-
to make the sugar more easily available for chemical tion to fresh weight so an addition of 0.4% sugar was
hydrolysis. The pre-treatment requires a relatively high enough to reach the desired pH value (Bolenz et al., 1990).
temperature, strong acids and pressurised reactors. Enzy-
matic hydrolysis is an option, but dicult because of the 3.4. Drying
high lignin content. Slesser and Lewis (1979, from Thomas
and Eden, 1990) reported a negative energy balance of such Drying is a pre-treatment step done to get the right
a process. Thomas and Eden conclude that hydrolysis of moisture content for the subsequent treatment, but also
water hyacinths to produce fuel is, because of the negative to decrease the weight and thereby make transport easier.
energy balance, only feasible in situations where there is a It can also be a treatment in itself. Drying the water hya-
high need for ethanol as a liquid fuel. cinths makes it possible to store them for later use and
make them easier to decompose once put in the soil. This
3.3. Fodder and silage might be achieved by sun drying, i.e., simply spreading
the water hyacinths directly on the ground. Experiences
Water hyacinth as roughage is an interesting alternative in Egypt of sun-drying of water hyacinths reported no
to reduce the shortage of animal feed. Tag El-Din (1992) observed mould or contamination during the drying period
conducted a study to see the eect of substituting bean (Tag El-Din, 1992). Polprasert et al. (1980) report that sun-
straw with water hyacinth hay when feeding sheep. Norton drying water hyacinths for a few days reduce the weight by
(1982, from Tag El-Din, 1992) considered 9% crude pro- about half. Apori (1994) found the when plantain and cas-
tein, on a DM basis, to be the minimum in the fodder sava peels were sun dried, the material had to be dried for
for ruminants. Abdelhamid and Gabr (1991) give a crude four days to attain a dry matter content of 87.0% (limit for
protein content of 20% on DM basis showing that water storability) or above. There were no signicant losses of
 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
nutrients, the maximum loss in crude protein was 0.3%
(Apori, 1994).
In Kenya water hyacinth roots dried with full natural
aeration (hung over a fence) reached a dry matter content
of 87% after 13 days. The leaves of the same plants did not
reach more than 66% DM. It was also found that the nutri-
ent level in the water hyacinths decreased during the drying
process. It should be pointed out that these trials were car-
ried out during the rainy season, and it is likely that the
whole plants would reach a dry matter content sucient
for storage and the nutrient losses can be decreased if dried
during the dry season (Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997).
3.4.1. Incineration
Sun drying and direct burning is used on a small scale in
certain parts of the world. Fresh water hyacinth has a
moisture content of about 90% (Abdelhamid and Gabr,
1991). Even when the moisture level is reduced to 10%
the energy density is not more than 1.3 GJ/m3 (Thomas
and Eden, 1990). This may be compared with 9.8 GJ/m3
in rewood and does not make the water hyacinth very
attractive for direct incineration. The major part of the
fresh water hyacinth is water, and any processing or trans-
port is therefore worthwhile only if the water content can
be reduced to 1015% with relative ease (Thomas and
Eden, 1990).
3.4.2. Briquetting
Thomas and Eden (1990) mention briquetting as a pos-
sible treatment. The briquettes are made by sun-drying the
water hyacinth for a few days, disintegrating, screening and
chopping the dried water hyacinths to pieces about 6 mm
long. The shredded water hyacinth can then be compressed
into briquettes or pellets. The material resulting after
briquetting water hyacinth has an energy density of
8.3 GJ/m3, which is comparable to charcoal that has
9.6 GJ/m3. This process requires initial investments for
machinery and a rather large area for the drying, which
might be expensive.
3.5. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is the biological process by which
organic matter is degraded in the absence of oxygen and
biogas is produced. The three-step process results in a gas
that can be used directly for cooking, heating or produc-
tion of electricity and a nutrient-rich slurry.
Biogas is a form of energy that has very useful by-prod-
ucts and positive impacts on public health and pollution.
This, together with the growing shortage of rewood and
rising cost of fossil fuels, has made anaerobic digestion
increasingly interesting. These advantages of the process
might make it well suited for use in developing countries.
According to Gunnersson and Stuckey (1986) Plants such
as water hyacinths. . .can be degraded easily, and give quite
a high gas yield. In these cases, digestion of these weeds can
solve the problems caused by excess growth in canals and
121
provide energy as well. Day et al. (1990) see biogas as a
reliable energy source that can improve the environment
both on a large and on a small scale, e.g., deforestation
and smoke reduction in kitchens.
However, technical requirements might limit the possi-
bility to use anaerobic digestion as a treatment for water
hyacinth in rural areas. Lack of water and cow manure
as a substrate has been mentioned as other limitations.
When water hyacinths are intended as the main substrate,
large amounts of animal manure are not needed and, due
to their growth place, water is generally available.
3.5.1. Pre-treatment
Chopping the water hyacinths increases the specic sur-
face of the substrate and thereby enhances the access of
microbes to the plant material, which is important for a
well-working biogas process (Haug, 1993). Moorhead
and Nordstedt (1993) conducted experiments with dierent
particle sizes, nitrogen contents and inoculum volumes, in a
mesophilic process (35 C). The total biogas and methane
production was largest for water hyacinth when the plant
material was chopped into 6.04 mm pieces (compared with
1.6 and 12.7 mm).
Water hyacinths have a high content of hemicellulose
and cellulose, but the existing hemicellulose has a rather
strong association with the lignin in the plant, which makes
it unavailable for the microorganisms (Patel et al., 1993a).
To optimise biogas production, the plants must undergo
some kind of pre-treatment. Patel et al. (1993a) used ther-
mochemical pre-treatment to solve these problems and
thereby increased the gas production.
Patel et al. (1993b) found that the addition of metal ions:
Fe3+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Co2+, and Cu2+, will enhance gas pro-
duction and increase the methane content in the produced
gas and also result in better process stability. The water
hyacinths used in these experiments were, however, taken
from a pond that did not receive municipal or industrial
euent. Water hyacinth from polluted water might already
contain sucient amounts of heavy metals. Geeta et al.
(1990) reported increased biogas production when nickel
was added to water hyacinth or a mixture of water hya-
cinth and cow dung.
El-Shinnawi et al. (1989) produced biogas from water
hyacinth mixed with cow dung, and found the cow dung
to provide enough microorganisms to serve as inoculum.
The conclusion from these reports is that in developing
countries it is probably better to not use costly pre-treat-
ment and instead use a longer residence time.
3.5.2. Digestion product
3.5.2.1. Sludge. Gunnersson and Stuckey (1986) write that
the sludge from the anaerobic process is rich in nutrients
and organic matter and provides a good way to recycle
these nutrients. A wet biogas process has a dry matter
content of 210% (Thomas and Eden, 1990; El-Shinnawi
et al., 1989; Madamwar et al., 1991). Essentially all of
the nutrients contained in biomass used for anaerobic
122 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
methane generation remain in the digester sludge (Hons
et al., 1993; Stout, 1983) as long as it is not de-watered
and stored airtight. Nutrient concentration will increase
slightly during digestion because of the loss of volatile sol-
ids, associated with methane generation. The high concen-
tration of nutrients gives the sludge a high potential as
fertiliser (Hons et al., 1993). Due to the anaerobic condi-
tions, most of the nitrogen in the sludge will be found in
organic form, followed by ammonium (NH 4 ) (2050% or
more) and a very small part as nitrate (NO 3 ) (Hons
et al., 1993). Anaerobic sludge is easily de-watered and
there have been thoughts on marketing the dried sludge
as a fertiliser. This practice is only feasible for very large
feedlots (Stout, 1983). Using the sludge as a fertiliser with-
out de-watering will mean more eort in transport of the
material.
Much of the nitrogen in anaerobic sludge is in ammo-
nium (NH 4 ) form and therefore is less likely to leach from
the soil than nitrite (NO 
2 ) and nitrate (NO3 ). The decision
whether ammonium (anaerobic sludge) or nitrite and
nitrate (aerobic sludge or chemical fertilisers) are to be pre-
ferred will be based on the soil type (Stout, 1983). From
China an increase in agricultural productivity by 30% over
farmyard manure is reported when using anaerobic sludge
as a fertiliser (van Buren, 1979, from Gunnersson and Stuc-
key, 1986). This is probably due to the nitrogen in the
sludge being more accessible than, in for example, farm-
yard manure (Gunnersson and Stuckey, 1986). There is a
risk of contaminating nearby watercourses (Stark and
Clapp, 1980) and decreasing seed germination by applying
too much sludge (Hons et al., 1993).
Ammonia volatilisation can lead to signicant losses if
the material is spread on the surface of the soil or stored
in containers that are not airtight. Some authors report
only negligible volatilisation from sludge. How much is lost
will depend on the characteristics of the sludge, method of
application, and soil properties (Hons et al., 1993). The risk
of ammonia volatilisation increases with high ammonium
concentration and pH (Moorhead and Nordstedt, 1993).
If the sludge from a biogas process is to be applied as a soil
fertiliser in areas with high temperatures, it must be worked
into the soil or in some other way covered to minimise the
nutrient losses due to ammonia volatilisation. The nitrogen
Table 3
Summary of reported gas yields with water hyacinth as a main substrate
Source
Chanakya et al. (1993)
Chanakya et al. (1993)
Chynoweth et al. (1983, from Moorhead and Nordstedt, 1993)
Ellegard et al. (1983)
Hanisak (1980, from Moorhead and Nordstedt, 1993)
Moorhead and Nordstedt (1993)
Patel et al. (1993a)
Patel et al. (1993b)
Madamwar et al. (1991)
W = water hyacinth as only substrate. WC = a mix of water hyacinth and cattle dung was digested.
losses might otherwise be as high as 7080% (Thyselius,
1997). Parker and Sommers (1983) report that 15% of the
organic nitrogen remaining in the sludge will be available
to the plants during the rst growing season. They also
state that the risk of nitrogen immobilisation in the soil is
highest when the sludge has a C/N ratio above 20.
3.5.2.2. Biogas. Chanakya et al. (1993) found that water
hyacinth has a high content of fermentable matter and
therefore a high potential for biogas production, but the
high lignin content can reduce the actual production.
The low bulk density could result in large voids with poor
compaction and low feed rates (Chanakya et al., 1993) as
a result. El-Shinnawi et al. (1989) conducted trials with
anaerobic digestion of agricultural waste. Rice straw,
maize stalks, cotton stalks and water hyacinths mixed
with cow dung were digested in dierent containers. The
mixture of water hyacinth and cow dung was found to
produce more biogas per kilogram VS added than maize
and cotton stalks, but the total biogas production per
kilogram DM added was lower for the water hyacinths.
The low values for total gas production was probably
mostly due to the high lignin content and low percentage
of volatile solids in the water hyacinths (El-Shinnawi
et al., 1989). Table 3 is a summary of reported gas yields
where water hyacinth made up all or the major part of the
substrate. This shows that water hyacinths can compete
well with any kind of animal manure as a substrate for
biogas production.
The gas produced during the process consists mainly of
methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia, but small amounts
of hydrogen sulphide may occur. The proportion of meth-
ane in the produced gas is usually up to 60%, but depends
on the substrate (Gunnersson and Stuckey, 1986). Temper-
ature, pH and pressure may alter the gas composition
slightly. The specic gravity decreases when the methane
content increases (Constant et al., 1989).
3.6. Composting
Another possible treatment method for water hyacinths
is aerobic decomposition, i.e., composting. Due to the lack
of infrastructure and capital, small-scale composting is the
Biogas production Residence time (days) Methane (%) Substrate
(l/g DM) (l/g VS)
0.291 0.348 300 60 W (fresh)
0.245 0.292 300 60 W (dry)
0.19 W
0.4 W
0.24 W
0.200.28 1560 6367 W
0.190 0.293 8 6266 W
0.143 0.286 8 W
0.19 0.4 8 65 WC
 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
main interest in developing countries. Composting can be
dened as the biological decomposition and stabilisation
of organic substrates, under conditions that allow develop-
ment of thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologi-
cally produced heat. The nal product should be stable,
free of pathogens and plant seeds, and benecial when
applied to land (Haug, 1993).
To decrease evaporation and losses of nitrogen, as
ammonia, the compost can be covered with a layer of,
for example, straw, grass or plastic. The advantage of
using straw is that the microorganisms use straw as a
source of energy and then catch the escaping ammonia
in order to ll their nitrogen demand (Claesson and Stei-
neck, 1991). Covering the compost with straw is also
advantageous since it decreases the losses of nutrient
from rainwater leaching through the compost pile (Ulen,
1991).
3.6.1. Pre-treatment
Enhancement of the access of the microbes to the plant
material by chopping the fresh water hyacinths is impor-
tant for a well-functioning compost (Dalzell et al., 1979).
To enhance bacterial decomposition, Polprasert et al.
(1980) mention that the water hyacinths were shredded into
about 5-cm long pieces before they were composted. In a
study by Elserafy et al. (1980), the fresh water hyacinths
were also chopped before being composted. Composting
the water hyacinth without size reducing them might, on
the other hand, decrease the need for additional struc-
ture-supporting material and decrease the labour
requirement.
3.6.2. Amendments
For a well-working compost process, conditioning of the
feed substrate is sometimes needed. Amendments can be
added to prevent lack of energy, nutrients or other chemi-
cal substances (Haug, 1993) or to establish a suitable
micro-fauna and increase degradation of, for example, cel-
lulose and lignin (Adhikary et al., 1992).
In a study of composting water hyacinths conducted in
Egypt by Elserafy et al. (1980), lignin and cellulose were
reported to remain undegraded after 185 days. The water
hyacinths were spread alternating with a microbial activa-
tor consisting of ammonium sulphate, superphosphate and
lime, in order to keep the process slightly alkaline (Elserafy
et al., 1980).
Haug (1993) mentions that a cellulose-rich substrate
may lack the nutrients necessary to sustain rapid microbial
growth rates. Adhikary et al. (1992) investigated the micro-
ora associated with dierent plant wastes, e.g., water hya-
cinth, during composting. It was shown that a mixture of
fungi, actinomycetes and bacteria added to the compost
increased both the cellulose and lignin degradation com-
pared with the untreated control (Adhikary et al., 1992).
Since water hyacinths have a relatively high lignin content,
preparation of the compost with microorganisms is of
interest.
123
3.6.3. C/N ratio
The optimal C/N ratio for the microbes is 15 to 30
according to Haug (1993), who claims that a decreased
ratio is no problem for the composting process but leads
to losses of excess nitrogen via ammonia volatilisation.
Others claim the optimal range for bacterial decomposition
to be a C/N ratio of 2040 (Achraya, 1950, from Polprasert
et al., 1980). A balanced nutrient availability for the micro-
organisms is important for a high decomposition rate (Pol-
prasert et al., 1980). The same authors also noticed a
slower composting rate for the piles prepared with water
hyacinths compared with a control consisting of cow dung
and leaves. The reason, they concluded, might be that
leaves consist mainly of hemicellulose and cellulose, com-
pounds reported to be more biodegradable than lignin,
the major component of water hyacinths (Karim, 1968,
from Polprasert et al., 1980). The water hyacinths have a
C/N ratio of about 16 according to Abdelhamid and Gabr
(1991), whereas Dalzell et al. (1979) report a C/N ratio of
20. This means that water hyacinths need an addition of
cellulose material, such as leaves (C/N 60.8, Polprasert
et al., 1980) to keep the ammonia losses low for the micro-
bial decomposition.
3.6.4. Moisture content
Elserafy et al. (1980) report an optimal moisture content
of about 60% for the composting process, and Dalzell et al.
(1979) give an optimal range of moisture content of 50
60%.
Elserafy et al. (1980) claim that the moisture content of
the fresh water hyacinth is too high and hence little addi-
tional water is needed during the composting. Also the
evaporation rate is high in hot climates, i.e., where the
water hyacinths grow. Therefore the high moisture content
is probably not a big problem when composting water hya-
cinths. To avoid too low of a moisture content in piles
when composting in tropical areas with hot climates, the
correct location of the compost operation is important.
The preparation of 1 ton of compost product may require
up to 2700 L of water. Composting can be carried out
either in a pit or in a pile. Dalzell et al. (1979) suggest that
compost be produced in pits during dry seasons and, to
avoid water logging, in piles during rainy seasons. The
compost should be protected from the wind to decrease
moisture losses (Dalzell et al., 1979; Njoroge, 1994). Plac-
ing the compost pile out of direct sunlight can also reduce
the water requirements according to Dalzell et al. (1979).
3.6.5. Pathogen reduction
As a measure of bacterial destruction, Polprasert et al.
(1980) mention an initial coliform concentration between
5 103 and 180 103 MPN (most probable number)/g
compost mixture and a die-o of 7090% after 10 week
when composting water hyacinths together with nightsoil.
As comparison, the US Environmental Protection Agency
requires that the density of faecal coliforms must be less
than 1000 MPN/g dry matter for sludge-based compost
124 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
intended for public distribution and marketing (Haug,
1993). Such low levels of pathogens were not reached in
the trial by Polprasert et al. (1980) where the highest
reported temperature was 60 C.
3.6.6. Use of compost as a soil amendment
As the composting process proceeds, the readily degrad-
able organics in the substrate are oxidised and gradually
turned into increasingly less degradable humic material
(Haug, 1993). If the compost product is not mature enough
it has been observed to contain metabolites that are toxic
to plants. If the compost applied to soils still has a high
C/N ratio, i.e., decomposes rapidly, it may rob the soil of
nitrogen needed by the plants. If, on the other hand, the
C/N ratio of the organic matter is low, the excess nitrogen
released as ammonia may become phytotoxic to plants
(Haug, 1993).
The major nutrients important for the fertilising qualities
of the compost are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potas-
sium (K). The oxidation of nitrogen in the compost process
ultimately yields nitrate, which is not normally lost from the
compost pile (Polprasert et al., 1980). Since phosphorus and
potassium are physico-chemically less mobile than nitrogen,
these compounds remain in the compost unless lost through
leaching. They concluded that composting of the water hya-
cinths in developing countries is a feasible method because
of its ability to retain most of the nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in the compost and attain a satisfactory degree of
composting within a relatively short period of time, i.e., 30
days (Polprasert et al., 1980).
In a longer perspective, adding compost regularly
enhances the quality of the soil by improving the soil struc-
ture. Advantages with compost application are (Eklund,
1996):
 Increased water-holding capacity of the soil,
 Improved soil structure by binding sand particles, mak-
ing soils less prone to erosion,
 Adding nutrients to the soil and thus giving higher crop
yields, and
 Contributing to re-circulation of organic material.
In Africa, many resource-poor farmers cannot aord to
purchase fertilisers. They seldom use organic waste prod-
ucts for compost (Abdel-Sabour and Abo El-Seoud,
1996). In a study in India (Sharma and Mittra, 1990), par-
tially decomposed water hyacinth compost was applied to a
sandy clay loam in a pot experiment with rice. The grain
yield increased with increasing rate of application up to
15 ton/ha. The decomposition of water hyacinths resulted
in active mineralisation of nutrients (Kumada, 1977, from
Sharma and Mittra, 1990), which enhanced tillering and
grain yield. Application of all organic materials increased
the organic carbon and available nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium contents of the soil after harvest of the rst
crop. The higher grain yield of the second crop was associ-
ated with increasing soil fertility, owing mainly to increases
in organic carbon and available nitrogen concentrations. It
was concluded that yield may be enhanced by incorporat-
ing water hyacinth compost up to 10 days before trans-
planting the rice to the eld (Sharma and Mittra, 1990).
Water hyacinth compost also had positive eects on ses-
ame growth in Egypt (Abdel-Sabour and Abo El-Seoud,
1996). Primary analysis indicated that compost addition
increased the levels of extractable nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium in the top 25 cm of the soil (Abdel-Sabour
and Abo El-Seoud, 1996).
Composted water hyacinths were also tried as an
organic source of nitrogen on bre yield of white jute.
The water hyacinth compost was found to contain 0.55%
nitrogen (on DM) and 45% moisture. Application of
40 kg N/ha, through water hyacinth compost alone,
increased the bre yield signicantly compared with the
control (Thakuria et al., 1991).
3.7. Green manure
One option is to use the water hyacinths as green man-
ure. Green manuring involves spreading plant material
(with a high nitrogen content) on the elds and sometimes
also working it into the soil (van der Wer et al., 1995).
Wivstad (1997) reports that the most important features
of a green manure are a large dry matter production and
a high ability to x nitrogen. The chemical analyses found
in literature indicate a high nutrient content of the water
hyacinth, 20% crude protein (Abdelhamid and Gabr,
1991), but values as low as 7.26% have been reported (Else-
rafy et al., 1980). They also have a very high dry matter
production (140 ton of DM/ha and yr, Abdelhamid and
Gabr, 1991). This should make them suited for use as green
manure.
Drying the water hyacinths before spreading them on the
elds ought to be done primarily to minimise the risk of bil-
harzia (Thors, 1997) and secondly to decrease the labour
required for transportation. Drying might lead to losses in
biomass and thereby nutrients. For many plants their leaves
have a higher nutrient content than the rest of the plant.
This is also true for the water hyacinths. The nitrogen con-
tent of the leaves and stem is 3.7% (DM) and 2.7% (DM),
respectively (Abdelhamid and Gabr, 1991). The leaves
and other fragile parts will usually make up the largest part
of the mechanical losses (Grant, 1990). Leaf-losses may,
therefore, lead to a decrease in the average nutrient content
calculated on the total dry matter. According to Gupta et al.
(1996), leaves do not make up more than 25% of the total
biomass of water hyacinths.
3.7.1. Application of water hyacinth
To minimise the losses of nitrogen through volatilisation
once the plant material is spread in the eld, it should be
covered by soil (Dalzell et al., 1979). One of the easiest
ways to do this would be to, while ploughing, put the water
hyacinths in the plough furrow and allow the next furrow
slice to cover them. Gunnarsson and Mattsson (1997)
 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129 125

found that partially dried water hyacinths used as green Table 4

manure continued to grow in soil, which is why it would Nitrogen losses and amounts needed to provide 1 kg plant available
nitrogen
be desirable to somehow disintegrate the plants before
usage. These methods require a certain level of mechanisa- Parameter Anaerobic Compost Green Unit
digestion manure
tion. If all of the agricultural work is done by hand, the
water hyacinth could be hoed into the soil while preparing Mechanical N-losses 10 0 15.8 % of
initial N
it for sowing. A method must be developed so that the Process losses 0 39.6 0.3 % of
working hours spent on the elds do not drastically initial N
increase, but exactly how this could be done depends on Losses during 15 0.6 0 % of
the level of mechanisation. spreading initial N
Nitrogen mineralization is the transformation from the Total N loss 24 40 16 % of
initial N
organic state into the inorganic forms of ammonium or DM loss due to 30 44 13 % of
nitrate, thereby making it available to the plants. No g- processing initial DM
ures on mineralization of dried water hyacinths were found N mineralised at 14 4 0 % of
in literature, but the nitrogen and lignin content of water spreading initial N
hyacinths are similar to that of subterranean clover as NO 3 or
NH
described in an incubation experiment to examine carbon N mineralised rst 15 10 30 % of
4

and nitrogen mineralization from green manure legumes season remaining

decomposing in the soil (Marstorp and Kirchmann, org, N
1991). Also the nitrogen uptake from decomposing legume Plant available nitrogen 23 9 25 % of
material by subsequent crops was determined. During 115 initial N
Amount to harvest 135 338 124 kg wh (DM)
days of incubation, approximately 3035% of total nitro- Fresh water hyacinth 1432 3568 1305 kg wh (wb)
gen in subterranean clover was mineralised. The net nitro- to harvest
gen mineralization correlated well with the C/N ratio of the Amount dry matter to 95 192 108 kg wh
legumes; the species with high C/N ratio had lower miner- spread product
alization. Calculations of nitrogen mineralised from the (DM)
Dry matter in product 10 70 85 % of wet
same green manure legumes under eld conditions indi- weight
cated that the potentially mineralisable amount of nitrogen Amount to spread 957 273 127 kg wh
(N0) decreased with plant age (Kirchmann and Marstorp, product (wb)
1991). Calculations are based on a dry matter content of 9.5% and a nitrogen
content of 3.2% (db) in the fresh water hyacinths (Gunnarsson and
4. Discussion Mattsson, 1997). wh = water hyacinth.

To establish a well-operating chain for use of the water
hyacinth, all the steps involved in the process harvest,
transport, pre-processing and processing must be consid-
ered. A participatory approach is important for adjusting
the systems to be introduced to the needs and possibilities
(technological and economic) of the people. If the system is
to be successful, it has to be accepted in the area and people
must benet from it. In Table 4 an evaluation of dierent
methods for utilisation of water hyacinths in agriculture
is presented. The evaluation is based on nitrogen losses
and how much water hyacinth product must be spread to
provide the available nitrogen needed.
A method for harvesting the plant material must be
developed to get the weeds out of the water. In many areas,
the supply of water hyacinth is almost unlimited. A good
estimation of the amount of water hyacinths available for
harvest is 140 ton of dry matter per hectare, which is equiv-
alent to the annual production per hectare (Abdelhamid
and Gabr, 1991). The nitrogen content of the water hya-
cinths is between 1.2% and 3.2% on a dry matter basis.
Harvest of the water hyacinths on a large scale can be
done with specially designed machines. If the water hya-
cinths have to be transported to the place of harvest, Petrell
and Bagnall (1991) found the maximum towing velocity to
be 0.40 m/s. Towing of the water hyacinths might, how-
ever, not be necessary as they often are transported directly
to the shore by winds. On a smaller scale, harvesting by
hand is preferable since it is a simple and inexpensive
method.
Harvesting of the water hyacinths would improve the
health situation for people living in water hyacinth infested
areas. Direct negative eects of water hyacinths are the
increased occurrence of diseases like malaria and bilharzia.
The quality of the sh caught in areas with lots of water
hyacinths has also deteriorated (Sunday Standard, Kenya,
12/1-1997). The harvesting process in itself might impose
health problems. Harvesting will lead to contact with the
water and thereby the risk of being infected by bilharzia.
The total time the plants are kept dry, or at least out of
the lake, must exceed 48 h (Thors, 1997) to ensure destruc-
tion of the bilharzia parasites if they are in the form of
cercariae. However, if the hosting snails are present, the bil-
harzia parasite can survive in the snail for a long time.
Cutting the water hyacinths before processing is neces-
sary for anaerobic digestion. For composting, cutting
might not be necessary because whole plants will enhance
aeration. It is favourable if the preparation of the fresh
water hyacinths can be done during the dry season. During
126 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
that season people are not engaged in eldwork, and con-
sequently have more time for working with the water
hyacinths.
Since not all water hyacinths can be expected to be used
directly on the lakeshore, it is also necessary to nd a way
to transport the harvested material. The high water content
of the fresh water hyacinths makes drying them directly on
the beach after harvesting of interest in order to decrease
the labour needed for transport. Fresh water hyacinths
can be transported in buckets or baskets. When it comes
to transport of the product, the nitrogen concentration in
the sludge from an anaerobic process is, due to its high
water content, very low and the sludge is dicult to trans-
port. Buckets could be used but the large amount that must
be transported to provide nutrients, in the form of sludge,
for the crop would make it necessary to develop a new
transport system. The heavy workloads otherwise might
lead to a risk of the sludge being dumped close to the pro-
cessing plant. If so this would probably lead to even greater
eutrophication of the lake and an increase in the amount of
water hyacinths. The compost product can be transported
in baskets. The amount of compost product to be trans-
ported to the eld is twice as much as when transporting
dried water hyacinths. Once in the eld the compost prod-
uct has a texture very similar to the soil and is therefore
easy to work into the soil.
Use of dried water hyacinths as green manure is the
alternative with the lowest transport requirement. The
product is also easy to handle. Drying gives the option to
store the plants so they can be harvested when there is time,
during the dry season. They can then be used when needed
by the farmer, during the rainy season. Sun drying for a
few days decreases the weight of the water hyacinths by
about half. A dry matter content of 87% is needed to stop
microbial activity decomposing the product (Apori, 1994).
The advantage of the anaerobic process is that it results
in two useful products: a nutrient-rich sludge that can be
used for soil improvement and a gas that can be used for
cooking, heating, lighting and electricity production, thus
decreasing the need for rewood. One restriction with
anaerobic digestion is the large need for water, but as water
hyacinths grow in water that should not be a problem.
Implementation of a biogas program requires, according
to experiences from China and India, strong governmental
support to be successful. It also requires quite large initial
investments and technological skills. Small-scale digester
designs exist that, with proper implementation, could work
very well in these areas (Gunnersson and Stuckey, 1986).
Composting of water hyacinths is a possible treatment
method. Compared with drying, the nitrogen loss is larger
but the compost product obtained is stable, and if a tem-
perature of above 55 C is reached for a day or two essen-
tially all pathogens are destroyed (Haug, 1993). To ensure
kill-o, the high temperature must be reached throughout
the compost pile. The high water content of the fresh water
hyacinths probably does not cause any problems when
composting in hot, evaporative climates. On the other
hand, regardless of the high water content of the substrate,
the compost might need watering, especially during the dry
season. If possible, the compost should be placed close to a
source of water that does not dry out during the dry season
since that is when the water demand is highest. If the water
hyacinths are cut into smaller pieces before composting,
addition of a material providing structure might be needed
(Dalzell et al., 1979). As water hyacinths have a relatively
high ash content, 25.7% of DM (Abdelhamid and Gabr,
1991), adding extra ash will probably not be needed. The
water hyacinths are valuable in the compost due to their
high content of nitrogen. Compost of water hyacinths will
o-set the cost of cleaning the irrigation system of this weed
and will prevent the health hazard arising from leaving the
plant material on the beach (Elserafy et al., 1980). Water
hyacinth compost has been shown to have positive eects
on crop growth (Sharma and Mittra, 1991; Abdel-Sabour
and Abo El-Seoud, 1996; Thakuria et al., 1991). When
using the water hyacinth compost as organic fertiliser, it
may be advisable not to add the compost too near in time
to sowing or transplanting, since it has been concluded that
yield may be enhanced by incorporating water hyacinth
compost up to 10 days before transplanting rice to the eld
(Sharma and Mittra, 1990).
Due to its positive charge, ammonium can bind to the
negatively charged soil particles and the risk is low that it
leaches away. The negatively charged nitrate does not bind
to the soil particles but remains in the soil uids and is thus
available for leaching (Claesson and Steineck, 1991).
Whether ammonium or nitrate is to be preferred as a fertil-
iser on a certain soil depends on the type of crop grown, the
climate, soil conditions and the agricultural practices in the
area (Stout, 1983). A large proportion of the nitrogen in
anaerobic sludge is in ammonium (NH 4 ) form (Stout,
1983). In the compost product only a small amount of
the nitrogen is in the form of nitrate, and thereby directly
available to the plants. Most of the nitrogen is bound in
humus and must be mineralised to be plant available. In
the dried water hyacinths, all nitrogen is in organic form
and the release of nutrients might therefore be delayed with
little becoming available to the crop during the rst grow-
ing season. In the long run, adding organic material will, as
mentioned before, increase both the nutrient content and
the water-holding capacity of the soil.
When comparing the contents of phosphorus and potas-
sium in the fresh water hyacinths with the water hyacinths
dried for 3 and 13 days (Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997),
it can be seen that the two nutrients behave dierently.
While the phosphorus content stays relatively constant
during the drying process, the potassium content has
decreased to a value that is half of the original. Phosphorus
and potassium can only be lost through leaching (van der
Wer et al., 1995). The fact that the dried samples lost
potassium indicates that the losses of nitrogen also were
mostly due to leaching. The literature also conrms that
potassium is lost to a greater extent than phosphorus
(Ulen, 1991). The amount of nutrients lost through leach-
 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
ing is higher if the plant material is dry at the time of pre-
cipitation (Ulen, 1984).
5. Concluding remarks
Applying the water hyacinths directly without any
other processing than sun drying, seems to be the best
alternative in small-scale use, due to the relatively small
losses of nutrients and workload required (Gunnarsson
and Mattsson, 1997). This option also does not require
any large investments or new technology. If the fresh
water hyacinths could be applied as mulch on the elds,
the labour need for weeding could be used for handling
the water hyacinths instead. But transport of fresh water
hyacinths means transporting a lot of water. Drying
seems to be a reasonable treatment since it will both
decrease the labour required for transport and the risk
of water hyacinths emerging in the eld, as well as
improving their hygienic status. It can be assumed that
as long as drying is carried out during the dry season,
reaching a high enough dry matter content is possible
(Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997). The limitation might
instead be nding time for harvesting and the availability
of land to dry the water hyacinths on.
To meet the ever-growing energy demand, biogas pro-
duction could be one option but it requires investments
and technological skills that would impose great problems
in developing countries, where the water hyacinth is often
found. The sludge, if used as fertiliser, would also be di-
cult to transport. It might be possible to use the containers
that are used for carrying water, but the low dry matter
content makes this a heavy task. According to calculations
by Gunnarsson and Mattsson (1997) 88 ton of sludge must
be transported to equal 37 kg of plant available N/ha. The
advantage with anaerobic digestion is that the gas pro-
duced has multiple uses, such as cooking and lighting,
but this does not outweigh the investments and technology
needed. For optimal operation, the anaerobic digester
should be fed continuously. Anaerobic digestion would
have the same labour requirements during the dry and
rainy season, and might therefore interfere with the agricul-
tural work.
Composting as an alternative treatment has the advan-
tage of producing a product that is easy to work into the
soil compared with dried water hyacinths, because of the
decomposed structure. But the structure of the compost
will also make it more dicult to transport and will,
because of the relatively high nitrogen losses, require more
transport work compared to dried water hyacinths. Also
considerable work is required for taking care of the com-
post. To provide 37 kg plant available nitrogen, at Lake
Victoria, 132 ton of fresh water hyacinths must be com-
posted (Gunnarsson and Mattsson, 1997). That the com-
post product already contains a well-working ora of
microorganisms will be favourable for the soil.
The relatively slow mineralisation rate of organic nitro-
gen prevents leakage of nutrients from the soil. The nutri-
127
ents will probably be stored in the soil for the next growing
season. In the green manure all nutrients are in organic
form; in compost, only small amounts of the nutrients
are found in the mineralised form. It will therefore take
some time before the nutrients are available to the crop.
In sludge much of the nitrogen is in the form of ammonium
and can be directly available to plants. In warm climates
there is a big risk of gaseous losses of nitrogen as ammonia.
Therefore green manure or compost might be preferable.
For other uses of the water hyacinth, such as incinera-
tion on a large scale, it must be possible to reduce the mois-
ture content, with relative ease, to 15% or less (Thomas
and Eden, 1990). The highest dry matter content reached in
trials by Gunnarsson and Mattsson (1997) was 87%, in
roots after one week of drying on a fence. Storing or incin-
eration might be possible if drying can be accomplished
during the dry season. Burning the dried water hyacinths
directly or as briquettes might therefore be a feasible solu-
tion that would not only decrease the water hyacinth prob-
lem but also provide energy and thereby decrease the
deforestation. Briquetting would produce a product that
is more similar to the charcoal used today, but the process-
ing requires energy input and investments in machinery.
The ashes could then be spread in the elds to provide min-
erals, mainly phosphorus and potassium (and larvae pro-
tection). The ash spreading would require a relatively low
labour input, but the eects and application rate must be
investigated.
An interesting feature of the water hyacinths is their
ability to accumulate nutrients and metal ions from sur-
rounding water. If water hyacinths are introduced to the
ponds for biological cleaning of the water, together with
other adjustments, it might improve the degree of cleaning.
This would, in a longer perspective, improve the water
quality in the recipient water by decreasing the input of
nutrients and pollutants. Reduced nutrient input might in
turn decrease the growth rate of the water hyacinths in
the recipient water and thereby further improve the quality
of the water and help to control the further spread of the
hyacinths.
Water hyacinths pose a big, and increasing, problem in
many places; mechanical control alone might not be su-
cient. A more productive way to nally control the growth
can be to make use of the plant by using one or several of
the techniques described in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Swedish Develop-
ment Agency (SIDA) for nancing this study. We would
also like to thank Assoc Prof. Hakan Jonsson, Prof. Girma
Gebresenbet, the District Commissioner of Homa Bay,
Kenya, Dr. K.V. Seshu Reddy, Scientist-in-Charge at Mbi-
ta Point Field Station, Britta Widen, Stephan Noll, Dr.
Lennart Bengtsson and everybody at the SNFIOH Women
Centre in Homa Bay, Kenya for helping in the preparation
of the manuscript.
128 C.C. Gunnarsson, C.M. Petersen / Waste Management 27 (2007) 117129
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