ABSTRACT

A bidirectional dc-dc converter is used for dc-dc power conversion

applications. The power converter includes two full bridge converters (one serving as

inverter and other as rectifier). This Bidirectional dcdc converter is best for electrical

vehicle applications. The topology proposed in the thesis has advantages of simple

circuit topology with soft switching implementation without additional devices, high

efficiency and simple control.

This advantages make the converter promising for medium and high power

applications especially for auxiliary power supply in fuel cell vehicles and power

generation where the high power density, low cost, lightweight and high reliability

power converters are required.

PIC Micro Controller is used to generate pulses implementing PWM

technique for making MOSFETS devices to operate and control. PWM technique is

used for reducing the harmonic in the circuit.

1
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

2
 1.1 PROJECT OVERVIEW

In Recent years, growing concerns about environmental issues have

demanded more energy efficient nonpolluting vehicles. The rapid
advances in fuel cell technology and power electronics have enabled the
significant developments in fuel cell powered electric vehicles. The fuel
cells have numerous advantages such as high density current output
ability, clean electricity generation, and high efficiency operation.
However, the fuel cell characteristics are different from that of the
traditional chemical-powered battery. The fuel cell output voltage drops
quickly when first connected with a load and gradually decreases as the
output current rises.

The fuel cell also lacks energy storage capability. Therefore, in

electric vehicle applications, an auxiliary energy storage device (i.e.,
lead-acid battery) is always needed for a cold start and to absorb the
regenerated energy fed back by the electric machine. In addition, a dcdc
converter is also needed to draw power from the auxiliary battery to
boost the high-voltage bus during vehicle starting.

Until the fuel cell voltage raises to a level high enough to hold the
high-voltage bus, the excess load from the battery will be released. The
regenerated braking energy can also be fed back and stored in the battery
using the dcdc converter.

A full-bridge isolated bidirectional dcdc converter is considered

one of the best choices for these applications.

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1.2 INTRODUCTION TO DC-DC CONVERTER:
DC-DC converters are devices which change one level of direct current voltage
to another (either higher or lower) level. They are primarily of use in battery-powered
appliances and machines which possess numerous sub circuits, each requiring
different levels of voltage. A DC-DC converter enables such equipment to be
powered by batteries of a single level of voltage, preventing the need to use numerous
batteries with varying voltages to power each individual component.

1.2.2. BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER

In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one end of the
inductor. This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the
transistor is OFF, the current will continue flowing through the inductor but now
flowing through the diode. We initially assume that the current through the inductor
does not reach zero, thus the voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the
conducting diode during the full OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will depend on
the average ON time of the transistor provided the inductor current is continuous.

Fig. 1: Buck Converter

Fig. 2: Voltage and current changes

4
To analyse the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor
current over one cycle. From the relation

Vx Vo = L (di/dt)

the change of current satisfies

For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not
change. To get a simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across
transistor or diode while ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time
Vx= Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus

Which simplifies to

Or

and defining "duty ratio" as

the voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the input
and output powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input
and output current must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption
that the inductor current does not reach zero.

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1.2.1.1Transition between continuous and discontinuous

When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then either the transistor
T1 or the diode D1 must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage Vx is
either Vin or 0. If the inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will
not be forced to either of these conditions. At this transition point the current just
reaches zero as seen in Figure 3. During the ON time Vin-Vout is across the inductor
thus

(1)

The average current which must match the output current satisfies

(2)

Fig. 3: Buck Converter at Boundary

If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point satisfies

(3)

1.2.1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous Mode)

As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral of voltage
across the inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The transistor OFF time is
now divided into segments of diode conduction ddT and zero conduction doT. The
inductor average voltage thus gives

6
(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0 (4)

Fig. 4: Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction d

(5)

for the case . To resolve the value of consider the output current which is

half the peak when averaged over the conduction times

(6)

Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time

(7)

Thus from (6) and (7) we can get

(8)

using the relationship in (5)

(9)

and solving for the diode conduction

7
 (10)

The output voltage is thus given as

(11)

defining k* = 2L/ (Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the
voltage ratio of the converter.

Fig. 5: Output Voltage vs Current

As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio
depends only on the duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends
to increase the output voltage of the converter towards Vin.

1.2.2 BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER

The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a
higher output voltage than input is required.

8
 Fig. 6: Boost Converter Circuit

While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows
through the diode giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor
current always remains flowing (continuous conduction). The voltage across the
inductor is shown in Fig. 7 and the average must be zero for the average current to
remain in steady state

Vin ton + (Vin - Vo) toff =0

This can be rearranged as

and for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures

Fig. 7: Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)

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Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be higher
than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of
the output voltage.

1.2.3. BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Fig. 8: schematic for buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor
is ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a
period the average voltage across the inductor is zero

Fig. 9: Waveforms for buck-boost converter

Vin ton + Vo toff = 0

which gives the voltage ratio

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and the corresponding current

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can vary between
lower or higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a
reversal of sense of the output voltage.

CONVERTER COMPARISON

The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC converters is summarised in Fig.

10. Notice that only the buck converter shows a linear relationship between the
control (duty ratio) and output voltage. The buck-boost can reduce or increase the
voltage ratio with unit gain for a duty ratio of 50%.

Fig. 10: Comparison of Voltage ratio

1.2.4. CUK CONVERTER

The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy between input and
output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage balance across the inductor.
The CUK converter uses capacitive energy transfer and analysis is based on current
balance of the capacitor. The circuit in Fig. 11 is derived from DUALITY principle
on the buck-boost converter.

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 Fig. 11: CUK Converter

If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially ripple free we can
examine the charge balance for the capacitor C1. For the transistor ON the circuit
becomes

Fig. 12: CUK "ON-STATE"

and the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode conducts and the
current in C1 becomes IL2.

Fig. 13: CUK "OFF-STATE"

Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise, the net current is zero

IL1tON + (-IL2) tOFF = 0

which implies

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The inductor currents match the input and output currents, thus using the power
conservation rule

Thus the voltage ratio is the same as the buck-boost converter. The advantage of the
CUK converter is that the input and output inductors create a smooth current at both
sides of the converter while the buck, boost and buck-boost have at least one side
with pulsed current.

1.4.5 Isolated DC-DC Converters

In many DC-DC applications, multiple outputs are required and output

isolation may need to be implemented depending on the application. In addition, input
to output isolation may be required to meet safety standards and / or provide
impedance matching. The above discussed DC-DC topologies can be adapted to
provide isolation between input and output.

1.4.5.1 Fly back Converter

The fly back converter can be developed as an extension of the Buck-Boost

converter. Fig 14a shows the basic converter; Fig 14b replaces the inductor by a
transformer. The buck-boost converter works by storing energy in the inductor during
the ON phase and releasing it to the output during the OFF phase. With the
transformer the energy storage is in the magnetization of the transformer core. To
increase the stored energy a gapped core is often used. In Fig 14c the isolated output
is clarified by removal of the common reference of the input and output circuits.

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Fig. 14(a): Buck-Boost Converter

Fig. 14(b): Replacing inductor by transformer

Fig. 14(c): Fly back converter re-configured

1.4.5.2 Forward Converter

The concept behind the forward converter is that of the ideal transformer converting
the input AC voltage to an isolated secondary output voltage. For the circuit in Fig.
15, when the transistor is ON, Vin appears across the primary and then generates

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The diode D1 on the secondary ensures that only positive voltages are applied to the
output circuit while D2 provides a circulating path for inductor current if the
transformer voltage is zero or negative.

Fig. 15: Forward Converter

The problem with the operation of the circuit in Fig 15 is that only positive
voltage is applied across the core, thus flux can only increase with the application of
the supply. The flux will increase until the core saturates when the magnetizing
current increases significantly and circuit failure occurs. The transformer can only
sustain operation when there is no significant DC component to the input voltage.
While the switch is ON there is positive voltage across the core and the flux
increases. When the switch turns OFF we need to supply negative voltage to reset the
core flux. The circuit in Fig. 16 shows a tertiary winding with a diode connection to
permit reverse current. Note that the "dot" convention for the tertiary winding is
opposite those of the other windings. When the switch turns OFF current was flowing
in a "dot" terminal. The core inductance act to continue current in a dotted terminal,
thus

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 Fig. 16: Forward converter with tertiary winding

1.3 BI-DIRECTIONAL DC-TO-DC CONVERTER

A DC/DC converter which can be operated alternately as a step-up
converter in a first direction of energy flow and as a step-down converter in a second
direction of energy flow is disclosed. Potential isolation between the low-voltage
side and the high-voltage side of the converter is achieved by a magnetic
compound unit, which has not only a transformer function but also an energy store
function. The converter operates as a push-pull converter in both directions of energy
flow. The DC/DC converter can be used for example in motor vehicles with an
electric drive fed by fuel cells.
A bi-directional converter for converting voltage bi-directionally between a
high voltage bus and a low voltage bus, comprising a switching converter connected
across the high voltage bus, the switching converter comprising first and second
switching modules connected in series across the high voltage bus, a switched node
disposed between the switching modules being coupled to an inductor, the inductor
connected to a first capacitor, the connection between the inductor and the first
capacitor comprising a mid-voltage bus, the first and second switching modules being
controllable so that the switching converter can be operated as a buck converter or a
boost converter depending upon the direction of conversion from the high voltage bus
to the low voltage bus or vice versa; the mid-voltage bus being coupled to a first full
bridge switching circuit comprising two pairs of series connected switches with
switched nodes between each of the pairs of switches being connected across a first
winding of a transformer having a preset turns ratio; and a second full bridge
switching circuit comprising two pairs of series connected switches with switched
nodes between each of the pairs of switches being connected across a second winding
of the transformer, the second full bridge switching circuit being coupled to a second
capacitor comprising a low voltage node.

1.3.1 USES OF DC-DC CONVERTER:

DC-DC converters are used to fill the gaps left by the limitations of direct and
alternating currents. Direct current (DC) is a steady flow of electric energy in the

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 same direction, while alternating current (AC) is a flow of energy which frequently
changes in direction and intensity. Alternating current is used for the vast majority of
electric transmission, because it is far easier to harness and dispense, and because it
can be easily stepped up or down in intensity by use of transformers, devices which
produce higher or lower levels of voltage by transferring currents into windings of
varying lengths. Because transformers work by means of time delays, they are unable
to work with direct current, due to direct current's constant rate of flow.
Alternating current has thus become far more commonly used simply because it is
far more flexible, and it is the preferred form of current for all forms of transmission
save one: batteries, which are unable to alternate their electrical flow and thus work
on direct current alone. For this reason, the DC-DC converter has become an
important electrical component, acting as the direct current equivalent of a
transformer for battery-operated devices, enhancing or reducing intensity as needed.

1.3.3 WORKING OF DC-DC Converters

In its simplest form, a DC-DC converter simply uses resistors as needed to
break up the flow of incoming energy this is called linear conversion. However,
linear conversion is a wasteful process which unnecessarily dissipates energy and can
lead to overheating. A more complex, but more efficient, manner of DC-DC
conversion is switched-mode conversion, which operates by storing power, switching
off the flow of current, and restoring it as needed to provide a steadily modulated
flow of electricity corresponding to the circuit's requirements. This is far less wasteful
than linear conversion, saving up to 95% of otherwise wasted energy.

1.3.2 BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTERS TOPOLOGIES

There are many circuit topologies for bidirectional dc-dc converter. Some of
them are
I. Non isolated (Without transformer):
a. Full bridge bidirectional dc-dc converter (shown in fig)
b. Half bridge bidirectional dc-dc converter
II. Isolated (with transformer):
a. Full bridge bidirectional dc-dc converter ( shown in fig)
b. Half bridge bidirectional dc-dc converter

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1.3.2.1 NON-ISOLATED BIDIRECTIONAL DC/DC CONVERTER:

Fig17: Full bridge bidirectional dc-dc converter

Interleaved operation for both boost and buck modes
Smaller passive components;
Less battery ripple current

1.3.2.2 ISOLATED BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTER (PROPOSED

CONVERTER):

Fig18: lv-side current source and hv-side voltage source

The above converter has the following features
Simple voltage clamp circuit implementation
Simple transformer winding structure and low turns ratio
High choke ripple frequency (2fs)
start up problem will be present in this circuit

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 1.4 SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHING:

Semi conductor switching types are 1. Hard Switching and 2. Soft Switching

1.4.1Hard Switching
Traditional high frequency switch-mode supplies, which rely on generating
an AC waveform in the range of 100 kHz to 200 kHz to drive the main power
transformer, have used power transistors to hard-switch the unregulated input
voltage at this rate. This means that a transistor turning on will have the whole raw
input voltage, typically in the range of 350 V, across it as it changes state. During the
actual switching interval (less than 0.5US) there is a finite period as the transistor
begins to conduct where the voltage begins to fall at the same time as current begins
to flow. This simultaneous presence of voltage across the transistor and current
through it means that, during this period, power is being dissipated within the device.
A similar event occurs as the transistor turns off, with the full current flowing through
it.
Designers that use a hard-switching topology are in a no-win situation
when they try to reduce wasted power, and still meet the European EMC directive. As
the switching period is reduced through the use of improved driving circuitry, the
faster rise and fall times generate more high frequency energy that is radiated and
conducted out of the unit as unacceptable radio frequency interference (RFI). If the
rise and fall times are intentionally slowed to reduce the radio frequency interference,
the power losses in the transistor increase proportionally, increasing the thermal stress
on the part, thus reducing its lifespan. In this way, older hard switching topologies are
a compromise between electrical efficiency reduction and EMC noise trade-offs.

1.4.2 SOFT SWITCHING

More recently, new power conversion topologies have been developed which
dramatically reduce the power dissipated by the main power transistors during the
switching interval, while at the same time nearly eliminating much of the generated
radio frequency energy, or high frequency noise. The most common technique
employed has been a constant frequency resonant switching scheme, which ensures

19
that the actual energy being dissipated by the active device is reduced to nearly zero.
This method, commonly called Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) or Soft Switching
uses the parasitic output capacitance of the power transistors (typically MOSFETs)
and the parasitic leakage inductance of the power transformer as a resonant circuit.
Using this resonant circuit, the output inductance, the parasitic drain-source body
diodes of the MOSFETs, and an appropriate switching sequence allows the voltage
across each transistor to swing to zero before the device turns on and current flows.
Likewise, at turn-off, the voltage differential across the transistor swings to zero
before it is driven to a non-conductive state. With this scheme, current is only fl
owing through the transistors when they are fully on, and doing useful work
transferring energy to the output of the supply. The power dissipation within the
transistor that would normally occur during the switching interval has effectively
been eliminated. Unwanted high-frequency voltage and current transients during the
switching period the culprits that supply much of the RF noise radiated and conducted
out of the power supply are also dramatically reduced due to the smooth resonant
transition. With the noise effectively reduced at its source, enhancing filtering at the
input and output of the unit ensures that the unit is well within the noise limits set by
international standards.
With soft switching techniques, reduction in wasted power will often improve
the efficiency of a unit by more than 2%. While this does not sound significant, it can
account for a saving of more than 20 W in a 1000 W power supply. This 20 W is
power that would have been dissipated by the main power transistors, the most
critical and most heavily stressed semi-conductors in any switch mode power supply.
Reducing the power here lowers their junction temperature, giving increased thermal
operating margins and, hence, a longer life for the power supply. Not only does a
soft switching power supply generate significantly less electrical noise, it achieves
greater efficiency, longer mean time between failures (MTBF), and higher immunity
to the effects of other equipment operating nearby.
It is desirable for power converters to have high efficiencies and high power
densities. Packaging and cost limitations require that the converter have a small
physical size and weight. Power density and electrical performance are dependent on
the switching frequency as it determines the values of the reactive components in the
converter. Thus, high frequency operation of the converter is highly desired.

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However, operation at high frequency results in higher switching losses and higher
switching stresses caused by the circuit parasitics (stray inductance, junction
capacitance).
The main factors that contribute to the high-frequency switching losses are:
1) Semiconductor devices have non-zero turn-on and turn-off times and thus
there is a finite time during the transitions wherein the devices are conducting
a significant current while a large voltage is applied across it. This results in
large energy dissipation. This energy loss increases with increasing frequency.
2) At high frequencies, high dv/dt and di/dt induce voltage and current
oscillations in parasitic capacitors and inductors during switching transitions.
These oscillations result in higher peak current and voltage in the devices and
thus the switching loss increases. Furthermore, these oscillations create EMI
noise, which can interfere with other parts of the circuit or surrounding
electronic equipment.
3) When a device is turned on while having a voltage across it, the energy stored
in the parasitic capacitance across the switch is dissipated in it. This loss
increases with the frequency and is proportional to the square of the voltage
across the device before turn-on. Soft-switching techniques force the switch
voltage or current to zero before the device switching, thus avoiding current
and voltage overlap during the switching transition.
The advantages of soft switching are as follows:
Lower switching losses due to smaller overlap of switch voltage and
current.
Lower dv/dt and di/dt and thus lower voltage spike and EMI
emissions.
Higher reliability due to reduced stresses on the switching
components.
Reduced voltage and current ratings for the devices.
Smaller reactive elements.

Soft switching for the power devices can be achieved by either zero-voltage
switching (ZVS) or zero-current switching (ZCS). ZVS consists of turning on the

21
switches while the voltage across them is zero. ZCS consists of turning off the
switches when the current through them is zero.

Soft switching has been proven to be an effective means of reducing switching losses
and for attaining higher overall efficiencies. Various soft-switching techniques have
been developed in the recent years.

SOFT SWITCHING

Fig19 (a)
HARD SWITCHING

Fig19 (b)

22
 I S a fe O p e ra tin g A r e a

On H a r d - s w it c h in g

s n u b b e re d

S o f t - s w i t c h in g

O ff V

Fig.20 Typical switching trajectories of power switches.

Fig.21. Typical switching waveforms of (a) hard-switched & (b) soft-switched

devices

1.5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) TECHNIQUE

The energy that a switching power converter delivers to a

motor is controlled by Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals, applied to the gates of
the power transistors. PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed frequency and
magnitude and variable pulse width. There is one pulse of fixed magnitude in every
PWM period. However, the width of the pulses changes from period to period
according to a modulating signal.

When a PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power

transistor, it causes the turn on and turns off intervals of the transistor to change from

23
one PWM period to another PWM period according to the same modulating signal.
The frequency of a PWM signal must be much higher than that of the modulating
signal, the fundamental frequency, such that the energy delivered to the motor and its
load depends mostly on the modulating signal.

FIG 22. TWO TYPES OF PWM SIGNALS

Figure22 shows two types of PWM signals, symmetric and

asymmetric edge-aligned. The pulses of a symmetric PWM signal are always
symmetric with respect to the center of each PWM period. The pulses of an
asymmetric edge-aligned PWM signal always have the same side aligned with one
end of each PWM period. Both types of PWM signals are used in this application.

It has been shown that symmetric PWM signals generate fewer

harmonic in the output current and voltage. Different PWM techniques, or ways of
determining the modulating signal and the switch-on/switch-off instants from the
modulating signal, exist. The Technique that we use is Natural PWM technique. This
technique is commonly used with three phase Voltage Source power inverters for the
control of three-phase AC induction motors.

(a) 1.5.1 Natural PWM Method

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 So as to feed the stator windings with a 3-phase sinusoidal voltage
through an inverter, a first solution is to use a sine table to generate three sine waves
with 120 degrees phase shift to each other. For this, the stator pulsation s is used to
feed three discrete-time integrators, which compute the instantaneous phase of each
stator voltage,

1[k] = 1[k-1] + s [k] Ts

2[k] = 2[k-1] + s [k] Ts

3[k] = 3[k-1] + s [k] Ts

With 1[0]=0, 2[0]= -2 /3, 3[0]= - 4/3, Ts, being the sampling period of the
control algorithm. When one of these angles becomes higher than 2, 2 is subtracted
to it to keep it between 0 and 2.

A sine table is the used to compute the three voltages that should be
applied to the stator, Va[k] = Vsm( s[k]) sita ( 1[k])

Vb[k] = Vsm( s[k]) sita( 2[k])

Vc[k] = Vsm( s[k]) sita( 3[k])

Where Vsm( s) is the stator voltage magnitude deduced from the

constant Volts per Hertz principle and sita ( ) = sin ( ).

A slight improvement can be obtained by adding to the pure sine wave

of the sine table a third harmonic, sita( ) = sin( ) + 1/6 sin(3 ) , since it has no
effect on the motor behavior and it allows to generate a signal whose first harmonic
has an amplitude which is 15.47% higher (2/3 ) than the signal maximum. With this
improvement, we can generate more AC voltage with the same DC bus voltage, so we
can increase the speed of the motor with keeping constant the V/F ratio.

These values are compared to the output of an up/down counter (used as

a triangle generator). When the up/down counters output oversteps one of these
values, the corresponding output of the comparator toggles. As a result, the duty cycle
of each PWM channel is proportional to the corresponding stator voltage value. Since
this up/down counter with three comparators would be very heavy to implement by
software, such a device must be included in a microcontroller so as to suit AC motor

25
control applications. Taking the first phase as an example, the duty cycle stored in the
compare register of the corresponding PSCs will be proportional to

Ts/ 2(1 + Va[k] / Vs max ), with = 1- 2 /Ts, Vs max and are

respectively the highest value of the stator voltage magnitude and the dead time of the
inverter switches. The resulting data-flow diagram is shown on Figure 23.

Fig 23: data flow diagram of pwm method

CHAPTER-2
HARDWARE

26
 2.1 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DESIGN

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or traces,
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Alternative
names are printed wiring board (PWB), and etched wiring board. A PCB
populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA).

MANUFACTURING

The manufacturing process consists of two methods; print and etch, and print,
plate and etch. The single sided PCBs are usually made using the print and etch
method. The double sided plate through hole (PTH) boards are made by the print

27
plate and etch method. The production of multi layer boards uses the methods. The
inner layers are printed and etch while the outer layers are produced by print, plate
and etch after pressing the inner layers.
SOFTWARE:
The software used in our project for obtaining schematic layout is ORCAD.

PATTERNING (ETCHING)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB")
then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching),
leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the
bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex
process of multiple electroplating steps.

DRILLING

Holes, or vias, through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of
solid tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are
also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file
describes the location and size of each drilled hole.

EXPOSED CONDUCTOR PLATING AND COATING

The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because
bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally,
any exposed copper was plated with solder by hot air solder leveling (HASL). This
solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve
compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. Other
plantings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg),
immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct
gold. Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often gold plated.

28
 SOLDER RESIST

Areas that should not be soldered to may be covered with a polymer

solder resist (solder mask) coating. The solder resist prevents solder from
bridging between conductors and thereby creating short circuits. Solder resist
also provides some protection from the environment.

SCREEN PRINTING

Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red
print. Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the
traditional screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data onto
the PCB, including serialization and barcode information for traceability purposes.

POPULATING

After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must
be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA(sometimes called a
"printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction, component
leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the components are placed
on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of construction,
component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to the board with a molten
metal solder.

2-2POWER SUPPLY UNIT

All electronic circuits works only in low DC voltage, so we need a power

supply unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply for their proper functioning
.This unit consists of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC voltage of typically
230v rms is connected to a transformer voltage down to the level to the desired ac
voltage. A diode rectifier that provides the full wave rectified voltage that is
initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting
dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation . A regulator circuit can
use this dc input to provide dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but

29
also remains the same dc value even the dc voltage varies some what, or the load
connected to the output dc voltages changes.

Fig 24.General Block of Power Supply Unit

2.2.1 DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Fig25 : Diode Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes

connected in a bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of
output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC)
output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave
rectification from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped
transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center
tap based design for the same output voltage.

30
 Fig 26: Schematic Of A Diode Bridge Rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at
the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

BASIC OPERATION OF DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along
the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.

Fig27: operation of diode bridge rectifier

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows
along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

31
 Fig 28: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower
right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning
when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its
wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occur
without this circuit in place).

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was

always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-
terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration
became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage
and current ratings.

2.2.2 TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a static piece of which electric power in

one circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in the circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current. It works with the principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using a

32
step down transformer to providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits. Here
we step down a 230v ac into 12v ac.

2.2.3 RECTIFIER: A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100%
using a process called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave
rectification we use bridge rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two
diodes(say D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are in off
state during the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative cycle of the input the
conducting diodes are D1 & D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the same.
In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001, 1N4003,
1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc can be used . But here we use 1N4007, because it can
withstand up to 1000v.

2.2.4 FILTERS: In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter.
so that a capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier
output& a dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage with
negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.

2.2.5 REGULATORS: The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variations & temperature changes.
Here we use fixed voltage regulator namely LM7805.The IC LM7805 is a +5v regulator
which is used for microcontroller.

2.2.6 Circuit Diagram:

D 1
2

J1 U 2
L M 7 8 0 5 C /T O R1 D 2
2 4 - + 1 1 3
1 IN OU T J1
220 ohm LE D
CON1 1
2
GND

C 1
C 3 C 4
3

470 100 0 .0 1 C ON 1
2

Fig29 power supply unit

33
 2.2.7 FEATURES & DESCRIPTION OF REGULATORS

Output Current up to 1A

Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

Thermal Overload Protection

Short Circuit Protection

Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over
1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

2.3 GATE DRIVER CIRCUIT

Driver performs three operations.
1: Amplification
2: Isolation
3: Impedance matching
D 1
FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U 1
D 1 N 1 1 9 0
R 1 R 3
R 4 Q 2
1K
1 k
O P - 0 7 C / 3 0 1 / T I Q 3
Q 1 100 230/12V
MCT2E R 2
R 5
500mA
100 B D X 3 7
G C 1
1 n
100
R 8
1 k
R 6
1 k

S
0

Fig 30

The buffer IC used here IC 4050 is used for pulse generation to generate triggering
pulse. There are pull up resistors to provide a resistance in series with the

34
microcontroller which acts as a current source here. This IC acts as an impedance
improvement buffer IC. Voltage follower concept is used and the signal is getting
inverted. Now it is given to the isolator.

Since the microcontroller is a sensitive device and MOSFET carries high

current, in order to provide isolation between the two, isolation is being provided by
the optocoupler.

2.4 OPTOCOUPLER

Fig 31: An opto-isolator integrated circuit & Schematic diagram

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optocoupler or photo

coupler) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal
between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping
them electrically isolated since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an
optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.

A common implementation involves an LED and a light sensor, separated so

that light may travel across a barrier but electrical current may not. When an electrical
signal is applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights, its light sensor then
activates, and a corresponding electrical signal is generated at the output. Unlike a
transformer, the opto-isolator allows for DC coupling and generally provides
significant protection from serious overvoltage conditions in one circuit affecting the
other.

35
 With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the
amount of incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a
photovoltaic mode or a photoconductive mode.

In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts like a current source in parallel with a
forward-biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load
impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to a
supply voltage, and the magnitude of the current conducted is directly proportional to
the intensity of light.

An opto-isolator can also be constructed using a small incandescent lamp in

place of the LED; such a device, because the lamp has a much slower response time
than an LED, will filter out noise or half-wave power in the input signal. In so doing,
it will also filter out any audio- or higher-frequency signals in the input. It has the
further disadvantage, of course, (an overwhelming disadvantage in most applications)
that incandescent lamps have finite life spans. Thus, such an unconventional device is
of extremely limited usefulness, suitable only for applications such as science
projects.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. The transmitting and
receiving elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a single compact
module, for mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is
often called an optoisolator or opto-isolator. The photo sensor may be a photocell,
phototransistor, or an optically triggered SCR or Triac. Occasionally, this device will
in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

2.4.1 Device rating:

OPTOCOUPLER MCT2E 1 K, 100 resistance

Here the LED glows and current flows through the base of the transistor, so
the signal will be got across a resistance and given to another transistor CK 100
which is a PNP transistor to provide inversion again. In order to improve the voltage
and the current gain we go for the Darlington amplifier, which amplifies the voltage.

36
 2.5 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

Fig 32 Circuit diagram of Darlington configuration

In electronics, the Darlington transistor is a semiconductor device which

combines two bipolar transistors in tandem (often called a "Darlington pair") in a
single device so that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the
second transistor. This gives it high current gain (written or h FE), and takes up less
space than using two discrete transistors in the same configuration. The use of two
separate transistors in an actual circuit is still very common, even though integrated
packaged devices are available. This configuration was invented by Bell Laboratories
engineer Sidney Darlington. The idea of putting two or three transistors on a single
chip was patented by him, but not the idea of putting an arbitrary number of
transistors, which would have covered all modern integrated circuits.

A similar transistor configuration using two transistors of opposite type (NPN

and PNP) is the Sziklai pair, sometimes called the "complementary Darlington".
Finally the amplified signal is sent to the multilevel inverter and the output is
obtained.

2.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The electronic semiconductor device act as a switching device in the

power electronic converters. In general, the characteristics of the device are utilized in
such a way that it acts as a short circuit when closed. In addition to, an ideal switch
also consumes less power to switch from one state to other.

37
 Semiconductor is defined as the material whose conductivity depends
on the energy (light, heat, etc.,) falling on it. They dont conduct at absolute zero
temperature. But, as the temperature increases, the current conducted by the semi
conductor increases as it gets energy in the form of heat. The increase in current is
proportional to the temperature rise. Semiconductor switches are diodes, SCR,
MOSFET, IGBT, BJT, TRIAC etc.,

2.6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE

Based on controllability:
Uncontrolled switching device (SCR)
Semi control switching device
Fully control switching device

Based on control modes:

Current control devices(SCR ,BJT)
Voltage control device(MOSFET ,IGBT)
Based on current direction:
Unidirectional device (SCR,MOSFET ,IGBT)
Bi- Unidirection device(TRIAC)

2.6.2 MOSFET
The component that is used as the switch in the inverter unit is the
MOSFET which is a voltage controlled device. They are the power semi conductor
devices that have a fast switching property with a simple drive requirement.

Fig 33: MOSFET symbol

Vdss= 500 V
Rds (on) = 0.27 ohm
Id= 20 A

38
 This MOSFET provide the designer with the best combination of fast switching,
ruggedixed device design, low on-resistance and cost-effectiveness. This package is
preferred for commercial and industrial applications where higher power levels are to
be handled.
2.6.3. MOSFET OPERATING PRINCIPLE

CONSTRUCTION
N Channel depletion type N Channel enhancement type

Fig 34: construction of MOSFET

N CHANNEL DEPLETION
The N channel depletion type of MOSFET is constructed with p -Substrate. it
has two n doped regions , which forms the drain and source. It has sio2 insulating
layer between the channel and the metal layer. Thus it has three terminals namely
drain source and gate.
When negative voltage applied between the gate and source (VGS) , The
positive charge induced in the channel and the channel is depleted of electrons. Thus
there is no flow of current through this terminal.
When appositive voltage is applied between the gate and source, more electros
are induced in the channel by capacitor action. So there is a flow of current from
drain to source. As the gate source voltage increases, the channel gets wider by
accumulation of more negative charges and resistance to the channel decreases. Thus
more current from drain to source. As there is a current flow through device for zero
Gate Source Voltage, it is called as normally ON MOSFET.

39
N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT
The N channel enhancement MOSFET is similar to the depletion type in the
construction except that there is no physical existence of the channel when it is
unbiased.
When the positive voltage is applied between the gate and the source, the
electron get accumulated in the channel by capacitive induction in the channel formed
out of electrons allowing the flow of current. This channel gets widened as more
positive voltage is applied between gate and source. There will not be any condition
through the device if the gate source voltage is negative.
Setting VGS to a constant value, varying VDS and nothing the corresponding
changes into give the drain characteristic. VGS 0, the device does not conduct drain
current and the device is considered to be in the off state. In this state, the entire
voltage drop across the device i.e., between drain and source.

In the ON state of the device, gate source voltage is positive and the drain
current is increased with the increase in the gate source voltage. It is understood
clearly in the transfer characteristics. As the enhancement type mosfet conduct only
after applying positive gate voltage, it is also called as normally OFF MOSFET. For
this reason it becomes easily controllable and is used in power electronics as a switch.

2.7 MICRO CONTROLLER PIC 16f877A

MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontrollers versus Microprocessors

Microcontroller differs from a microprocessor in many ways. First and the

most important is its functionality. In order for a microprocessor to be used, other
components such as memory, or components for receiving and sending data must be
added to it. In short that means that microprocessor is the very heart of the computer.
On the other hand, microcontroller is designed to be all of that in one. No other
external components are needed for its application because all necessary peripherals
are already built into it. Thus, we save the time and space needed to construct devices.

40
2.7.1 MICROCONTROLLER

The main controlling unit of the proposed system is the microcontroller. The
main features of microcontroller and particularly PIC Microcontroller is discussed
here.
A microcontroller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory
[RAM,ROM or EPROM],various I/O features such as serial ports, parallel ports
,timer/counters, interrupt controller ,data requisition interface , Analog to digital
converter[ADC],digital to analog converter, everything integrated into a single
silicon chip.
It does not mean that any microcontroller should have all the above said
features on a single chip, depending on the need and area of application for which it is
designed, the on chip features present in it may or may not include all the individual
section said above.
Any microcomputer systems requires memory to store a sequence of
instructions making up a program ,parallel port or serial port for communicating with
an external system timer/counter for control purpose like generating time delay.

2.7.2 PIC MICROCONTROLLER

The PIC micro was originally designed around 1980 by General Instrument
as a small, fast, inexpensive embedded microcontroller with strong I/O capabilities.
PIC stands for "Peripheral Interface Controller". General Instrument recognized the
potential for the little PIC and eventually spun off Microchip, headquartered in
Chandler, AZ to fabricate and market the PICmicro.

The PICmicro has some advantages in many applications over the older chips
such as the Intel 8048/8051/8052 and its derivatives, the Motorola MC6805/6hHC11,
and many others. Its unusual architecture is ideally suited for embedded control.
Nearly all instructions execute in the same number of clock cycles, which makes
timing control much easier. The PICmicro is a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computer) design, with only thirty-odd instructions to remember; its code is
extremely efficient, allowing the PIC to run with typically less program memory than
its larger competitors.

41
 Very important, though, is the low cost, high available clock speeds, small
size, and incredible ease of use of the tiny PIC. For timing-insensitive designs, the
oscillator can consist of a cheap RC network. Clock speeds can range from low speed
to 20MHz. Versions of the various PICmicro families are available that are equipped
with various combinations ROM, EPROM, OTP (One-Time Programmable)
EPROM, EEPROM, and FLASH program and data memory. An 18-pin PICmicro
typically devotes 13 of those pins to I/O, giving the designer two full 8-bit I/O ports
and an interrupt. In many cases, designing with a PICmicro is much simpler and
more efficient than using an older, larger embedded microprocessor.

2.7.3 FEATURES OF PIC CONTROLLER:

High performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single word instructions to learn
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data
Memory (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory
Pinout compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77
Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Power-on Reset (POR)
Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable peration
Programmable code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable oscillator options
Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology
Fully static design
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins
Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability
In-Circuit Debugging via two pins

42
 Processor read/write access to program memory
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA
Commercial, Industrial and Extended temperature ranges
Low-power consumption:

2.7.4 ADVANTAGES OF MICROCONTROLLER

If a system is developed with a microprocessor the designer has to go for
external memory such as RAM ,ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence
the size of the PCB will large enough to
hold all the required peripheral. But, the microcontroller has got all there
peripheral facilities on a single chip so developed of a similar system with a
microcontroller reduces PCB size and cost of the design.
One of the major difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor
is that a controller. often deals with bits,not bytes as in the real world
application, for example switch contacts can only be open or close ,indicators
should be lit or dark and motors can be either turned on or off and so forth.
The microcontroller has two 16 bits timer/counters built within it, which
makes it more suitable to this application since, we need to produce some
accurate time delays.

This microcontroller has a 8 bit internal Analog to digital converter with a 10

bit resolution, which will after the usage of external ADC and the circuit and
hardware complexity.

These controllers also have an higher erase cycle of 10,000 and for the
EEPROM its 1 lakh number of time. This controllers other advantage is its a
RISC computing system.

43
2.7.2 PIN DIAGRAM OF 16F877A PIC CONTROLLER

Fig35: pin diagram of PIC

2.7.3 I/O PORTS

Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the
peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin
may not be used as a general purpose I/O pin. Additional information on I/O ports
may be found in the PICmicro Mid-Range Reference Manual, (DS33023).

PORTA AND THE TRISA REGISTER

PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction
register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin
an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-Impedance mode). Clearing

44
a TRISA bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output (i.e., put the
contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Reading the PORTA register reads
the status of the pins, whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write
operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that
the port pins are read, the value is modified and then written to the port data latch. Pin
RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI
pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All
other PORTA pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other
PORTA pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and analog VREF input. The
operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting the control bits in the ADCON1
register (A/D Control Register1).

PORTB AND THE TRISB REGISTER

PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction

register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin
an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-Impedance mode). Clearing
a TRISB bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the
contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Three pins of PORTB are
multiplexed with the Low Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and
RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these pins are described in the Special Features
Section. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single control bit can
turn on all the pull-ups. This is performed by clearing bit RBPU
(OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pull-up is automatically turned off when the port pin
is configured as an output. The pull-ups are disabled on a Power-on Reset.
Four of the PORTB pins, RB7:RB4, have an interrupton- change feature. Only
pins configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e., any RB7:RB4 pin
configured as an output is excluded from the interrupton- change comparison). The
input pins (of RB7:RB4) are compared with the old value latched on the last read of
PORTB. The mismatch outputs of RB7:RB4 are ORed together to generate the RB
Port Change Interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>).

PORT C AND THE TRISC REGISTER

45
 PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction
register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin
an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-Impedance mode). Clearing
a TRISC bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the
contents of the output latch on the selected pin). PORTC is multiplexed with several
peripheral functions (Table 3-5). PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC<4:3> pins can be configured with
normal I2C levels or with SMBus levels by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>). When
enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each
PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while
other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input. Since the TRIS bit
override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write instructions
(BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as destination, should be avoided. The user should
refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the correct TRIS bit settings.

PORTD and TRISD Registers

PORTD and TRISD are not implemented on the PIC16F873 or PIC16F876.
PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually
configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide
microprocessor port (parallel slave port) by setting control bit PSPMODE
(TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

PORTE AND TRISE REGISTER

PORTE has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which

are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger
input buffers. The PORTE pins become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor
port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make
certain that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured as digital
inputs. Also, ensure that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the
input buffers are TTL. Register 4-1 shows the TRISE register which also controls the
Parallel Slave Port operation. PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When
selected for analog input, these pins will read as 0s. TRISE controls the direction of

46
the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make
sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.

2.7.4 DATA EEPROM AND FLASH PROGRAM MEMORY

The Data EEPROM and FLASH Program Memory are readable and writable during
normal operation over the entire VDD range. These operations take place on a single
byte for Data EEPROM memory and a single word for Program memory. A write
operation causes an erase-then-write operation to take place on the specified byte or
word. A bulk erase operation may not be issued from user code (which includes
removing code protection). Access to program memory allows for checksum
calculation. The values written to program memory do not need to be valid
instructions. Therefore, up to 14-bit numbers can be stored in memory for use as
calibration parameters, serial numbers, packed 7-bit ASCII, etc. Executing a program
memory location containing data that form an invalid instruction, results in the
execution of a NOP instruction. The EEPROM Data memory is rated for high erase/
writes cycles (specification D120). The FLASH program memory is rated much
lower (specification D130), because EEPROM data memory can be used to store
frequently updated values. An on-chip timer controls the write time and it will vary
with voltage and temperature, as well as from chip to chip. Please refer to the
specifications for exact limits (specifications D122 and D133). A byte or word write
automatically erases the location and writes the new value (erase before write).
Writing to EEPROM data memory does not impact the operation of the device.
Writing to program memory will cease the execution of instructions until the write is
complete. The program memory cannot be accessed during the write. During the
write operation, the oscillator continues to run, the peripherals continue to function
and interrupt events will be detected and essentially queued until the write is
complete. When the write completes, the next instruction in the pipeline is executed
and the branch to the interrupt vector will take place, if the interrupt is enabled and
occurred during the write. Read and write access to both memories take place
indirectly through a set of Special Function Registers (SFR). The six SFRs used are:

EEDATA
EEDATH

47
 EEADR
EEADRH
EECON1
EECON2

TIMER0 MODULE

The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features:

8-bit timer/counter
Readable and writable
8-bit software programmable prescaler
Internal or external clock select
Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h
Edge select for external clock
Additional information on the Timer0 module is available in the PICmicro
Mid-Range MCU Family Reference Manual (DS33023). Timer mode is selected by
clearing bit T0CS (OPTION_REG<5>). In Timer mode, the Timer0 module will
increment every instruction cycle (without prescaler). If the TMR0 register is written,
the increment is inhibited for the following two instruction cycles. The user can work
around this by writing an adjusted value to the TMR0 register

TIMER1 MODULE

The Timer1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting of two 8-bit registers

(TMR1H and TMR1L), which are readable and writable. The TMR1 Register pair
(TMR1H:TMR1L) increments from 0000h to FFFFh and rolls over to 0000h. The
TMR1 Interrupt, if enabled, is generated on overflow, which is latched in interrupt
flag bit TMR1IF (PIR1<0>). This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by
setting/clearing TMR1 interrupt enable bit TMR1IE (PIE1<0>). Timer1 can operate
in one of two modes:

As a timer
As a counter

48
The operating mode is determined by the clock select bit, TMR1CS (T1CON<1>). In
Timer mode, Timer1 increments every instruction cycle. In Counter mode, it
increments on every rising edge of the external clock input. Timer1 can be
enabled/disabled by setting/clearing control bit, TMR1ON (T1CON<0>). Timer1 also
has an internal Reset input. This Reset can be generated by either of the two CCP
modules. Register 6-1 shows the Timer1 Control register. When the Timer1 oscillator
is enabled (T1OSCEN is set), the RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 and RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI pins
become inputs. That is, the TRISC<1:0> value is ignored and these pins read as 0.

TIMER2 MODULE

Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a prescaler and a postscaler. It can be used as the
PWM time-base for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is
readable and writable, and is cleared on any device RESET. The input clock
(FOSC/4) has a prescale option of 1:1,1:4, or 1:16, selected by control bits
T2CKPS1:T2CKPS0 (T2CON<1:0>). The Timer2 module has an 8-bit period
register, PR2. Timer2 increments from 00h until it matches PR2 and then resets to
00h on the next increment cycle. PR2 is a readable and writable register. The PR2
register is initialized to FFh upon RESET. The match output of TMR2 goes through a
4-bit postscaler (which gives a 1:1 to 1:16 scaling inclusive) to generate a TMR2
interrupt (latched in flag bit TMR2IF, (PIR1<1>)). Timer2 can be shut-off by clearing
control bit TMR2ON (T2CON<2>), to minimize power consumption.

2.7.5 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

Every PIC needs a clock. The PIC uses four clock cycles to complete one
instruction cycle. Since the PIC is fully static, the clock rate can vary from DC
(nothing) to the maximum rated speed, which is currently around 20MHz for some
parts. What do we mean by "fully static"? Some microprocessors use some dynamic
circuitry internally, which operate similar to dynamic RAM. These processors have a
certain specified minimum clock frequency which must be maintained, just like a
minimum power supply voltage. The PIC has no such limitation; the processor clock
can be completely stopped. In fact, the SLEEP instruction does just that - shuts down

49
the clock oscillator! This leads to enormous power savings. A PIC in sleep mode
will draw just a few microamperes.

There are several methods of clocking a PIC. These are:

LP - Low power crystal

XT - Crystal or ceramic resonator
HS - High Speed crystal or resonator
RC - Resistance/capacitance

We are using crystal oscillator in our project. The first three methods use either
a parallel-cut crystal or a ceramic resonator. LP mode is generally used for low-
power applications using watch-type crystals or ceramic resonators in the 32 kHz to
200 kHz range. XT mode is used from typically 455 kHz to 4MHz, and HS mode is
usually used above 4MHz. The modes are very similar except for the amount of drive
supplied to the crystal. In these three modes, an external clock source can also be
used instead of a crystal or resonator. If you have an existing clock signal of the
desired frequency in your circuit, you can connect this signal to the OSC1 pin and
leave the OSC2 pin open.

When using a crystal or resonator, it is good practice to connect a small

capacitor from each OSC lead to ground. This helps assure stable oscillator operation
and reliable start-up. Consult the Microchip data sheet for your processor and the
specs for your crystal for the recommended values, but 15pF to 33pF seems to be
adequate for most clock frequencies over 400kHz or so.

The last mode is RC mode. If your application is not at all timing sensitive, RC
mode is simple and inexpensive. To use this mode, you simply connect and external
resistor ranging from 5K to 100K Ohms from Vdd to OCS1, and an external capacitor
from OSC1 to Vss. The external capacitor can be eliminated, but Microchip warns
that the frequency can vary widely and change often. They recommend at least 20pF
of external capacitance for anything resembling stable operation. Of course, RC
mode will be affected much more than any of the crystal or resonator modes by
temperature, part to part variations, etc.

50
 2.7 LEAD ACID BATTERY

Battery specifications

Fig36:A valve-regulated, sometimes called "sealed", lead acid

battery

Energy/weight 30-40 Wh/kg

Energy/size 60-75 Wh/L

Power/weight 180 W/kg

Charge/discharge efficiency 70%-92%

Energy/consumer-price 7(sld)-18(fld) Wh/US$ [1]

Self-discharge rate 3%-20%/month [2]

Cycle durability 500-800 cycles

Nominal Cell Voltage 2.105 V

51
 Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having
the second lowest energy-to-weight ratio (next to the nickel-iron battery) and a
correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge
currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These
features, along with their low cost, makes them attractive for use in cars, as they can
provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. They are also used in
vehicles such as forklifts, in which the low energy-to-weight ratio may in fact be
considered a benefit since the battery can be used as a counterweight. Large arrays of
lead-acid cells are used as standby power sources for telecommunications facilities,
generating stations, and computer data centers. They are also used to power the
electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines.

Electrochemistry

Each cell contains (in the charged state) electrodes of lead metal (Pb) and lead (IV)
oxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of about 37% w/w (5.99 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
In the discharged state both electrodes turn into lead (II) sulfate (PbSO 4) and the
electrolyte loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. Due to the
freezing-point depression of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of
sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze.

The chemical reactions are (charged to discharged):

Anode (oxidation):

Cathode (reduction):

Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries,
overcharging with excessive charging voltages will generate oxygen and hydrogen
gas by electrolysis of water, forming an explosive mix. This should be avoided.
Caution must also be observed because of the extremely corrosive nature of sulfuric
acid.

52
Practical cells are usually not made with pure lead but have small amounts of
antimony, tin, or calcium alloyed in the plate material. These are general voltage
ranges for six-cell lead-acid batteries:

Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 12.6 V to 12.8 V (2.10-2.13V per cell)

Open-circuit at full discharge: 11.8 V to 12.0 V
Loaded at full discharge: 10.5 V.
Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 13.8 V for gelled electrolyte; 13.5 V
for AGM (absorbed glass mat) and 13.4 V for flooded

1. All voltages are at 20 C, and must be adjusted -0.022V/C for temperature

changes. (note: this value seams far too high: it's usually -0.003V/C)
2. Float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's
recommendation.
3. Precise (0.05 V) float voltage is critical to longevity; too low (sulfation) is
almost as bad as too high (corrosion and electrolyte loss)

Typical (daily) charging: 14.2 V to 14.5 V (depending on manufacturer's

recommendation)
Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 15 V for no more than 2 hours.
Battery temperature must be monitored.
Gassing threshold: 14.4 V
After full charge the terminal voltage will drop quickly to 13.2 V and then
slowly to 12.6 V.

CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERY

Plates

The principle of the lead acid cell can be demonstrated with simple sheet lead
plates for the two electrodes. However such a construction would only produce
around an amp for roughly postcard sized plates, and it would not produce such a
current for more than a few minutes.

53
 Gaston Plant realized that a plate construction was required that gave a much
larger effective surface area. Plant's method of producing the plates has been largely
unchanged and is still used in stationary applications.

The Faure pasted-plate construction is typical of automotive batteries. Each plate

consists of a rectangular lead grid alloyed with antimony or calcium to improve the
mechanical characteristics. The holes of the grid are filled with a mixture of red lead
and 33% dilute sulfuric acid. (Different manufacturers have modified the mixture).
The paste is pressed into the holes in the plates which are slightly tapered on both
sides to assist in retention of the paste. This porous paste allows the acid to react with
the lead inside the plate, increasing the surface area many fold. At this stage the
positive and negative plates are similar; however expanders and additives vary their
internal chemistry to assist in operation when in use. Once dry, the plates are then
stacked together with suitable separators and inserted in the battery container. An odd
number of plates is usually used, with one more negative plate than positive. Each
alternate plate is connected together. After the acid has been added to the cell, the cell
is given its first forming charge. The positive plates gradually turn the chocolate
brown color of lead dioxide, and the negative turn the slate gray of 'spongy' lead.
Such a cell is ready to be used.

One of the problems with the plates in a lead-acid battery is that the plates
change size as the battery charges and discharges, the plates increasing in size as the
active material absorbs sulfate from the acid during discharge, and decreasing as they
give up the sulfate during charging. This causes the plates to gradually shed the paste
during their life. It is important that there is plenty of room underneath the plates to
catch this shed material. If this material reaches the plates a shorted cell will occur.

Separators

Separators are used between the positive and negative plates of a lead acid
battery to prevent short circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites
(treeing), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the
flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell.
Various materials have been used to make separators:

54
 wood
rubber
glass fiber mat
cellulose
sintered PVC
Microporous PVC/polyethylene.

An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties;

applicable considerations include permeability, porosity, pore size distribution,
specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic
conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator
must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a
little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates.
The separators must remain stable over the operating temperature range of the
battery.

BY APPLICATION

Stand-by (stationary) batteries

Motor vehicle starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries
Traction (propulsion) batteries

55
 CHAPTER-3

SOFTWARE CODING

56
CODING FOR PIC CONTROLLER:

The following is the code used for PIC controller for giving delay time to switches,

#include<pic.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include "delay.c"

__CONFIG(0x3f71);

unsigned char n=1;

void main()
{
RBPU=0;
TRISC=0x00;
PORTC=0x00;

while(1)
{
if(RB0==0)
n=1;
if(RB1==0)
n=2;
if(n==1)
{

PORTC=0x09;
DelayMs(10);
PORTC=0x06;
DelayMs(10);
}
else if(n==2)
{

PORTC=0x90;
DelayMs(10);
PORTC=0x60;
DelayMs(10);

57
 }
}
}

CHAPTER-4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

58
FULL BRIDGE BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DCCONVERER:

Fig37: circuit diagram for bidirectional dc-dc converter

DRIVER CIRCUIT TO THE SOURCE OF MOSFET

59
 Fig38: driver circuit

PIC CONTROLLER:

Fig39: circuit for PIC

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTER:

60
Fig40: Boost operation of bidirectional dc-dc converter

Fig41: Buck operation of bidirectional dc-dc converter

61
 CHAPTER-4

CIRCUIT OPERATION

62
 The circuit topology of the proposed bidirectional isolated converter is shown
in Fig. . According to the power ow directions, there are two operation modes for
the proposed converter. When power ows from the low-voltage side (LVS) to the
high-voltage side (HVS), the circuit operates in boost mode to draw energy from the
battery. In the other power ow direction, the circuit operates in buck mode to
recharge the battery from the high-voltage dc bus. Based on the symbols and signal
polarities introduced in Fig. 2, the theoretical waveforms of the two operation modes
are shown in Fig. (a) and (b), respectively.

63
 Fig42: Theoretical waveform under (a) boost and (b) buck operation
A. Boost Mode (Discharging Mode) Operation

When the dc bus voltage in the HVS is not at the desired high level, such as
during a cold start, the power drawn from the low-voltage battery flows into the high-
voltage dc bus. During this mode, the proposed converter is operated as a current-fed
circuit to boost the HVS bus voltage. The LVS switches Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 operate
at asymmetrical duty ratios and 1- which require a short overlapping conduction
interval. Referring to the equivalent circuits for the boost mode operation in Fig. 43,
the detailed operating principle can be explained as follows.

64
 Fig43: modes of operation in boost mode

Stage 1 (t0t1): At t0, the LVS switch Q2, Q3 is turned off and the HVS switch Q5,
Q8 is turned on. The current from the inductor L1 flows through Q1, Q4 and the
transformer LVS winding, closing the loop via the battery. Therefore, the transformer
LVS winding carries only IL1. The voltage amplitude across the transformer HVS
winding, V2 can be clamped to the dc voltage. Thus, the voltage across the
transformer LVS winding, V1 is clamped to (-VA/n). The n is the transformer turn
ratio.

65
Stage 2 (t1t2): At t1, the LVS switch Q2, Q3 is turned on and the HVS switch Q5,
Q8 is turned off. During this interval, the switches Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 are on
simultaneously. The voltage across the transformer winding become zero
Stage 3 (t2t3): The voltage Vds6 & Vds8 across the HVS switch, Q6, Q7 continues
to decrease to zero at t3.
Stage 4 (t3t4): At t3, as long as the switch Q6, Q7 is turned on at t4, zero-voltage
switching can be assured.
Stage 5 (t4t5): At t4, the LVS switch Q1, Q4 is turned off and the HVS switch Q6,
Q7 is turned on. The current from the inductor L1 flows through Q2, Q3 and the
transformer LVS winding, closing the loop via the battery. Therefore, the transformer
LVS winding carries only IL1. The voltage amplitude across the transformer HVS
winding, V2 can be clamped to (VBus-VA). Thus, the voltage across the transformer
LVS winding, V1 is clamped to (VBus-VA) /n.
Stage 6 (t5t6): At t5, the LVS switch Q1, Q4 is turned on and the HVS switch Q6,
Q7 is turned off. During this interval, the switches Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 are
simultaneously on. The voltage across L1 also becomes negative and its amplitude
equals the battery voltage. The inductance current, IL1 decreases linearly. The
voltage across the transformer winding become zero.
Stage 7 (t6t7): The voltage Vds5 & Vds8 across the HVS switch, Q5,Q8 continues
to decrease to zero at t7.
Stage 8 (t7t8): At t7, as long as the switch Q5, Q8 is turned on at t8, zero-voltage
switching can be assured. The circuit will then proceed back to stage 1 after
completing one operating cycle T8.

Based on the above analysis, the voltage and current stresses

of the LVS switches can be found

Although the LVS switches subject to higher voltage stress, this is an advantage
because the battery voltage is low. Because the overlapping interval for the LVS
switches Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 is very short, the LVS transformer current flows through

66
only one LVS switch at most time. Thus, the conduction losses for Q1, Q4 and Q2,
Q4 can be greatly reduced to improve the conversion efficiency. Moreover, the LVS
circuit produces a relatively ripple free battery current that is desirable for the low
voltage battery. The voltage transfer ratio Mboost for the boost mode operation for the
proposed dcdc converter can be derived from the volt-second balance condition
across the inductor L1 represented by (7). The current stresses of the inductor
windings can be also determined as (6).The inductances of the power inductor L1 can
be determined for their given peak-to-peak current ripples, I1

Where (%) is the ripple percentage of the inductor currents IL1

B. Buck Mode (Charging Mode) Operation

Different from the traditional electric vehicle driving system, the fuel cell
powered system needs an additional energy storage device to absorb the feedback
power from the electric machine. This energy storage device may be a lead-acid
battery as shown in Fig. . The proposed circuit works in buck mode to recharge the
battery from high-voltage dc bus. During this mode, the proposed converter is
operated as an asymmetrical half bridge circuit with synchronous rectification current
doubler to recharge the battery from high-voltage dc bus. The HVS switches Q5, Q8
and Q6, Q7 operate at asymmetrical duty ratios and 1- which require short and
well-defined dead time between the conduction intervals. Referring to the equivalent
circuits in Fig. , the detailed operating principle of this mode can be explained as
follows.

67
 Fig44: modes of operation in buck mode
Stage 1(t0t1): At t0, the HVS switch Q6, Q7 and the LVS switch Q2, Q3 stay on.
The inductance current is equal to IL1/n. The current from the inductor L1 flows
through Q2, Q3 and the transformer LVS winding, closing the loop via the battery.
Therefore, the transformer LVS winding carries only IL1. The current IL1
increases. Since the recharging current, -IBat.
Stage 2 (t1t2): At t1, the LVS switch Q1, Q4 is turned on and the HVS switch Q6,
Q7 is turned off. During this interval, the switches Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 are
simultaneously on. The recharging current, -IBat , freewheels through both the
switches, Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3. The voltage across L1 also becomes negative and

68
equals the battery voltage. Therefore, the inductance current IL1 decreases. The
voltage across the transformer winding becomes zero. The voltage Vds5 & Vds8
across the switch, Q5, Q8 continues to decrease to zero at t2.
Stage 3 (t2t3): At t2, as long as the HVS switch Q5, Q8 is turned on before the
inductor current changes its direction at t3, zero voltage switching can be assured.
Stage 4 (t3t4): While the HVS switch, Q5, Q8 is zero-voltage turned on, the LVS
switch, Q2, Q3 is turned off.
The stages 58 are similar to stages 14, respectively.
The circuit will then proceed back to stage 1 after completing one operating cycle
TS.
While the LVS switches, Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3, share unequal voltage and current
stresses, the HVS switches, Q5, Q8 and Q6, Q7, share equal voltage stresses as (8).
Then the current stresses of the HVS switches can be found as

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR KEY COMPONENTS

To verify the feasibility of the proposed scheme, a 2-kW laboratory prototype
operated at 20 kHz was built. The simulation and experimental results will be shown
and discussed in the next section. The LVS of the design example was connected to a
12-V lead-acid battery whose terminal voltage could swing from 1015 V. The
nominal voltage on the HVS dc bus was designed to 300 V, with an operating range
from 150400 V. The design considerations

A. Power Switches
The power switch voltage and current ratings are very important converter
design topics. When the duty ratio is chosen in the operating range of from 0.2 to
0.5, the LVS device rating can be calculated by using (1)(4) as follows:

69
Based on (5), the turn-ratio selection of transformer can be calculated as (15). The
HVS device ratings can then be calculated using (8)(10) as follows:

B. Power Inductors
Let the peak-to-peak current ripples be 20% of the inductor currents under full
power. The current rating and the inductance of the power inductor L1 can be
determined using (6) (7) as follows:

Because of the ripple cancellation on the battery current, a larger ripple current in
inductor L1 and can be allowed in practical applications. Thus, the inductance and the
size of the inductors L1 might be smaller.

70
 CHAPTER-5

SIMULATION &
RESULTS

71
 To verify the theoretical operating principles, a 2-kW design example was
simulated by using MATLAB. There is a good agreement between the simulation
results and theoretical analysis. In this research, a 2-kW laboratory prototype was
implemented and tested to evaluate the performance of the proposed bidirectional
isolated dcdc converter. Fig47, 48, 49 shows the waveforms in the boost mode
operations for the laboratory prototype & Fig 49, 50, 51 shows the waveforms for
buck mode operation. The gating signals for the LVS switches Q1, Q4, & Q2, Q3 and
HVS switches Q5,Q8 & Q6, Q7 are shown in Fig. . The ripple cancellation between
two inductor currents can be observed. This is desirable for a low-voltage battery. In
Fig 48 and 50, the zero-voltage turn-on details of the LVS switch Q3 and HVS switch
Q5 shown. For the full-bridge topology, the peak voltage across the LVS switches is
around 45 V, allowing 75-V MOSFET to be used.

5.1 BOOST OPERATION FOR BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC

CONVERTER

72
 Fig45

5.1.1SUBCIRCUIT:

5.2 BUCK OPERATION:

Fig46

73
5.2.1SUBCIRCUIT:

5.3 RESULTANT WAVE FORM:

5.3.1 BOOST OPERATION:

Input wave form:

Fig 47

74
Output waveform:

Fig48

ZVS Waveform:

75
 Fig49

Current & Voltage Wave Form of Primary Side Transformer:

Fig50

Input pulses to mosfet

76
 Fig 51

5.4 BUCK OPERATION:

Input voltage waveform

Fig 52

Out put voltage:

77
 Fig53

ZVS Wave Form:

Fig54

Current & Voltage Waveform Of Primary Side Of Transformer:

78
 Fig55

Input pulses to mosfet:

Fig 56

79
 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION

80
 A soft-switched isolated bidirectional dcdc converter has been

implemented in this project. The operation, analysis, features and design

consideration were illustrated. Simulation and experimental results for

the 200W, 20 kHz prototype was shown as per principle. It is shown that

ZVS in either direction of power flow is achieved with no lossy

components involved, no additional active switch, no additional TDR

exhibited. Thanks to the dual functions (simultaneous boost conversion

and inversion) provided by the low voltage side half bridge, current

stresses on the switching devices and transformer are kept minimum. As

results, advantages of the new circuit including ZVS with full load range,

decreased device count, high efficiency (measured more than 94% at

rated power), and low cost as well as less control and accessory power

needs, make the proposed converter very promising for medium power

applications with high power density.

81
FUTURE SCOPE

The bidirectional dc-dc converter instead of full bridge isolated

configuration can be made as half bridge isolated configuration using several half
bridge configurations. This half bridge will have less device count and simple circuit,
therefore it is more economic and we can achieve high efficiency than full bridge
configuration. This circuit will have more advantages than full bridge configuration.

82
BIBILOGRAPHY
The bibliography used fro the project A BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC
CONVERTER USED FOR ELECTRICAL VEHICLE DRIVING SYSTEM is as
follows.

ARTICLES:
1. A Bidirectional DCDC Converter for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Driving System
By Huang-Jen Chiu, Member, IEEE, and Li-Wei Lin,
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 21, No. 4, July 2006

BOOKS:

Power Electronics P.S. Bimbra

&
Vedam
Subramanyam

Micro controllers A.K. Ray

WEBSITE:

1. GOOGLE
2. Wikipedia
3. Other Websites

83
APPENDIX:

_ Advanced Process Technology

_ Dynamic dv/dt Rating
_ 175C Operating Temperature
_ Fast Switching
_ Fully Avalanche Rated
_ Ease of Paralleling
Simple Drive Requirements

Description:
Fifth Generation HEXFETs from International Rectifier utilize advanced
processing techniques to achieve extremely low on-resistance per silicon
area. This benefit, Combined with the fast switching speed and ruggedized
device design thatHEXFET Power MOSFETs.The TO-247 package is
preferred for commercial-industrial applications where Higher power levels
preclude the use of TO-220 devices.

84
85
PIC CONTROLLER 16F877A:
PIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

86
Fig 57

87
88
89
90