Nature of Cartography

Geomatics?
  Geomatics : a multi-disciplinary field that includes
surveying and mapping, geodesy, global positioning
systems (GPS), remote sensing, photogrammetry,
geographic information systems (GIS) and
cartography. Where geospatial questions are
concerned, the contemporary forms of these
disciplines are unified by their dependence on a
common knowledge set that is comprised of
geographic positioning and a reliance on digital
geospatial data.
(Sawada, Wilson and Levrington 2003 – Introduction to Geomatics)
          

Nature of Cartography 2
 Cartography
 Cartography (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is
the study and practice of making maps or globes.
 Definition : The art , science, technology of making maps
together with their study as scientific documents and works
of art (International Cartographic Association, ICA 1973)
 Cartography is the making and study of maps in all their
aspects.
 The organisation an communication of geographically related
information in either graphic or digital form. It can include
all stages from data acquisition to presentation and use.

Nature of Cartography 3
Cont..
 With the advent of digital technology and
GIS, the scope of cartography includes
production, usage of maps, organization,
management, analysis and exploitation of
cartographic digital files.
 Cartography is an efficient way of
manipulating, analysing and expressing ideas,
forms and relationships that occur in two- and
three-dimensional space.

Nature of Cartography 4
Nature of Cartography
 Forms of representation
 Need for maps
 Basic characteristics of maps
 Purposes maps serve
 Categories of maps
 Emphasis on cartographic representation
 The scope of cartography

Nature of Cartography 5
Forms of Representation
 Literacy - the use of written language
 Articulacy - the use of spoken language
 Numeracy - mathematics: a way of
symbolisation
 Graphicacy - the use of graphics
 "A picture is worth of thousands of words"

Nature of Cartography 6
 Hang Seng Index 1999
Date JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
11 --
-- 9,599.55
9,599.55 10,020.46
10,020.46 11,072.98
11,072.98 --
-- 12,363.56
12,363.56 --
-- --
-- 13,544.19
13,544.19 --
-- 13,322.11
13,322.11 15,422.52
15,422.52
22 --
-- 9,502.72
9,502.72 9,913.58
9,913.58 --
-- --
-- 12,458.64
12,458.64 14,184.58
14,184.58 13,435.43
13,435.43 13,367.56
13,367.56 --
-- 13,335.84
13,335.84 15,603.04
15,603.04
33 --
-- 9,419.85
9,419.85 9,922.40
9,922.40 --
-- 13,337.07
13,337.07 12,471.61
12,471.61 --
-- 13,473.84
13,473.84 13,178.31
13,178.31 --
-- 13,257.33
13,257.33 15,840.41
15,840.41
44 9,809.17
9,809.17 9,438.65
9,438.65 9,912.76
9,912.76 --
-- 13,559.69
13,559.69 12,415.54
12,415.54 --
-- 13,591.02
13,591.02 ---- 12,875.86
12,875.86 13,651.51
13,651.51 --
--
55 9,891.06
9,891.06 9,190.20
9,190.20 10,241.12
10,241.12 --
-- 13,586.21
13,586.21 ---- 14,506.74
14,506.74 13,254.34
13,254.34 ---- 12,998.89
12,998.89 13,610.27
13,610.27 --
--
66 10,233.80
10,233.80 --
-- --
-- --
-- 13,570.24
13,570.24 ---- 14,372.61
14,372.61 13,167.06
13,167.06 13,385.16
13,385.16 13,017.98
13,017.98 ---- 16,168.62
16,168.62
77 10,693.57
10,693.57 --
-- --
-- 11,614.87
11,614.87 12,997.43
12,997.43 12,837.39
12,837.39 14,257.44
14,257.44 --
-- 13,396.09
13,396.09 13,113.20
13,113.20 ---- 16,073.09
16,073.09
88 10,722.70
10,722.70 9,139.60
9,139.60 10,263.99
10,263.99 11,727.84
11,727.84 --
-- 12,864.86
12,864.86 14,226.30
14,226.30 --
-- 13,356.63
13,356.63 13,112.42
13,112.42 13,521.11
13,521.11 15,989.38
15,989.38
99 --
-- 9,244.49
9,244.49 10,532.95
10,532.95 11,914.10
11,914.10 --
-- 12,874.42
12,874.42 14,222.57
14,222.57 12,945.47
12,945.47 13,854.88
13,854.88 --
-- 13,669.70
13,669.70 16,370.95
16,370.95
10
10 --
-- 9,076.33
9,076.33 10,749.01
10,749.01 --
-- 13,163.20
13,163.20 12,839.21
12,839.21 --
-- 12,596.71
12,596.71 13,855.93
13,855.93 --
-- 13,975.54
13,975.54 16,380.21
16,380.21
11
11 10,634.27
10,634.27 9,146.80
9,146.80 10,662.81
10,662.81 --
-- 12,874.37
12,874.37 12,992.76
12,992.76 --
-- 12,437.80
12,437.80 ---- 12,992.72
12,992.72 14,105.71
14,105.71 --
--
12
12 10,711.56
10,711.56 9,425.42
9,425.42 10,801.76
10,801.76 11,744.74
11,744.74 13,012.97
13,012.97 ---- 14,061.84
14,061.84 12,779.75
12,779.75 ---- 12,759.35
12,759.35 14,189.67
14,189.67 --
--
13
13 10,273.77
10,273.77 --
-- --
-- 11,899.69
11,899.69 13,053.67
13,053.67 ---- 13,980.93
13,980.93 12,608.18
12,608.18 13,860.85
13,860.85 12,475.87
12,475.87 ---- 16,442.11
16,442.11
14
14 10,183.13
10,183.13 --
-- --
-- 11,834.13
11,834.13 12,855.52
12,855.52 13,007.57
13,007.57 13,575.57
13,575.57 --
-- 13,804.03
13,804.03 12,486.82
12,486.82 ---- 16,282.70
16,282.70
15
15 10,147.40
10,147.40 9,402.39
9,402.39 10,836.86
10,836.86 11,962.23
11,962.23 --
-- 12,935.41
12,935.41 13,758.89
13,758.89 --
-- 13,430.60
13,430.60 12,299.08
12,299.08 14,562.22
14,562.22 15,825.31
15,825.31
16
16 --
-- --
-- 10,911.25
10,911.25 12,490.30
12,490.30 --
-- 13,155.12
13,155.12 13,545.24
13,545.24 12,894.78
12,894.78 ---- --
-- 14,689.46
14,689.46 15,571.36
15,571.36
17
17 --
-- --
-- 10,940.07
10,940.07 --
-- 12,588.60
12,588.60 13,408.27
13,408.27 --
-- 12,783.16
12,783.16 13,484.84
13,484.84 --
-- 14,704.48
14,704.48 15,986.35
15,986.35
18
18 10,402.54
10,402.54 --
-- 10,659.32
10,659.32 --
-- 12,627.10
12,627.10 ---- --
-- 12,993.10
12,993.10 ---- --
-- 14,721.74
14,721.74 --
--
19
19 10,290.11
10,290.11 9,254.12
9,254.12 11,082.92
11,082.92 12,766.44
12,766.44 12,403.14
12,403.14 ---- 13,447.13
13,447.13 13,403.59
13,403.59 ---- 12,134.13
12,134.13 15,073.10
15,073.10 --
--
20
20 10,314.91
10,314.91 --
-- --
-- 12,409.78
12,409.78 12,375.42
12,375.42 ---- 13,600.40
13,600.40 13,566.74
13,566.74 13,472.37
13,472.37 12,498.56
12,498.56 ---- 16,212.39
16,212.39
21
21 10,048.57
10,048.57 --
-- --
-- 12,543.76
12,543.76 12,272.14
12,272.14 13,994.23
13,994.23 13,419.66
13,419.66 --
-- 13,420.46
13,420.46 12,523.00
12,523.00 ---- 16,248.74
16,248.74
22
22 9,738.52
9,738.52 9,229.34
9,229.34 11,107.24
11,107.24 12,933.54
12,933.54 --
-- 14,004.88
14,004.88 13,369.06
13,369.06 --
-- 13,187.62
13,187.62 12,863.08
12,863.08 15,285.03
15,285.03 16,192.40
16,192.40
23
23 --
-- 9,433.99
9,433.99 11,041.01
11,041.01 12,905.30
12,905.30 --
-- 13,976.04
13,976.04 13,093.70
13,093.70 13,573.66
13,573.66 13,214.44
13,214.44 --
-- 15,393.20
15,393.20 16,296.08
16,296.08
24
24 --
-- 9,677.57
9,677.57 10,711.34
10,711.34 --
-- 12,436.86
12,436.86 13,780.12
13,780.12 --
-- 13,633.87
13,633.87 13,032.07
13,032.07 --
-- 15,307.28
15,307.28 16,833.28
16,833.28
25
25 9,499.50
9,499.50 9,658.07
9,658.07 10,826.13
10,826.13 --
-- 12,346.91
12,346.91 13,784.51
13,784.51 --
-- 13,479.13
13,479.13 ---- 13,034.18
13,034.18 14,998.77
14,998.77 --
--
26
26 9,509.83
9,509.83 9,858.49
9,858.49 10,803.31
10,803.31 13,127.02
13,127.02 12,409.16
12,409.16 ---- 12,866.52
12,866.52 13,608.38
13,608.38 ---- 12,797.38
12,797.38 15,274.53
15,274.53 --
--
27
27 9,719.66
9,719.66 --
-- --
-- 13,364.79
13,364.79 12,308.53
12,308.53 ---- 13,075.09
13,075.09 13,383.13
13,383.13 12,760.46
12,760.46 12,709.07
12,709.07 ---- --
--
28
28 9,360.96
9,360.96 --
-- --
-- 13,133.39
13,133.39 12,059.25
12,059.25 13,840.29
13,840.29 13,140.42
13,140.42 --
-- 12,844.93
12,844.93 12,758.88
12,758.88 ---- 16,928.29
16,928.29
29
29 9,506.90
9,506.90 --
-- 10,688.47
10,688.47 13,179.70
13,179.70 --
-- 13,765.49
13,765.49 13,117.84
13,117.84 --
-- 12,834.89
12,834.89 13,256.95
13,256.95 15,461.11
15,461.11 16,660.82
16,660.82
30
30 --
-- --
-- 10,940.21
10,940.21 13,333.20
13,333.20 --
-- 13,532.14
13,532.14 13,186.86
13,186.86 13,688.66
13,688.66 12,733.24
12,733.24 --
-- 15,377.19
15,377.19 16,962.10
16,962.10
31
31 --
-- --
-- 10,942.20
10,942.20 --
-- 12,147.12
12,147.12 ---- --
-- 13,482.77
13,482.77 ---- --
-- ---- --
--
High
High 10,722.70
10,722.70 9,858.49
9,858.49 11,107.24
11,107.24 13,364.79
13,364.79 13,586.21
13,586.21 14,004.88
14,004.88 14,506.74
14,506.74 13,688.66
13,688.66 13,860.85
13,860.85 13,256.95
13,256.95 15,461.11
15,461.11 16,962.10
16,962.10
Low
Low 9,360.96
9,360.96 9,076.33
9,076.33 9,912.76
9,912.76 11,072.98
11,072.98 12,059.25
12,059.25 12,363.56
12,363.56 12,866.52
12,866.52 12,437.80
12,437.80 12,733.24
12,733.24 12,134.13
12,134.13 13,257.33
13,257.33 15,422.52
15,422.52

Nature of Cartography 7
HSI 1999: Chart

Nature of Cartography 8
HSI: Analytical Chart (1)

Nature of Cartography 9
Forms of Representation
 Map - the graphic representation of the geographical
setting.
 Map- A representation normally to scale and on a flat
medium of a selection of material or abstract features
on, or in relation to the surface of the earth or other
celestial bodies (ICA 1973).
 Maps can portray things other than the earth surface,
other planets.
 Maps are a vital tool to man that have been in use for
thousand of years and with evolving technology are
becoming more useful. They are a way of generalizing
the surrounding world and presenting the information
in an understandable fashion.

Nature of Cartography 10
 Need for Maps
 Reducing the spatial characteristics of a large area and
putting it in map form to make it observable.
 A map is carefully designed instrument for recording,
calculating, displaying, analysing and understanding
the interrelation of things.
 Communicate spatial information - more efficient
than linear communication
 Its most fundamental function is to bring the things
into view.

Nature of Cartography 11
Purposes Maps Serve
 Store geographical information.
 Serve mobility and navigation needs.
 Analytical purposes, e.g. Measuring and
computing.
 Summarise statistical data to assist forecasting
and spotting trends.
 Visualise invisible.
 Stimulate spatial thinking.

Nature of Cartography 12
 Purposes Maps Serve ..cont
  to give directions
 to search for minerals
 to navigate
 to plan travel arrangements
 to plan communication routes
 to distribute products efficiently
 to gain an understanding of the world and one's place
in it
 to analyze complex collection of data - topography,
soil, landuse, direction
 A powerful tool for spatial analysis

Nature of Cartography 13
Maps – what for?
 For what tasks do we use maps?
 What is the role of maps in these tasks?
 What is necessary to answer a question?

Nature of Cartography 14
Maps as Information Products
 Three fundamental economic questions:
1. What is produced?
2. How is it produced?
3. For whom is it produced?

 Adapted to cartography:
How do I say what to whom and is it effective?

Nature of Cartography 15
Cartographic communication

Nature of Cartography 16
 How do I say what to whom?
How Traditional cartographic methods Cartographic methods and techniques using modern
and techniques visualization technology

Cartographer Geoscientist
do I All users of the WWW

Classical communication model Modern communication model

say

Defined spatial data and their Any spatial and temporal question, semantics
what
attributes
Target or user group Target or user group
to Goal of the map Map maker herself (presentation - exploration)
whom?

Is it Established tradition Effectiveness of tools can be ensured through

effective
?

Nature of Cartography 17
Different kind of products
 Agricultural products
 Industrial products
 Information products

Nature of Cartography 18
The Market for Maps
 About 80% of all decisions are linked to space
and time:
 How do I get from here to the train station?
 How much paint do I need to buy?
 Where should a new airport be built?
 Where does SARS originate?
 Which city has the lowest crime rate?
 ...

Nature of Cartography 19
 Map use is communication
 We communicate (and lie!) with maps
how do I say what to whom and is it effective?
 Maps provide information for some tasks or
questions of some users

Nature of Cartography 20
Communication with Maps
primary model reality

c ep t i on
per

mappi
ng secondary model

re a ding
map
Nature of Cartography 21
 Map As a Representation of
Reality
 Spatial data - spatially referenced objects or
phenomena
 Reality
 Model construction and selection
 Selection and construction to a cartographic
representation
 Map
 Results in the user’s mental map

Nature of Cartography 22
 The Nature of Spatial Data
The nature of spatial data:
from reality (a),
via model construction and
selection to digital
landscape model (b),
followed by selection and
construction to a
cartographic
representation towards a
digital cartographic model
(c),
presented as a map (d),
which results in the user's
mental map (e).
From Kraak and Ormeling, 1996.

Nature of Cartography 23
 (Geo)-Spatial data

Maps

Terrain data

Satellite images
Aerial photos

Nature of Cartography 24
(Geo)-Spatial data
 spatial data - data that has a spatial component
 Both spatial and non-spatial (i.e., descriptive, or also
alphanumeric, attribute) aspects are associated with
this kind of data
 For example, a river will have attribute information
associated with it (such as its name and length)
together with its geometric description (the spatial
component)

Nature of Cartography 25
Dent

Nature of Cartography 26
Basic Characteristics of Maps
 Locations in two-dimensional space
 Attributes - qualities or magnitudes
Examples:
 Relationships among locations, e.g. Distance
 Relationships among various attributes at one location,
e.g. Temperature, rainfall and soil
 Relationships among the locations of the attributes of a
given distribution, e.g. Rainfall
 Relationships among the locations of derived or
combined attributes of given distributions, e.g. Relation
of GDP and population

Nature of Cartography 27
Basic Characteristics of Maps
(Cont.)

 All geographical maps are reductions.

 Scale.
 All maps involve geometrical transformations.
 Map projection.
 All maps are abstractions of reality.
 Generalization.
 All maps use signs to stand for elements of
reality.
 Symbolism.

Nature of Cartography 28
Characteristics of Maps:
Reductions
 Map Scale
 Defined dimensional relation
between reality and the map.

Nature of Cartography 29
 Characteristics of Maps:
Transformations
 Projection
 Transform spherical surface
to a flat map
 Affects how map is used
 Calculation of distances etc.

Sinusoidal Miller Cylindrical Hammer-Aitoff

Nature of Cartography 30
 Characteristics of Maps:
Abstractions
 Simplification of reality
 Only information chosen to
fit the purpose of the map
 classification
 simplification
 generalization

Nature of Cartography 31
Characteristics of Maps: Signs
and Marks

Nature of Cartography 32
Categories of Maps

Nature of Cartography 33
Categories of Maps
 Classed by scale
 Small-scale map
 Large-scale map
 Classed by function
 General reference maps
 Topographic maps
 Thematic maps
 Charts
 Classed by subject matter
 Classed by medium

Nature of Cartography 34
 Classed by scale
 Small scale -“bird’s eye view”of a
large area
 Large scale – “close-up view” of a
small area
 1:1000 - 1:5000 very large
 1:5000 - 1:25000 large
 1:25000 - 1:100000 medium
 1:100000 -1: 1 mil small
 1: 1mil - < 1:1 mil very small

Nature of Cartography 35
 Classed by function
General Purpose/reference maps
 archive of spatial information answers
'where', 'when', 'what‘
 shows many different things, where
specific objects are relative to one
another, user is generally looking location
of specific feature relative to others

Nature of Cartography 36
Classed by function
Topographic maps
 maps whose principal purpose is to portray and identify the
man-made and natural features of the earth’s surface as
faithfully as possible within the limitations imposed by scale
 usually made by public agencies using photogrametric
methods
 issued in series of individual sheets eg. L7030 map series
 varying from large to small scale
 1:25000,1:50000,1:100000,1:200000,1:250000, 1:500000,
1:1000000
 multi-purpose maps : maps that can be used for different
purposes by different types of users
 used as base map for preparing thematic maps

Nature of Cartography 37
Classed by function
Thematic maps
 analysis of spatial pattern ,answers 'why'
 special purpose maps
 maps designed to demonstrate particular features or
concepts
 concentrate on spatial distribution of a single attribute or
relationships among several attributes.
 distinction based on themes represented
 appear both at large and small scales
 data represented either qualitatively or quantitatively
 eg. Major soil groups, Annual rainfall, Ave. annual
income , Population density, Land use changes, Soil
suitability, Distribution of industries.

Nature of Cartography 38
Thematic Maps

Nature of Cartography 39
 Classed by function
Charts
 designed to serve the needs of navigators whether on
the sea, the land, or in the air
 charts are to be “worked on”
 Eg: nautical charts: sailing charts for navigation in
open waters, coastal charts for near-shore navigation
 Aeronatical charts: for visual flying
 chart scales depend on detail necessary
 chart series are not made at uniform scales

Nature of Cartography 40
Charts

Nature of Cartography 41
Classed by function

Topographic Map Thematic map

Thematic map Nautical Chart

Nature of Cartography 42
Classed by subject matter
 Cadastral Maps- land parcels, property
boundaries, large scale
 Plan – shows buildings, roadways, boundary
lines, very large scale
 No limit of classes – Soil maps, Geological
maps, Climatic maps, Population maps,
Transportation maps, Economic maps,
Statistical maps

Nature of Cartography 43
Cadastral maps, plans

Nature of Cartography 44
 Classed by subject matter

Nature of Cartography 45
Classed by medium
 Real maps
 Virtual maps
 Mental Maps         
  Perception , Experience,Imagination

Nature of Cartography 46
Real , Virtual, Mental Maps

Nature of Cartography 47
Emphasis on Cartographic
Representation
 The principal task of cartography is to communicate
environmental information.
 The emphasis on cartographic representation is map
effectiveness in thought and communication.
 This is best achieved by treating the making and using
of maps equally.

Nature of Cartography 48
 Basic Steps for Communication Map
Information
Cartographic Steps – Slocum
Consider what the real world distribution of the
Step 1
phenomenon might look like

Determine the purpose of the map and its intended

Step 2
audience

Step 3 Collect data appropriate for the map's purpose

Step 4 Design and construct the map

Determine whether users find the map useful and

Step 5
informative

Nature of Cartography 49
 The Theme of Map
Effectiveness
Simplification Symbolisation Analysis

Selection
Map Map Map
Interpretation
Making Effectiveness Use

Classification Exaggeration Reading

Nature of Cartography 50
 Information Transformation
Selection
Census Classification
Ground survey Simplification Reading
Remote sensing Exaggeration Analysis
Compilation Symbolisation Interpretation

Recognised
Geographical
Geographical MAP
Map
Environment Information Image

Transform 1 Transform 2 Transform 3

Nature of Cartography 51
 The Scope of Cartography
Map Maker

Data Map

Map User
Nature of Cartography 52
 Processes in Cartography
 Collecting and selecting the data for mapping
 Manipulating and generalising the data,
designing and constructing the map
 Reading or view the map
 Responding to or interpreting the information

Nature of Cartography 53
Processes in Cartography

Nature of Cartography 54
A Cartographer Must...
 Be familiar with all mapping activities
(geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote
sensing and GIS); and
 Know a lot about human thought and
communication (cognitive science) and the
disciplines associated with the environmental
features being mapped.

Nature of Cartography 55
 Geographers Are the Primary
Users of Maps
Cognitive
Sciences

Environmental Mapping
Sciences Sciences

MAP

Nature of Cartography 56
Cartography
 Cartography, the construction and use of maps, has been
employed by humans since antiquity.  To understand what
cartography is, we must understand the definition and
function of a map.  A map is the symbolization and
generalization of reality.  As cartogrphers, we are involved
with space and the analysis of the distribution of phenomena
in space.  Maps are the tools employed to visually represent
the distribution of data.  The type of data that can be
illustrated varies with the area to be mapped and the scale of
the map.  Moreover, the type of data influences the type of
map that can be created.  Cartography, however, involves
more than just learning how to portray data on a map.  In the
broadest sense, cartography is defined as the science of
map-making.  Included within this definition is the
construction and production of maps, map design, and
ultimately, the use of the map.  This course will emphasize
the elements of cartography that are involved in all aspects
of map-making.

Nature of Cartography 57
 Quotes
"The good cartographer is both a scientist and
an artist. He must have a thorough knowledge
of his subject and model, the Earth.... He must
have the ability to generalize intelligently and
to make a right selection of the features to
show. These are represented by means of lines
or colors; and the effective use of lines or
colors requires more than knowledge of the
subject - it requires artistic judgement."
Erwin Josephus Raisz (1893 - 1968)

Nature of Cartography 58