Internship Report at Fauji Fertilizer Company

Internship Report (Production Unit) i
Fauji Fertilizer Company | Mirpur Mathelo

Batch 9 | Internship Summer 2010
INTERNSHIP REPORT
(Production Unit)
Prepared for
Technical Training Centre (TTC)
Fauji Fertilizer Company Ltd. (FFC)
Mirpur Mathelo, District Ghotki (Sindh)
Prepared by
Osama Hasan
Undergraduate Student
School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
Email: osama_hasan@hotmail.com
Contact: 0345-3034516
July 2010
Internship Report (Production Unit) ii
1 Declaration
July 28, 2010
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Dear Sir:
Submitted for your review is the report of my four week internship (Batch 9) at Production Unit
of Fauji Fertilizer Company Ltd. Mirpur Mithalo plant, during July 2010.
It is hereby declared that the report is compiled in long report format, as per the guidelines and
is based upon the literature review; plant manuals and standard operating procedures; process
flow diagrams and sharing and learning from management and staff of the company. Maximum
possible references from literature are cited and sources are mentioned.
It is anticipated that response will be reflected.
Regards
Osama Hasan
Undergraduate Student
School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H-12 Campus, Islamabad – 44000
2008 – NUST – BE – CHEM – 27
Email: osama_hasan@hotmail.com
Contact: 0345-3034516
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) iii
2 Acknowledgements
Author is thankful to
Almighty Allah,
For His unlimited blessings and bounties,
And for keeping him sane, sound and successful;
His parents and friends,
For all their support and trust in him and his aims;
His teachers and guides,
For teaching him things he knew not;
NUST Internship and Placement Office,
For bringing the opportunity of this excellent learning and exposure;
And last but never the least
Management and Staff of Fauji Fertilizer Company Mirpur Mathelo
Especially Unit Managers, Shift Engineers, Supervisors and Operators,
For their utmost help, guidance and time
Which made author make most of his internship at plant site;

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) iv
3 Table of Contents
1 Declaration ...............................................................................................................................ii
2 Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................iii
3 Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................iv
4 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi
5 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... vii
6 List of Acronyms .................................................................................................................... viii
7 Abstract ................................................................................................................................... ix
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
8 Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 2
8.1 Fertilizer............................................................................................................................ 2
8.2 Ammonia Manufacture .................................................................................................... 2
8.3 Urea Manufacture ............................................................................................................ 3
8.4 Industrial Water ............................................................................................................... 4
8.4.1 Problems ................................................................................................................... 5
8.4.2 Treatment ................................................................................................................. 6
8.5 Safety .............................................................................................................................. 11
8.5.1 Process and Production Safety ............................................................................... 12
8.5.2 Personal Protection Equipment .............................................................................. 14
8.5.3 Design of Facilities .................................................................................................. 15
8.5.4 Operation of Facilities ............................................................................................. 18
8.5.5 Human Resource Management .............................................................................. 18
8.5.6 Disaster Planning .................................................................................................... 19
9 Safety Section........................................................................................................................ 22
9.1 Activities ......................................................................................................................... 22
9.2 Safety Training................................................................................................................ 25
9.2.1 Importance of Safety at Plant ................................................................................. 25
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) v
9.2.2 Use of Personal Protective Equipment ................................................................... 26

9.2.3 Use of Fire Extinguishers ......................................................................................... 26
9.2.4 Ammonia Disaster ................................................................................................... 28
10 Production Unit ..................................................................................................................... 29
10.1 Utilities Unit ................................................................................................................ 29
10.1.1 Water Treatment (Area 09) .................................................................................... 30
10.1.2 Cooling Tower System (Area 08)............................................................................. 37
10.1.3 Waste Water Disposal (Area 16) ............................................................................. 39
10.1.4 Instrument Air Compression (Area 10) ................................................................... 40
10.1.5 Natural Gas Station (Area 15) ................................................................................. 41
10.1.6 Auxiliary Boilers (Area 06) ................................................................................... 42
10.1.7 Power Generation (Area 07) ................................................................................... 43
10.2 Ammonia Unit............................................................................................................. 45
10.2.1 Desulfurization Section (Area 02) ........................................................................... 45
10.2.2 Reforming Section (Area 02) ................................................................................... 47
10.2.3 Gas Purification Section (Area 03) .......................................................................... 50
10.2.4 Ammonia Synthesis Section (Area 05) .................................................................... 55
10.3 Urea Unit..................................................................................................................... 60
10.3.1 High Pressure Section ............................................................................................. 61
10.3.2 Medium/ Low Pressure Section .............................................................................. 63
10.3.3 Vacuum Section ...................................................................................................... 66
10.3.4 Waste Water Treatment Section ............................................................................ 68
10.4 Bagging and Shipment Unit ........................................................................................ 69
11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 70
12 Citations and Bibliography .................................................................................................... 71
Appendix I ....................................................................................................................................... A
FFC MM Site Map ............................................................................................................................ A
Appendix II ...................................................................................................................................... B
FFC MM Plant Safety Policy ............................................................................................................ B
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) vi
Appendix III ..................................................................................................................................... C

FFC MM Plant Safety Rules and Regulations .................................................................................. C
Appendix III ..................................................................................................................................... D
Process Flow Diagrams ................................................................................................................... D
4 List of Figures
Figure 1 Ammonia Manufacture from Hydrogen and Nitrogen by Haber Process ........................ 3
Figure 2 Urea Production from Ammonia and Carbon dioxide ...................................................... 4
Figure 3 ClarificationTank ............................................................................................................... 8
Figure 4 Sand Filters ........................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 5 Process Safety Control Hierarchy.................................................................................... 12
Figure 6 Emergency Direction Signboard (FFC, MM).................................................................... 13
Figure 7 Internee Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .............................................................. 15
Figure 8 Types of Plant Operation ................................................................................................ 18
Figure 9 Fire Triangle .................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 Fire Extinguisher Labels ................................................................................................ 20
Figure 11 Emergency Siren Sequence (FFC Safety Section, 2004) ................................................ 26
Figure 12 Emergency Response (FFC Safety Section, 2004) ......................................................... 27
Figure 13 PASS Approach for Using Fire Extinguisher .................................................................. 27
Figure 14 Demin Lines (Area 09) ................................................................................................... 35
Figure 15 Boiler Network .............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 16 Gas Purification Section (Area 03) ................................................................................ 51
Figure 17 Urea Synthesis Loop ...................................................................................................... 61
Figure 18 FFC MM Site Map ............................................................................................................ A
Figure 19 PFD (Utility): Water Pre-treatment I ............................................................................... E
Figure 20 PFD (Utility): Water Pre-treatment II ...............................................................................F
Figure 21 PFD (Utility): Water Treatment ....................................................................................... G
Figure 22 PFD (Utility): Instrument Air Plant .................................................................................. H
Figure 23 PFD (Utility): Natural Gas Station..................................................................................... I
Figure 24 PFD (Urea) ........................................................................................................................ J
Figure 25 PFD (Ammonia): Front End ............................................................................................. K
Figure 26 PFD (Ammonia): Back End ............................................................................................... L
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) vii
5 List of Tables
Table 1 Degree of Hardness ............................................................................................................ 6
Table 2 Alkalinity Indication (Utilities Unit, 2009) .......................................................................... 6
Table 3 Water Quality Comparison................................................................................................. 7
Table 4 National Electrical Code, NEC (National Fire Protection Association, 2002) ................... 17
Table 5 Classification of Fire (OSU, 2005) ..................................................................................... 20
Table 6 Safety Description as set by Safety Section, FFC MM ...................................................... 25
Table 7 Strategy in Fire Incident (Suggested by Safety Section, FFC MM) ................................... 26
Table 8 Effect of Ammonia at Differenct Concentrations in Air ................................................... 28
Table 9 Plant Utilities Division ...................................................................................................... 30
Table 10 Chemical Dosage in Clarifier .......................................................................................... 32
Table 11 Clarified Water Parameters............................................................................................ 33
Table 12 Mineral Ions in Water .................................................................................................... 35
Table 13 Cooling Tower Design Data ............................................................................................ 38
Table 14 NEQS Limits for Water Water Disposal .......................................................................... 39
Table 15 Natural Gas Composition ............................................................................................... 46
Table 16 Syn Gas Recycle Composition ........................................................................................ 46
Table 17 Gas Compositions after Primary Reformer F-201 .......................................................... 49
Table 18 Gas Compositions after Secondary Reformer R-203 ..................................................... 50
Table 19 Gas Compositions after HTS Convertor R-204 ............................................................... 52
Table 20 Gas Compositions after LTS Convertor R-205 ................................................................ 52
Table 21 Gas Compositions after Benfield Absorber C-302 ......................................................... 53
Table 22 Carbon dioxide Composition from Benfield Regenerator C-301 ................................... 54
Table 23 Gas Composition after Methanator R-311..................................................................... 55
Table 24 Gas Compositions after Compressor K-431/432............................................................ 57
Table 25 Gas Compositions of Circulating Synthesis Gas Before Convertor R-501 ...................... 58
Table 26 Gas Compositions after Convertor R-501 ...................................................................... 58
Table 27 Ammonia Compositions after Let-Down Vessel V-502 .................................................. 59
Table 28 Solution Composition after Reactor R-101 .................................................................... 63
Table 29 Solution Concenrtation after Stripper E-101 ................................................................. 63
Table 30 Solution Concentrations after MPD E-102 ..................................................................... 65
Table 31 Solution Compositions After LPD E-103 ......................................................................... 66
Table 32 Solution Compositions After Pre-Concentrator E-150 ................................................... 67
Table 33 Solution Concentrationss After Vacuum Separator MV-106 and MV-107 .................... 67
Table 34 Expectred Urea Quality .................................................................................................. 68
Table 35 FFC MM Plant Area Description ....................................................................................... A
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) viii
6 List of Acronyms
BFW Boiler Feed Water
CCR Central Control Room, FFC MM
DCS Distributed Control System
DMW De-mineralized Water
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DS Dissolved Solids
EDG Emergency Diesel Generator
EPA Environment Protection Agency
FFC MM Fauji Fertilizer Company Ltd. Mirpur Mathelo
FFC Fauji Fertilizer Company Private Limited
HP High Pressure
HS High Steam
IMS Integrated Management System
LP Low Pressure
LPD Low Pressure Decomposer
LS Low Steam
LTA Lost Time Accident
MC Medium Condensate
MP Medium Pressure
MPD Medium Pressure Decomposer
MS Medium Steam
NEQS National Environment Quality Standards
NSC National Safety Council, USA
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PLC Programmable Logical Control
QPM Quality Procedures Manual
SDV Shut Down Valve
SOP Standard Operating Procedures
SOV Solenoid Operating Valve
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TG Turbo Generator
TTC Technical Training Centre, FFC MM
UM Unit Manager
WTCR Water Treatment Control Room
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) ix
7 Abstract
Production unit manages the urea (product name: Sona urea) production from ammonia and
carbon dioxide, synthesized from natural gas and atmospheric air. The unit is divided into:
 Utilities unit; provides plant utilities like electricity, cooling water, instrument air etc
 Ammonia unit; produces ammonia and carbon dioxide from natural gas and
atmospheric air
 Urea unit; produces urea by dehydration of carbamate, made by reaction of liquid
ammonia and carbon dioxide gas
 Bagging and shipment unit; bags the urea product and sends it to the consumer market
Utilities unit has the most diverse ground of operation ranging from water treatment to steam
generation, boiler operation to power generation, cooling tower to waste water treatment.
Ammonia unit has the maximum learning exposure with catalytic steam reforming, carbon
dioxide removal and recovery, compression and gas synthesis section. Urea unit develops an
exposure to handling of chemicals from urea synthesis to its purification through stripper, MPD,
LPD, pre-concentrator, vacuum separators to the prilling bucket. Bagging shipment unit gives an
understanding of meeting the consumer requirements in easy way.
These units are such designed and operated to ensure safety of personnel and plant. Process
optimization in economizing the process in terms of heat load recovery, production and
capacity is the governing factor.

Internship Report (Production Unit) 1
Introduction
You cannot create experience, you must undergo it. Internships are supplemented to course
work for enhancement of practical knowledge and expertise of students. Fertilizer being a
major component of chemical industry has a lot to develop an understanding of a chemical
engineering student, varying from unit operations to processes and transport phenomena to
chemical reaction engineering.
FFC is a leading fertilizer production group in Pakistan, with over 60 % market share in the
sector. Incorporated in 1978 as a private limited company, it is a joint venture between Fauji
Foundation and Haldor Topsoe of Denmark. Since Pakistan is an agro-based economy, the
contribution of the fertilizer to the economy is vital and FFC is a prime share holder in the
fertilizer industry of Pakistan. At present the foundation has three fertilizer plants one at Goth
Machi, second at Mirpur Mathelo and third in Karachi named FFBL (formerly FFC-Jordan
Fertilizer Company Limited). The plant site at Mirpur Mathelo ex Pak Saudi Fertilizers Limited
(PSFL) was acquired from National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC) in 2002. The capacity was
increased through de-bottle necking of plant in 2008, to increase the production to 2300 MeT
urea per day.
The report is a brief on process operation in production unit of FFC MM. It reflects the
understanding of the author about the plant areas; developed during his four weeks internship
a plant, through study of literature, interaction with operation managers and staff and site
observation.
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) 2
8 Literature Review
8.1 Fertilizer
Fertilizers are used to provide plants with nutrients, not available with soil. They improve plant
health, its tolerance against pets and enhance appearance. Basic plant needs include:
 Oxygen
 Water
 Sunlight
 Nutrients and
 Growing medium
Plant nutrients are further classified into: macro-nutrients (primary), macro-nutrients

(secondary) and micro-nutrients (minor). Primary macro-nutrients include nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium, while the secondary include calcium, magnesium and sulfur.
Micro-nutrients have a long list including iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum,
chlorine etc but in very small quantities. Nitrogen is the key element in plant nutrition. It
promotes stem and leaf growth and is an essential component of chlorophyll molecule. It is also
involved in regulating intake of other nutrients.
Fertilizers have been extensively used in agriculture for better growth of food and cash crops.
Urea (% nitrogen) is one of the most used fertilizers in Pakistan. Made from liquid ammonia
and carbon dioxide gas, it has the highest nitrogen content other than ammonia (82%) which
extremely disastrous to use openly.
8.2 Ammonia Manufacture
Ammonia is a colorless gas with a penetrating pungent-sharp odor in small concentration that,
in heavy concentrations produces a smoothing sensation when inhaled. Ammonia is water
soluble forming a strongly alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide and the aqueous solution
is called ammonia water, aqua ammonia. Ammonia burns with a green yellowish flame.
The first breakthrough in the large scale synthesis of ammonia resulted from development of
Haber’s process in 1913 in which ammonia was produced by direct combination of two
elements: nitrogen and hydrogen, in the presence of a catalyst (iron oxide with small quantities
of cerium and chromium) at a relatively high temperature (550°C) and under a pressure of
about 2940 psi (20.3 MPa).
N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3
F IGURE 1 A MMONIA M ANUFACTURE FROM H YDROGEN AND N ITROGEN BY H ABER P ROCESS
In the Haber’s process, the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is accomplished by feeding
the gases to the reactor at 400 °C to 600 °C. The reactor contains an iron oxide catalyst that
reduces to a porous iron metal in the nitrogen/hydrogen mixture. Exit gases are cooled to – 0 °C
to – 20 °C, and part of the ammonia liquefies; the remaining gases are recycled.
The process varies somewhat with source of hydrogen, but the majority of ammonia plants
generate hydrogen by steam reforming of natural gas or hydrocarbon such as naphtha.
If the hydrogen is made by steam reforming air is introduced at the secondary reformer stage
to provide nitrogen for the ammonia reaction. The oxygen of air reacts with the hydrocarbon
feedstock in combustion and helps to elevate the temperature of reformer. Otherwise nitrogen
can be added from liquefaction of air. In either case a nitrogen-hydrogen mixture is furnished
for ammonia manufacture. (Speight, 2002)
8.3 Urea Manufacture
Urea (carbamide) is a colorless crystalline solid, somewhat hygroscopic, that sublimes

unchanged under vacuum at it melting point and decomposes above the melting point at
atmospheric pressure producing ammonia (NH3), isocyanic acid (HNCO), cyanuric acid (HNCO3),
biuret (H2NHCONHCONH2) and several other minor products. Urea is very soluble in water
(being a component of urine), soluble in alcohol and slightly soluble in ether. There are several
approaches to the manufacture of urea, but the principal method is that of combining carbon
dioxide with ammonia to form ammonium carbamate.
CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2COONH4
The exothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic decomposition of the ammonium

carbamate.
NH2COONH4 →NH2CONH2 + H2O
Both are the equilibrium reactions. The formation reaction goes to virtual completion under
usual reaction condition, but the decomposition reaction is less complete. Unconverted carbon
dioxide and ammonia along with undecomposed carbamate must be recovered and reused.
In the process, a 2:1 molar ratio of the ammonia and carbon dioxide (excess ammonia) are
heated in the reacted for two hours at 190°C and 1500 – 3000 psi (10.3 to 20.6 MPa) to form
ammonium carbamate, with most of the heat of reaction carried away as a useful process
stream. The carbamate decomposition reaction is both slow and endothermic. The mix of
unreacted reagents and carbamate flows to the reactor – decomposer. The reactor must be
heated to force the reaction to proceed. For all the unreacted gases and undecomposed
carbamate to be removed from the product, the urea must be heated at lower pressure (400
kPa). The reagents are reacted and pumped back into the system. Evaporation and prilling or
granulating produce the final product.
F IGURE 2 U REA P RODUCTION FROM A MMONIA AND C ARBON DIOXIDE
The mixture formed is approximately 35% urea, 8% ammonium carbamate, 10% water and 47%
ammonia. It is cooled to 15°C and the ammonia is distilled at 60°C. The residue from the
ammonia stills enters the crystallizer vessel at 15°C. More ammonia is removed by vacuum. The
resulting slurry is centrifugal. All excess nitrogenous materials are combined and processed into
liquid fertilizer which contains a mixture of all these materials. (Speight, 2002)
8.4 Industrial Water
Water used in industries comes from natural sources like rivers, lakes and wells. This water is
likely to contain both dissolved and suspended solids even though they may appear perfectly
clear. Because water circulates many times through pipes, exchangers, cooling towers and
basins, it picks up more/less solids. When water evaporates, dissolves solids are left behind,
increasing their concentration in the remaining supply. Solubility of these solids varies with
temperature. For example, calcium and magnesium carbonates are less soluble in hot water
than in cold water. When cooling water goes through a heat exchanger, these become
suspended solids. When water containing these salts is boiled in a vessel, it deposits or scales
on the sides and the bottom of the vessel. Scaling decreases the efficiency of equipments and
causes fouling which makes periodic cleaning necessary. Suspended particles also cause erosion
in narrow passages or turns in the flow. Microbiological growth in water can also plug the
narrow passages in the system. Similarly, oxygen content in water can become a cause of
corrosion and reduces equipment life.
In order to secure the equipment and maintain its smooth operation, water is treated and them
used by the plant. Water treatment reduces turbidity, TDS, DS, DO, organic matter, hardness
and color of water. Different unit operations are applied often in series to make water usable
by plant.
8.4.1 Problems
8.4.1.1 Hardness
Water becomes hard due to the presence of carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates of
metal ions like calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, aluminum and barium. The former two
cause temporary hardness and the later two are reason for permanent hardness. . Since the
concentration of calcium and magnesium salts is usually much higher than concentrations of
other compounds which impart hardness, it is customary to consider only the hardness caused
by these salts (Utilities Unit, 2009). Calcium is dissolved as it passes over and through lime
stone deposits. Magnesium is dissolved as it passes over and through dolomite and other
Magnesium bearing formations.
Hardness is reason for scaling or deposition of salts inside water pipes, eventually reducing
their capacity. Scaling within appliances, pumps, valves causes wear on moving parts. This also
creates insulation problems inside boilers, water heaters and hot water lines and increases
heating cost. Hardness is expressed in ppm or mg/l.
Since calcium carbonate is one of the most common causes of hardness ,total hardness i.e.
usually reported in terms of calcium carbonate (mg/l as CaCO3), using either of two methods.
a) Ca and Mg hardness
b) Carbonate and non carbonate hardness
Hardness caused by calcium is called calcium hardness regardless of the salts associated with it
similarly hardness caused by magnesium is called magnesium hardness. Total
hardness=carbonate hardness + non carbonate hardness. The amount of carbonate and non
carbonate hardness depends on the alkalinity of water (Utilities Unit, 2009).
T ABLE 1 D EGREE OF H ARDNESS
Ppm Hardness
75 Soft
75 – 150 Moderate
150 – 300 Hard
Above 300 Very hard
Softening is the term which refers to the process of hardness removal.
8.4.1.2 Alkalinity
Alkalinity is the capacity of water to neutralize acids. This is determined by the content of
carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide. Expressed in ppm of calcium carbonate, it is a measure
of how much acid can be added to a liquid without causing any significant pH change (Utilities
Unit, 2009). It has two types: P – alkalinity and M – alkalinity.
P – value is the measure of hydroxyl and carbonate alkalinity while M-value is the measure of
total alkalinity. Phenolphthalein indicator enables the measurement of alkalinity contributed by
hydroxide ions and half of carbonate ions. Any indicator responding in pH range 4 – 5 can be
used to measure the total M – alkalinity. P – value and M – value determinations are useful for
calculations of chemical dosage required in the treatment of natural water supplies.
T ABLE 2 A LKALINITY I NDICATION (U TILITIES U NIT , 2009)
Alkalinity Indication
2P=M All alkalinity is due to carbonates.
2P<M Both carbonates and bicarbonates are present.
2P>M Carbonates and hydroxyl are present.
P=M=0 M – Alkalinity id due to bicarbonates only. Carbonates and hydroxyl are not present.
P=0 Carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxyl all are absent. Hardness is permanent.
8.4.2 Treatment
Water is treated to meet certain specifications before use in equipments. It is obtained from
surface and underground sources. Surface water with a higher turbidity is generally rich in
microorganism and contains fewer dissolved solids. It has high concentrations of oxygen and
low concentrations of carbon dioxide (Utilities Unit, 2009). Whereas the underground water is
harder than surface water and contains more alkalinity and dissolved solids. It is clearer and
less sensitive to microbiological contamination than surface waters.
Canal water is preferred due to low hardness despite of high turbidity. This is because turbidity
reduction is less costly than hardness removal. A mixture of both could also be used to make
process more economical, if one alone does not give desired process optimization. Tube wells
are only used when canal is nonfunctional, due to water shortage in country.
T ABLE 3 W ATER Q UALITY C OMPARISON
Surface Water Underground Water

High Turbidity Low Turbidity
Low Hardness High Hardness
High TDS Low TDS
Acidic pH Basic pH
High Dissolved Gases Low Dissolved Gases
8.4.2.1 Clarification
Clarification is carried out in a cone-shaped clarifier that clarifies the source water through the
addition of chemicals like lime, ferrous sulfate, chlorine and polyelectrolyte. Clarifiers purify
water by precipitating and coagulating the impurities and removing them by sedimentation
filtration (M. Yaqoob Ch., 1987). This results in removal of temporary hardness, turbidity and
organic matter. It involves three steps:
1. Coagulation
2. Flocculation
3. Sedimentation
Colloidal particles have large surface area that keeps them in suspension and a negative charge
through which they repel each other and do not form flocs to settle under gravity. Coagulation
is the process of destabilizing the small particles by neutralizing their charge and mixing them
thoroughly to enable their contact. In case of low turbidity, previously settled particles (also
referred as sludge) are recycled in order to increase the number of particle collisions and
promote the thickness of sludge. Coagulants (e.g. ferrous sulfate) are used to destabilize the
colloidal particles in waste water so that floc formation can result. Their dosage varies with
respect to turbidity of the source water.
Flocculation is the bridging together of the coagulated particles. Flocculants (e.g.

polyelectrolyte) gathers together floc particles in a net bridging from one surface to another
and binding the individual particles into larger flocs that could settle down under gravity. It is
favored by gentle mixing and a fast pace can destroy the flocs formed. Flocculants work under
the principle that a high molecular wt polymer can attach itself to many suspended particles
creating a low density floc with an increase in the overall size of suspended material.
Sedimentation is the settling of suspended particles to the bottom of the structure leaving
behind clear water.
Chlorine is added to water in order to kill the organic matter and oxidize the iron ions in water
enabling their reaction with lime and settling. Lime removes temporary hardness caused by
presence of bicarbonates salts. Lime reacts with dissolved carbon dioxide soluble bicarbonates
to convert them into carbonates and hydroxyl salts are insoluble and therefore settle at the
bottom of the tank.
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O
2 Fe3+ + 3 Ca(OH)2 → 2 Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3 Ca 2+
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 +Ca(OH) 2 → MgCO3 ↓ + CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaCO3 ↓
F IGURE 3 C LARIFICATION T ANK
8.4.2.2 Filtration
Suspended solids are removed from water by filtering the solids in gravity or pressure filter.
These filters have sand and gravel for limiting the flow of suspended particles. Installed in
batteries of two or more, these filters are often backwashed by forcing water in reverse
direction. This flushes the solids trapped in and on the filter bed into waste disposal system.
The flow of other cells is continued through when one cell of the filter is being backwashed.
Gravity Filter Pressure Filter

F IGURE 4 S AND F ILTERS
8.4.2.3 Ion Exchange
Demineralization is based on ion exchange process. Ion exchange is the displacement of one ion
by another. It may also be defined as a reversible exchange of ions between a liquid and a solid
phase (resin). This exchange does not involve any radical change in physical structure of the
solid (resin). The ion exchanger or solid body must have its own ions to exchange for others. In
demineralization two types of exchange take place a cation exchange and anion exchange.
Cations like calcium magnesium, sodium, potassium, aluminum iron etc are removed in cation
exchanger. Replacement of these cations is carried out with hydrogen ions. Anions such as
chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, bicarbonates and carbonates are replaced with hydroxyl ions in the
anion exchanger after the water has been treated by the cation exchanger. Most ion exchange
units are simple vessels containing a bed of ion exchange resin operated down flow on cyclic
basis. In demineralization process, there are four different types of ion exchange resins:
 Strongly acidic cation

 Weakly acidic cation
 Weakly basic anion
 Strongly basic anion
Strong Acid Cation (SAC) resins are used in softening and demineralization applications. In
softening applications, it is used in the sodium form (regenerated with salt) and in
demineralization applications in the hydrogen form (regenerated with acid). A strong acid
cation exchanger will exchange all cations of both neutral and alkaline salts with the hydrogen
ion.
Weak Acid Cation (WAC) resins remove only cations associated with alkalinity. While WAC
resins can remove mono-valent ions such as sodium associated with hydroxide alkalinity, in
most water treatment applications they are used to remove divalent ions such as calcium
associated with carbonate alkalinity. A weak acid cation exchanger will exchange cations of
mainly alkaline salts, and to a very small extent, the cations of neutral salts. Most commercial
ion exchange resins are synthetic plastic materials such as co-polymers of styrene and divinyl
benzene.
Strong Basic Anion (SBA) resins have strongly basic ammonium groups as the functional groups
either with tri methylamine {(-CH2N+ (CH3)3)} OH- or with di-methylethanol amine {(-CH2N+
(CH3)2 C2H4OH) OH-)} Groups both these types of strong base resins are used in the hydroxide
form for de-mineralizing systems. Since strong base resins are highly ionized, they will exchange
practically all anions which are present as both strong and weak acids, e.g. hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid and silicic acid. They will also split salts which remain
unconverted in the cation exchanger.
They are of two types of SBA resins: Type I SBA resins are used where low levels of silica leakage
are important operating criteria or in warmer climates where source water temperatures may
be quite warm for a significant part of the year. They operate at improved efficiency when
warm caustic (120º F) is used to regenerate the resin bed; Type II SBA resins have an exchange
site that is chemically weaker than Type I resins. Therefore, they must be regenerated at lower
temperatures (95º F.) and normally are not used in climates where warm water temperatures
are experienced for a good part of the year. However, Type II SBA resins have the advantage of
a higher initial exchange capacity. They can be the resins of choice in applications that do not
have heated caustic regenerant or where a low silica level is not a critical operating
specification.
Weak base anion (WBA) resins do not exchange any ions but removes by adsorption only those
anions associated with strong acids like hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids (as shown in the
above equation). These resins do not remove carbon dioxide and silica since carbonic and silicic
acids are weak acids. Therefore, they cannot be used to make de-mineralized water without a
SBA resin bed following in the train to remove the carbonate/bicarbonate and silica. The
exhausted resin is when regenerated with any alkali; this simply neutralizes the adsorbed acid
and releases it as a neutral salt. Because the weakly basic exchanger is regenerated simply by
neutralization of the adsorbed mineral acids, so a variety of alkalies can be used for this
purpose. The advantage of using the WBA resin is its efficiency. It is fully regenerated using only
about 120 percent of stoichiometry. Like their WAC counterparts, WBA resins can be
regenerated using the spent caustic from the SBA resin bed making their use very efficient
especially when used on water having a high percentage of anion loading from sulfate, chloride
or nitrate.
Mixed Beds provide optimum conditions for the ion exchange process and produces
completeness of exchange with resultant treated water quality much better than could be
realized in a multi bed deionizer. Polishing is carried out when it is necessary to get on high
purity water. Resin structures classified according to their operating properties are:
 Styrene-divinyl benzene copolymer bead structure.

 Acrylic resin structure.
Physical classification of resins is:
 Gel resins; have smaller pores in the resin structure, higher initial exchange capacity and
a lower purchase price
 Macro porous resins; have ability to elute foulants easier due to the larger pore
structure, stand up better in harsher operating environments.
8.5 Safety
Safety and well being of human and site resource is the paramount concern of any industry. It
ensures maximum production and loss prevention and contributes to the well being of unit.
With media being more alert and alarming, safety has also become a concern of good name and
repute for organizations. Therefore, industry encourages its members to improve safety
management and manufacturing procedures and practices to minimize hazards.
Occupation Health and Safety Management System, OHSAS 18001:1999 regulates an industry
to remain committed to maintain a safe and healthy environment having the same significance
as proclivity. It inculcates safety culture by specific training, incentives and effective control, to
ensure a safe and healthy working environment. It resolves to attain the highest standards of
safety and health through consistent improvements in on-the-job and off-the-job safety and
working conditions (FFC Safety Section, 2004).
Chemical manufacturers are required to follow detailed steps in ensuring adequate training,
comprehensive operating procedures, thorough analysis of processes of hazards and
investigations of accidents, diligent maintenance of facilities, well-developed emergency plans,
and self audits for compliance (Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
Injury to personnel and property damage ask for high price, not the least of which are
production break off and loss of trained man force and equipment. In USA, annual worker
fatalities three out of a hundred thousand employees and annual lost-time disabling injuries are
nine hundred (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). However, annual property losses have increased
fourfold from the 1970s to the present (Marsh & McLennan, Inc., Published Annually). This is
probably because of increasing complexity and productivity of the highly automated chemical
plants, where personnel are isolated from processes.
Many changes have occurred in the requirements for safety in the chemical and petrochemical
industries during the period from 1974 (Flixborough) to 1984 (Bhopal) to 1994 (Lodi, N.J.). Some
of these changes were presented as consensus guidelines initiated by industry groups, such as
the Centre for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), established by the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, the Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA, now the American
Chemistry Council); and the American Petroleum Institute (API). The objective of these changes
is to raise the design, operating, and maintenance standards of all members of these industries
to as high level as is economically possible (Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
Inherent Safety
Engineering
Process Equipment and
Process Safety Control
Conditions
Administrative
F IGURE 5 P ROCESS S AFETY C ONTROL H IERARCHY
8.5.1 Process and Production Safety
Process and production hazards could be minimized through a hierarchy of controls that
essentially fall into two (Prugh, 1992) categories, i.e.
 Engineering Controls
 Administrative Controls
8.5.1.1 Engineering Controls
Engineering controls may be subdivided into those providing inherent safety and those
involving process equipment and conditions.
Those providing inherent safety controls include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):
i. Intensification: Minimizing the amount of hazardous material or hazardous operations

ii. Substitution: Using inherently safer materials or safer processing or production methods
iii. Isolation: Barricading or distancing to minimize personnel exposure
Design and operating control include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):
i. Containment: Designing for plant and process integrity

ii. Attenuation: Using less severe operating conditions of pressures and temperatures
iii. Consequence Reduction: designing to minimize accidental release rates and quantities
iv. Simplification: Avoiding complexities in equipment and control systems
v. Safeguards:
a. Passive: Use of explosion vents, rupture disks, relief devices, excess flow valves,
and dikes
b. Active: Use of alarm and interlock systems, scrubbers, and remote-operated
valves
vi. Risk Minimizations: Arrangements for ventilation, leak-stopping, dump or drown
systems, spill control, and toxic and flammable –vapor sensors and alerting systems
8.5.1.2 Administrative Controls
The administrative controls include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):
1) Operating Procedures; for startup, shut down, response to upsets, and emergencies
2) Maintenance Programs; maintaining program integrity through inspections and testing
3) Process Hazards Analysis; maintaining program integrity
4) Limiting Personnel Exposure; limiting access and proving personal protective equipment
5) Emergency Procedures; for escape and evacuations
F IGURE 6 E MERGENCY D IRECTION S IGNBOARD (FFC, MM)
The OSHA regulations require that Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) be developed for all
process materials, so that the hazard data can be communicated to employees (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, 1999).
Protection may be ensured against toxic chemicals. Individuals can come in contact with
materials by ingestion, inhalation, skin irritation, skin absorption and subcutaneous injection
(National Safety Council, 1988). However effects of acute and chronic exposures vary with
chemicals and their concentrations. Contaminants are physiologically classified (Richard W.
Prugh, 2006) as:
i. Irritants; corrosive or vesicant, i.e. cause blisters, and may inflame moist or mucous
surfaces. Example: Ammonia, Acids, Alkalis, Bromine, Chlorine etc
ii. Asphyxiants; prevent blood from transporting oxygen to tissues thus respiratory
paralysis. Example: Hydrogen Sulfide
iii. Anesthetics and Narcotics; depressant action resulting in loose of consciousness
without seriously affecting systemic processes. Example: Acetylenic Hydrocarbons
iv. Systematic Poisons; cause organic injury to one or more of the visceral organs. Example:
Benzene, Phenols, Lead, Mercury etc
v. Particulate Matter; effects varied from minute allergy to cancer. Example: Silica,
Asbestos
vi. Carcinogens; cause cancer and have been declared by several authorities. Example:
Nitrogen Mustard
8.5.2 Personal Protection Equipment
Industry provides personal protection equipment to its members working in risky areas. The
material and kit varies with job description and task-type.
Starting in 1994, employers are required by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, 1999), to perform hazards assessments to determine if workplace hazards are
present that require personal protective equipment (PPE). This could include hard hats, safety
glasses, respirator masks, gloves, safety shoes, and also may include long-sleeve shirts, long
pants, and nets over long hair. Also, the hazards assessment may require the removal of wrist
watches and rings. If such hazards are present, the employer is to document the hazards
assessment, select appropriate PPE, and require that employees properly use that PPE and
conform to other requirements. The OSHA standard does not require that the employer
purchase and provide employees with the needed PPE, but many employers have accepted a
responsibility for furnishing the PPE to employers. (Richard W. Prugh, 2006)
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
F IGURE 7 I NTERNEE P ERSONAL P ROTECTIVE E QUIPMENT (PPE)
(a) Safety Shoes (b) Hard Hat (c) Half Respiration (d) Safety Glasses
Mask
8.5.3 Design of Facilities
Plant Erection is multi stage process accomplished after millions of considerations and planning
procedures. Safety is the first concern of planning team. Several aspects are many times
considered and reconsidered for designing the facilities of a plant.
8.5.3.1 Plant Site and Layout
The choice of the site of a plant is made after consideration of several factors. Important of
which are assessment of hazards, based on the flammability of materials, reaction energy, and
presence of highly toxic materials (Ludwig, 1979). For instance, FFC MM is located in isolation
from city population in order to avoid any public damage due to ammonia leakage. An
adequate water supply for process cooling and fire fighting is a vital necessity. Prevailing winds
are also considered. At FFC MM, Masuwah Canal that flows from between the plant site and
township, acts as an ample water supply source.
Open areas around the operating units of a plant act as buffers within the plant and to the
surrounding community. Sufficient clearance is allowed so that if tall structures collapse, other
on-site buildings or equipment, or off-site properties are not affected. Adequate roadways
providing entry to the plant are extremely important, and multiple entries and exits are
advisable. An overcrowded plant can lead to damage or shutdown of adjacent units and may
impede the movement of vehicles and materials in case of emergency (Industrial Risk Insurers,
1990).
Operations having potential for fire and explosion are segregated from non hazardous
operations, such as offices, cafeterias, laboratories, maintenance shops, and warehouses, to
minimize evacuation hazards and victim toll in a fire or explosion incident. When administrative
facilities are located on the periphery of the plant, visitors are less likely to be exposed to
operational dangers. Vehicles loading facilities are adequately separated from other operating
areas as well. Adequate roadways are surrounded every process unit and principal building, for
access of maintenance and construction vehicles and fire-protection equipment. (Richard W.
Prugh, 2006). FFC MM plant site map is attached in Appendix I.
Plant security is an important factor in planning the sites for operating equipment, storage
tanks, railcar holding locations, truck operations vehicle parking locations and office buildings.
Access to all parts of a plant, including office building and operating units could be strictly
controlled, with fences, card-access or guard-controlled gates, photo-ID badges, frequent
patrols of all areas of the plant, and closed circuit television coverage of infrequently occupied
areas. (Richard W. Prugh, 2006)
Plant designing in accomplished in such a way that interference or deliberate mis-operation

may not result in a catastrophe. Ability to interact with computer systems within the plant,
from outside the plant, could be prohibited or tightly limited to essential personnel, with a well-
devised and secure system of pathways. At FFC MM, internet access is restricted to
management level employees only, as a safety measure.
8.5.3.2 Utilities
8.5.3.2.1 Services and Facilities
Principal electric power lines are run underground to reduce the probability of damage from
exterior cause like weather and vehicles. Transformer stations and switchgear are accessible to
only authorized personnel. Repair works are carried out after ensured safety of both process
and personnel. In order to secure the stake, FFC MM has regulated a written permit system in
production area to ensure that any sort of work is being done after prior information the
concerned authorities and staff. The following eight types of work permits are issued by shift
engineers for repair work at unit:
1. Cold Work Permit; low temperatures are required

2. Hot Work Permit; fire is used during work
3. Instrument Work Permit; instruments are replaced or repaired
4. Electrical Work Permit; electricity supply is to be altered
5. Vehicle Entry Work Permit; vehicle has to be used for assistance
6. Excavation Work Permit; digging is to be done
7. Radiography Work Permit; radiation exposure is expected

8. Vessel Entry Work Permit; vessel or tanks are to be repaired
These permits ensure safety of both plant and personnel. Electrical installations and work are
done in accordance with National Electrical Code (NEC) for the type of hazard and degree of
process containment.
T ABLE 4 N ATIONAL E LECTRICAL C ODE , NEC (N ATIONAL F IRE P ROTECTION A SSOCIATION , 2002)
Type Of Hazard Degree of Process Containment
Class I: flammable gas and vapor Division I Division II
Class II: organic, metallic, or conductive dusts Open Closed
Class III: combustible fibers
It is more economical to prevent explosive atmospheres in rooms than to provide explosion

electrical equipment. Such areas can be reduced when reliable ventilation is provided.
Personnel are also avoided to work in such areas. If atmosphere cannot be avoided through
control of flammable gases or vapors or combustible dusts, access to the area is limited and the
area segregated by walls or other barriers, with special exhaust ventilation. Electrical
equipment on open, outdoor structures more than 8 m (25 ft) above ground usually is
considered free from exposure to more than temporary, local flammable mixtures near leaks
(API, 1987).
8.5.3.2.2 Water
Water mains are connected to plant fire mains at two or more points, so that a sufficient water
supply can be delivered in case of emergencies. The plant loop and its branches are adequately
valved so that a break in any main can be isolated with affecting the principal part of the
system. Booster pumps could also be installed for maintaining adequate pressures. At FFC MM,
fire mains, fire pumps, isolation valves, and fire protection system are tested at 1500 hours on
every Wednesday in Fire Drill
Special water mains are used to supply untreated water to large plants located nearby a water
source in case of emergency.
8.5.3.2.3 Safety Showers
Safety showers and eyewash fountains or hoses are installed where corrosive or toxic materials
are handled. The valve handles for all safety showers are at the same height and position,
relative to the shower head, and operate in the same way and direction. Water to outside
showers is heated to a maximum temperature of 27°C by an electric heating cable.
8.5.4 Operation of Facilities
Plant operation could be divided (Richard W. Prugh, 2006) into following types:
1. Start-Up; starting up the plant after erection or plant shutdown

2. Normal Operation; routine work flow of plant
3. Shut down; complete plant shutdown for annual repair work
4. Maintenance; repair or replacement of any plant equipment
5. Safe Work Practices; methods for secure and efficient work like tagging of equipment,
sign boards, work permits etc
Plant Operation
Start-Up Normal Operation Shutdown Maintenance Safe Work Practice
F IGURE 8 T YPES OF P LANT O PERATION
8.5.5 Human Resource Management
8.5.5.1 Personnel Selection and Training
Abilities of operator and workers are closely related with the plant safe operation. Personnel
must be both physically and mentally sane and sound. Selection of personnel for task specific
jobs is done after taking in perspective, these factors. Medical selection is often mandatory for
selection. Medical screening avoids damaging exposures to susceptible individuals for example
people with respiratory ailments are not employed in areas where corrosive atmosphere could
occur.
Training is a significant aspect of any professional organization. At FFC MM, graduate engineers
are inducted as trainee for a minimum duration of one year. Training includes development of
understanding of Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for each unit or plant and complete
adherence to these procedures. Job-safety analysis is also coming up as practice.
On-the-job training includes (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):
1) Preparing the workers by describing the job and discussing the important points
2) Presenting the operation, encouraging questions, and stressing key points
3) Working under close supervision, with errors being corrected as they occur; and
4) Working alone with frequent follow-up by supervisory personnel
8.5.5.2 Medical Programs
Large chemical plants have at least one full time physician who works at the plant. Routine
check-ups and free medical packages are often included along with basic salary and other
provisions. At FFC MM, a medical centre and pharmacy (located at township) offers
management and staff, an immediate service.
8.5.6 Disaster Planning
Plant managers usually recognize the possibility of natural and industrial emergencies and
formulate a plan of action in case of disaster. The well documented is well circulated and
explanatory to all personnel critical to implementation. A checklist for total emergency planning
and guide map in such situations are developed. In all emergency situations, the fire services,
the safety staff, and the medical organization are of paramount importance for the
conservation of life and property (NSC, 1988). These plans are so formulated to mobilize the
off-duty personnel and to bring in outside help for assistance if needed. At FFC MM, guidelines
in case of ammonia release and fire fighting and safety information is well communicated
through brochures, circulars, notices and booklets (FFC Safety Section, 2004) to both plant
personnel and township residents.
8.5.6.1 Fire Fighting
Fire is man’s best friend and worst enemy. Fire Safety, at its most basic, is based upon the
principle of keeping fuel sources and ignition sources separate. Three things must be present at
the same time to produce fire, removal of any of which results in extinguishment:
1. Enough oxygen to sustain combustion

2. Enough heat to reach ignition temperature
3. Some fuel or combustible material together, they produce the chemical reaction that is
fire
F IGURE 9 F IRE T RIANGLE

Fires are classified according to the type of fuel that is burning. Use of wrong type of fire
extinguisher on the wrong class of fire, you might make matters worse. Fire classification is
given in the table below:
T ABLE 5 C LASSIFICATION OF F IRE (OSU, 2005)
Fire Fuel Source Examples

Class A Solid Combustibles Wood, Paper, Cloth, Trash, Plastics
Class B Flammable Liquids and Gases Gasoline, Oil, Grease, Acetone
Class C Electrical Fires Energized Electrical Equipment
Class D Combustible Metals Potassium, Sodium, Aluminum, Magnesium
Extinguishment or control of fire is essential. Exposure of personnel to thermal-radiation

hazards must be minimized and property protected. Extinguishing fire requires cooling below
the flashpoint, removing the oxidant, or reducing the fuel concentration below the lower
flammability limits (Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
Most fire extinguishers have a pictograph label telling which types of fire the extinguisher is
designed to fight.
Class A Class B Class C Class D

F IGURE 10 F IRE E XTINGUISHER L ABELS
For combustible solids and high flashpoint liquids, water can be used alone to extinguish fire.
Water has an additional benefit as a result of its high specific heat and high latent heat of
vaporization. It can be used to cool equipment, structures, and containers of hazardous
materials, even when extinguishing is difficult. Water is the preferred fire control medium
(Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
The extinguishing capability of water can be improved by adding foaming materials. Foam are
formed by addition of proteins and similar synthetic materials and aerating at nozzles to make a
blanket which floats on flammable materials. As foam excludes air, and reduced volatilization, it
is used to cover spills (Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
In some cases, extinguishment of fire by means of oxidant reduction is more effective. These
include inert gases like nitrogen, carbon dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons, or noble gases
(Richard W. Prugh, 2006).
Dry-chemicals like bicarbonates or ammonium phosphate provide a coating that makes the
material suitable for use on fire involving solid combustibles like rubber tires, wood and paper
(Richard W. Prugh, 2006)
8.5.6.2 Types of Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are designed to fight different classes of fire.
Water (APW) Fire Extinguishers: APW’s extinguish fire by taking away the “heat” element of
the Fire Triangle. These are designed for Class A fires i.e. fires that have their origin from wood,
paper, cloth. Using water on a flammable liquid fire could cause the fire to spread. Using water
on an electrical fire increases the risk of electrocution. If there is no choice but to use an APW
on an electrical fire, the electrical equipment should be un-plugged or de-energized.
Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishers: Carbon dioxide cylinders are red and black. They range in
size from 5 lbs to 100 lbs or larger. On larger sizes, the horn will be at the end of a long, flexible
hose. The pressure in an extinguisher is so great, carbon dioxide will be in liquid form may shoot
out of the horn. These are designed for Class B and C (Flammable Liquids and Electrical Sources)
fires only and are placed in laboratories, mechanical rooms, kitchens, and flammable liquid
storage areas.
Carbon dioxide is a non-flammable gas that takes away the oxygen element of the fire triangle.
Without oxygen, there is no fire. Carbon dioxide is very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher,
so it cools the fuel as well. Extinguisher may be ineffective in extinguishing a Class A fire
because it may not be able to displace enough oxygen to successfully put the fire out. Class A
materials may also smolder and re-ignite.
Dry Chemical (ABC) Fire Extinguishers: Dry chemical extinguishers put out fire by coating the
fuel with a thin layer of dust. This separates the fuel from the oxygen in the air. The powder
also works to interrupt the chemical reaction of fire. These extinguishers are very effective at
putting out fire.
ABC extinguishers are red and blue. They range in size from 1 kg to 70 kg. The greatest portion
of powder is composed of mono-ammonium phosphate. The extinguishers are pressurized with
nitrogen.
9 Safety Section
FFC believes in “safety first”.
FFC Management is committed to cause of safety and believes that it is everyone's responsibly.
The objective is to improve the working culture through effective safety program. Zero lost
work days are the target (FFC Safety Section, 2010).
Details are enclosed in Appendix II (FFC MM Plant Safety Policy) and Appendix III (FFC Plant
Safety Rules and Regulation).
Recognition for safe work is arranged in collaboration with NSC, USA. Till July 2010, 8.3 million
safe hour operations have been carried out, i.e. no Lost Time Accident (LTA) has taken place
since last 8.3 million hours. FFC MM has also received IMS 2009 certification for safe working
other than ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and ISO 18001.
Safety Section of FFC MM performs various functions and activities for running an effective
safety program through the following hierarchy of section:
 Section Head (01)

 Engineers (02)
 Safety Sub-Engineer (01)
 Supervisor (01)
 Safety Operators (08)
9.1 Activities
FFC Safety section works in both planning ad execution phases to implement safe work
conditions at plant, with improved working standards and safety. This includes multi-
dimensional efforts team. Key activities (FFC Safety Section, 2010) of unit are as follows:
Managing Safety Program
Main object is to plan, organize, budget, and track execution of activities to achieve safety
objectives of our plant laid down in FFC MM Safety Policy (Appendix II). Through prudent
planning and effective resource management safety section cater for all the needs of
personal and process safety.
Motivation
Safety section is committed to achieve excellence in the field of safety. All projects related
to safety are given top priority and good safety and housekeeping standards are
appreciated through token rewards. This include slogan of the year, best housekeeping
award, safe man of the year award and safe men hours award.
Hazard Recognition
It ensures the identification of conditions or actions that may cause injury, illness or
property damage, is a routine activity carried out at all levels in plant areas. Plant safety
committees are formed all hazards of the plant are highlighted and engineering solution are
evolved. Safety section also carries out routine audits of the plant and points out hazards to
concerned units.
Inspection /Audits
Appraise of safety and health risk is associated with equipment, materials, processes and
facilities. It is monitored through routine audits.
Fire Protection
It reduces fire hazards by inspections of facilities and processes. It arranges all type of fire
extinguishers as per need and facilities requirement. It also oversees the design and
operational fire safety of the complex and suggests and coordinates requirement-based
developments.
Regulatory Compliance
It ensures that mandatory plant rules and regulations (Appendix II) and International Safety
standards are satisfied.
Health Hazard Control
It conducts audit and control hazards such as noise, chemical or radiation exposure.
Hazardous Material Management
It creates awareness that dangerous chemicals and other products are procured, stored and
disposed of in ways that prevent exposure or fire. Display of MSDS in areas to increase
consciousness, are ensured.
Training
Safety Section provides management and employees with the information and skills
necessary to recognize hazards and perform their job effectively and safely. All safety
inspectors are trained as fire fighters and work permit procedure auditors. Section also
maintains training record of all manpower.
Accident and Incident Investigation
It determines the facts related to an accident or incident based on witness interviews, site
inspection and collection of other evidences. The focus of this activity is to stop
reoccurrence.
Record Keeping
All data related to accidents/ incidents is recorded and maintained. Safety section reports it
to government and NSC if required. It also maintains safe man-hours data of the company
and reports it to NSC.
Evaluating
It evaluates the effectiveness of our program through various indices like accident/ incident
rate, use of personal protective equipment, quality of job safety. It also considers reporting
of near miss as an effective system to avoid occurrence of a real risk.
9.2 Safety Training
FFC ensures safe work environment by providing safety training to all personnel on plant. As
per the company policy all news personnel on plant receive safety training prior taking charge
of their responsibilities. Safety training was provided to the group comprised of author and two
other internee engineers by Mr. Mushtaq Ahmed (Safety Sub-Engineer) on July 1, 2010 at
Safety Section, FFC MM. Training introduced with the plant safety policy and rules and
regulations, while functioning of safety section was also briefed.
T ABLE 6 S AFETY D ESCRIPTION AS SET BY S AFETY S ECTION , FFC MM
S A F E T Y
Search Analyze Find Eliminate Tell You

for hazard situation causes reasons others are safe
The training comprised of:
 Importance of Safety at Plant

 Use of Personal Protective Equipment
 Use of Fire Extinguishers
 Ammonia Disaster
9.2.1 Importance of Safety at Plant
FFC produces about 60 % of market’s urea production. Not preparing for plant safety may not
only result in decrease of company production and sale but also in shortage of fertilizer in
market. This may affect the country’s agriculture growth and thus shortage of food for public
followed by price hiking.
FIRE ALARM
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
05 05 05 05 05 05 05
SECONDS
DISASTER (HEAVY AMMONIA LEAKAGE)

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
SECONDS
EVACUATION ALARAM
Repeated above disastar alarm
END OF EMERGENCY
90
SECONDS
F IGURE 11 E MERGENCY S IREN S EQUENCE (FFC S AFETY S ECTION , 2004)

The plant produces ammonia as the raw material for urea production. Ammonia as a hazardous
gas always has a probability of release in case of leakage or disoperation. This may result in
ammonia disaster leading to a catastrophe if not avoided or duly responded.
Safety is therefore an important consideration prior to working on plant.
9.2.2 Use of Personal Protective Equipment
The Personal Protective Equipment provided to internees included safety shoes, hard hat, half
face mask and safety glasses. The training gave an idea to author of when and how to use the
equipment especially half face mask, which aids in breathing where air is slightly rich in
ammonia or any other hazardous gas or during ammonia disaster. Escape mask provides safety
in situations where concentration of ammonia in air is 50 ppm to 60 ppm.
9.2.3 Use of Fire Extinguishers
T ABLE 7 S TRATEGY IN F IRE I NCIDENT (S UGGESTED BY S AFETY S ECTION , FFC MM)
• Fire
F
• Inform management
I
• Rescue yourself and others
R
• Extinguish / Escape
E
Fire is the most common form of disaster for any industry but could be dealt, if well prepared.
Fire erupts due to unsafe work, and could be avoided if well planned and followed. In order to
avoid any unpleasant accident, personnel are trained for fire fighting. Internees were told
taught to use the fire extinguishers for self safety. Strategies in fire incidents and emergency
response have been both notified and published (FFC Safety Section, 2004) by Safety Section.
F IGURE 12 E MERGENCY R ESPONSE (FFC S AFETY S ECTION , 2004)
Using fire extinguisher was introduced synonymously with an acronym PASS; pull, aim, squeeze
and sweep side by side.
Pull Aim Squeeze Sweep

F IGURE 13 PASS A PPROACH FOR U SING F IRE E XTINGUISHER
Controlling fire can be dangerous; therefore it was advised by the trainer:
1. Assist any person in immediate danger to safety, if it can be accomplished without risk
to you.
2. Call 3222 Safety Section or 3234 Shift coordinator and activate the building fire alarm.
The fire alarm will notify the fire department and other building occupants and shut off
the air handling system to prevent the spread of smoke.
Before using a fire extinguisher, it was suggested to know what is burning. Else, using the
extinguisher would not be a wise decision as it could result in a bigger problem. Even if an ABC
fire extinguisher is available, there is always a possibility that fire may explode or produce toxic
fumes. Fire extinguishers are used to control fire in initial stages (OSU, 2005). If fire is
continuously increasing from the source point, it is wise to immediately evacuate the building.
9.2.4 Ammonia Disaster
Leakage or unwanted release of ammonia from plant has been termed as Ammonia Disaster.
Ammonia being a hazardous gas chokes respiration process resulting in death. Therefore, for
safe escape, plant personnel and township residents are trained for plan of action in case of
ammonia disaster. All offices, buildings and homes are constructed with an ammonia shelter, in
case of emergency. Shelter has no windows and only single door which can be sealed in case of
ammonia release. Personnel and families can remain save in shelter until safety announcement
is made.
T ABLE 8 E FFECT OF A MMONIA AT D IFFERENCT C ONCENTRATIONS IN A IR
Concentration Effect
Below 5 ppm Harmless
200 ppm Etching to eyes and skin
500 ppm Problem in breathing
More than 700 ppm Death
For personnel outside building or on pathways, it is suggested to take protection is ammonia

shelter made outside the buildings. Standing below water shower would also be safe as
ammonia gets readily dissolved in water, reducing its intensity of attack. Using a moist cloth for
breathing in case no mask is available is highly recommended to avoid choking. On hearing the
ammonia disaster siren, listener should see the wind direction through prilling tower emissions
or air direction sock and move crossway from wind direction.
10 Production Unit
Production unit of an industry manages product production in field in coordination with process
unit (which does the desk job for same). The sole responsibility of the unit is to ensure
maximum production through overcoming the problems and issue coming up on daily routine
on plant. The unit manages process parameters like temperature, pressure, flow rate etc to
achieve production targets, while guaranteeing the safety of personnel and plant. The plant is
monitored / controlled through a controlling centre (CCR at FFC MM) where shift engineers
work under the supervision of a coordination engineer and achieve the set goals.
At FFC MM, production unit works under a Production Manager and is sub-divided into four
sub-units, as per their working goals. These include:
1. Utilities Unit; provides utilities like instrument air, cooling water, electricity to other
units
2. Ammonia Unit; provides raw materials i.e. ammonia and carbon dioxide for urea section
3. Urea Unit; produces the product urea (trade name: Sona Urea)
4. Bagging and Shipment Unit; bags urea and dispatch it to consumer market
Each of the unit has a UM which works with a team of engineers and other technical staff to
manage smooth run of unit. Shift starts with a coordination meeting of production manager,
Unit Managers, staff engineers and engineers; discussing and addressing the problems to be
encountered. Shift engineers coordinate with board men (operators of DCS monitoring facility
at CCR) and operators (at respective areas) for following the agreed plan of action for the shift
or day.
10.1 Utilities Unit
The objective of utilities unit is:

 To provide desired quantity and quality of certain utilities to the ammonia and urea
units for smooth functioning. These utilities include electricity, cooling water,
instrument air, fuel gas and steam network.
Water, air and natural gas are the basic utility raw materials, which are processed and improved
in order to meet the plants’ criterion of quality and ensure a longer life and safety of
equipment.
T ABLE 9 P LANT U TILITIES D IVISION
Water Air Natural gas

Cooling water Instrument air Process stream
Steam Utility / service air Fuel stream
Utility / service water Process air
Drinking water
Utilities unit is a pre-requisite for other units because their smooth running depends upon the
utilities supplied by it. In case of utility failure plant has to face an emergency shutdown. Major
sub-divisions of utility section are:
 Water Treatment
 Cooling Tower System
 Waste Water Disposal
 Instrument Air Compression
 Natural Gas Station
 Power Generation
 Auxiliary Boilers and Steam Network
10.1.1 Water Treatment (Area 09)
The core purpose of the installation is to produce two main types of water:
 Make-up water for the cooling tower

 De-mineralized water for boiler feed
The section is controlled through the PLC based system in WTCR (Water Treatment Control
Room) located next to installations in area 09. WTCR also manages the preparation of different
chemicals in desired qualities, needed for water treatment. These include ammonium
hydroxide, chlorinated water, ferrous sulfate, lime solution, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid etc.
At FFC MM, sources of water are Masuwah canal flowing from Guddu Barrage and tube wells.
Canal water has the main usage, where as tube wells are used in case of canal supply is
suspended.
Water from canal is collected in a collection pit under gravity or pumped (when canal is flowing
below routine level) by four motor driven centrifugal pumps called Canal Bank Pumps (MP-950
G/H/I/J). A mesh is used to prevent litter and garbage from coming inside the pit. Water is
pumped to clarifier (ME-920 also called Italfloc) at a flow rate of 250 m3/hr through six motor
driven Canal Bank Pumps (MP-950 A/B/C/D/E/F), connected in series. In case of tube well
(thirty one units installed on the other side of N5) service, motor driven MP-950 D/E/F pumps
are used pump water from tube wells to collection pit.
Water treatment is further sub divided into:
 Pretreatment Section
 Demin Lines
10.1.1.1 Pretreatment Section
The pretreatment section produces filtered water from source water through:
 Clarification
 Filtration
In Clarification, raw water is fed to 1800 m3 capacity clarifier (ME-920) at a flow rate of 1200
m3/hr by means of canal intake pumps (MP-950), mixed in line with ferrous sulfate and
chlorinated water, for enhanced mixing and oxidation of iron from ferrous to ferric. Chemical
(lime and polyelectrolyte) dosage is automatically adjusted according to the feed water rate.
The mixture enters the reaction zone of clarifier (ME-920) and is mixed with recycled sludge
and suspension of lime slurry. Mixing and recycling are ensured by a dual stirrer (MM-920 A)
moving at 2 – 6 rpm. Through high activity of particles in reaction zone, suspended particles are
held together to make flocs and settle down to the bottom of clarifier. A bottom scrapper (MM-
920 B) moving at 0.06 rpm prevents building up of deposits and scales by conveying the sludge
towards the extraction cone, where it is withdrawn by gravity and recycled in some quantity to
the reaction zone. The main flow from the reaction zone to the upper portion passes to the
upper flocculation area and finally flows in to the outer clarification zone. During the final
passage, it goes through the bed of pre-formed sludge (also called sludge blanket), where it
deposits both impurities and suspended particles. Clarifier has a residence time of
approximately 95 minutes and is equipped with several sampling points for testing the
concentration of the sludge at different levels. Clarifier is set to maintain a particular sludge bed
height at bottom, on exceeding, the blow down will automatically start.
Chemical Dosage to a clarifier could be divided into three types: coagulants (ferrous sulfate and
chlorine), flocculants (polyelectrolyte) and softeners (lime). Sometimes, natural iron present in
raw water is used to supply the part of coagulant. When iron salts are used, the best flocs are
formed when the pH value is between 10.2 to 10.4. Therefore, if dissolved iron content exceeds
4 to 5 ppm, it is not necessary to add ferrous sulfate. Chlorination may be considered as a
coagulant aid since it reduces many of the organic substances present in water which inhibit
floc formation (M. Yaqoob Ch., 1987). Chlorinated organic compounds are more readily
removable by the floc and therefore, final quality of effluent is lower in organics.
Polyelectrolyte is anionic polymer that attracts the neutralized suspended particles through its
positive charge and provides them with a nucleus to deposit on. This leads to floc formation
and settling. Lime reacts with soluble hardness molecules and reduces them to insoluble. Lime
dose is a function of pH of raw water and is regularly adjusted.
T ABLE 10 C HEMICAL D OSAGE IN C LARIFIER
Chemicals % by weight Mass Flow Rate

Ferrous sulfate 25 1200 kg/hrs
Chlorine 99.5 7.8 kg/hr
Polyelectrolyte 0.3 0.6 kg/hr

Lime 5 675 kg/hrs
Following (M. Yaqoob Ch., 1987) modifications are achieved to the quality of water in a clarifier:
 Turbidity reduction
 Color and organic matter reduction
 Lime softening
o Calcium reduction
o Magnesium reduction
 Alkalinity reduction
 Partial demineralization
 Free carbon dioxide reduction (up to zero level)
 Iron reduction (up to zero level)
 Silica reduction
Clarified water is collected into radial channels, flowing in to annular channels outside the basin
and finally into the feeding channels of the collection basin ME-926. The basin with a capacity
of 800 m3, corresponds to an average retention time of 45 minutes at nominal flow, to shadow
the effects of excess chlorine dosage. Through pumps P-926 (capacity 500 m3/hr) a certain
amount of clarified water is withdrawn from the collection basin for cooling towers make-up,
while the remaining is pumped to the filtration section through P-923 A/B/C.
T ABLE 11 C LARIFIED W ATER P ARAMETERS
Parameter Quantity
Turbidity Lss than 5 NTU
pH 9.9 – 10.2
Free chlorine Less than 0.2 ppm
Iron Less than 0.2 ppm
Alkalinity 2p=m
Filtration is done to remove residual turbidity of clarified water. The flow rate of fed to filters
from clarified water tank is proportional to the requirement of treatment section. Filtration
encounters the suspended matter in water with sand bed in filters which finally becomes
clogged and demands periodic regeneration after particular operational time.
Clarified water at 70 m3/hr flow rate is delivered to battery of four gravel filters (V-920
A/B/C/D) connected in parallel. At odds, flow rate is regulated by a valve LIC-02-V actuated
through the level controller 09-LIC-2 located into the filtered water storage tank T-920. Thus
the flow rate of water to the filter is proportional to actual requirement of users i.e. treatment
section. Filters are filled with 18 tons of light grey bright quartz sand particles with 97% silica.
During filtration, suspended matters contained in the water are retained inside the filtering bed
which becomes clogged and the pressure increases to a maximum value (approx 1.0). Clogging
however doesn’t depend only upon the total quantity of retained particles, but also upon the
time of operation. At a time, two filters are in operation and two are on regeneration. Back
washing water collected in back-washing pit is sent to clarifier after mud settling, to reduce
water losses. Filter water is stored in storage tank 09-T-920 having capacity 600 m3/hrs.
10.1.1.2 Demin Lines

The purpose of the demin lines is:
 To remove permanent hardness producing ions from the filtered water

 To remove dissolved carbon dioxide
Raw water contains many minerals in varying concentrations. When minerals dissolve in water
they form electrically charged particles called ions. These are cations (positively charged ions)
and anions (negatively charged ions) present in relatively low concentrations and permit the
water to conduct electricity. They are sometimes referred to electrolytes. These ionic impurities
can led to problems in cooling and heating systems, steam generation and manufacturing.
Therefore, their removal is necessary. Certain natural and synthetic materials (called ion
exchange resins) have the ability to remove mineral ions from water in exchange for others.
These resins are usually small beads that compose a bed several feet deep through which the
water is passed. Ion exchange resin is an insoluble polymeric matrix containing labile ions
capable of exchanging with ions in the surrounding medium.
T ABLE 12 M INERAL I ONS IN W ATER
Cations Anions Other

Aluminum Bicarbonate Silica
Barium Chloride Carbon dioxide
Calcium Sulfate
Magnesium Nitrite
Potassium
Sodium
Process
Condensate
Activated Carbon
Filters V-980 A/B/C
Deionized
Filtered
Water Tank Mixed Beds
Water Tank
T - 940 V-944 A/B/C
T-920
Demineralized
Strong Anion
Strong Cation Water Tank
Exchanger
Exchanger V-940 T - 901
V-943 A/B/C
A/B/C
Degasifier Weak Anion

V-941 Exchanger V-942
A/B/C
F IGURE 14 D EMIN L INES (A REA 09)
Demin lines (de-mineralization section) comprise of two trains of ion exchangers, each with a
capacity of 130 m3/hr and consist of strong cationic exchanger, weak anionic exchanger and a
strong anionic exchanger. Both trains have a common forced draft degasifier (filled with rashing
rings) for decarbonation of decationized water.
Filtered water stored in tank (T-920) is fed by the pump P-925 A/B/C to the cation exchangers
V-940 A/B and percolating on the resin bed, exchanges ions like calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium with hydrogen ion.
Decationized water is then finely dispersed through spraying nozzles of the atmospheric
degasifier V-941 and percolates as a very thin layer along the surfaces of rashing ring arranged
on two consecutive layers meeting in counter current with the air flow released by fan K-941.
The air current maintains partial pressure of carbon dioxide at very low levels thus allowing an
easier escape from liquid phase in to the gaseous phase and its stripping by the air of the fan.
The residual carbon dioxide valve in water coming out from tower should not be more than 10
ppm.
A hydraulic guard set on the water outlet from the tower prevents any air dispersion from
blower, thus forcing the air to flow upward and cross the layer of filling rings in such a way that
makes large turbulence in the gaseous mass thus involving the whole mass in transfer
mechanism. The purpose of filling rings in tower is to increase the gas / liquid contact area, thus
making water to percolate in the form of film. By this way optional conditions for me removal
of dissolved carbon dioxide are obtained, because the efficiency is directly proportional to the
surface of interface between liquid and gaseous phases and inversely proportion to the
thickness of film. The degasifier water is stored in the vessel V-941 and transferred by pumps P-
940 A/B/C through the strong anion exchangers V-943 A/B to the storage tank T-940.
Percolating on the weak anion resin the water exchanges the anion of strong acids with
hydroxyl ions. The weak anion resin due to its micro-porous structure is also able to remove
from water, in an almost reversible manner, the organic matter. Passing through the strong
anion resin, water exchanges anions of weak acids with hydroxyl ion.
Water is stored in T-940 along with steam condensate, de-oiled by activated carbon filters V-
980 A/B/C. De-ionized water is fed by pumps P-941 A/B/C to mixed beds V-9444 A/B/C, where
final polishing is performed. Water leaving the mix bed is stored in de-mineralized water tanks
T-901. Regeneration of vessels is done by 2 % and 4 % of sulfuric acid (strong cationic resin), 4 %
sodium hydroxide solution (strong and weak anionic resins).
Water treatment plant has been designed mainly for tube well water and keeping in
consideration the canal water. Regeneration of cation exchanger in counter current according
to econex system is definitely needed because tube well water has sodium content as high as
85%. To avoid any movement in resin bed during counter current phase, the resin is held fixed
by filling the free space above the resin with polyethylene beads. This material is called ECONEX
and is completely inert from chemical point of view.
10.1.2 Cooling Tower System (Area 08)
The section cools the hot water coming from exchangers installed at different location of plant
site through evaporation in induced draft cross flow cooling tower cells.
The tower is splash-type cross flow and induced air cooling. It consists of 8 cells separated by
gates with a common water collection basin. Each cell comprises of six louvers and space
between the consecutive louvers is filled with 12 layers of poly propylene filling. A cell comprise
of three portions with a fan on the top. The fan is located at the centre of the cell and is motor
driven. Inside the two portions of cell special type polypropylene assemblies are placed. These
assemblies are called drift eliminators. There are five pumps for cooling water circulation. One
of these pump is motor driven, four pumps are turbo-driven and are for normal operations. The
turbines for pumps are condensing turbines. The exhaust steam from all the turbines is
condensed in a condenser equipped with vacuum system. Another tower with 2 cells was later
constructed to improve the performance of cooling tower.
Hot water at 42°C from unit returning to cooling towers in enters hot water channel of cooling
towers at 31,000 m3/hr flow rate and rises up through risers located in the centre of each of the
10 cells. Water is distributed to 2 pits and each having 240 nozzles through which water is
showered into the cells, by gravity. The water falling down strikes the polypropylene packing
that increases the water surface area in contact with water and residence time, resulting in
efficient cooling. Evaporation causes cooling and cooled water is collected in 6900 m3 basin,
from where it returns to exchanger for heat duty.
Cooling of water is achieved by atmospheric air drawn by the atmospheric air, drawn by the
fans on the top of each cell. Air contacts the sides of cooling tower and passes between the -
packing and is drawn up by fan. An efficient system of drift eliminators in air passage eliminates
the entrained water from air (cooling tower drift) and reduces water losses.
T ABLE 13 C OOLING T OWER D ESIGN D ATA
Type Induced Draft / Cross Flow

Flow rate 31000 m3/h
Basin capacity 6900 m3
Number of cells 8+2
Ambient air temperature 7°C
Cold water inlet temperature 43 °C
Cold water outlet temperature 32°C
Wet bulb 28°C
Dry bulb 47.8°C
Heat load 341 G cal/h
Air relative humidity 80%
Make up 803 m3/h
Blow down 158 m3/h
Drift losses 0.1 % (31 m3/h)
Evaporative losses 2 % (614 m3/h)
Drift eliminator Polypropylene
Packing Splash type
Nozzle Static / Turbo
Water is the most common and nearly universal solvent known. Solvent property varies widely
and is the property that causes problems for operators. Water evaporation increases the TDS
content of what is left behind; moreover decreased temperature causes several salts to
become insoluble and ready to scale. In order to keep the quantity of salts like calcium,
magnesium, sulfates or silicates minimum, a portion of concentrated water is removed and
make-up water is added. Removal of concentrated water is called Blow Down. There are two
types of blow down: continuous and batch. Continuous blow down remove the sludge
produced in the water basin to waste disposal (Area 16). While batch blow down is me to time
manually to get the samples for the laboratory tests.
Several microorganisms like algae, fungi and bacteria can develop causing blockage of thin
tubes, bacterial inhibitors that are poisonous to mirco-organisms are used to avoid them.
Corrosion is controlled through addition of corrosion inhibitors; zinc, phosphates, poly-
phosphates, ortho-phosphates etc.
Water in cooling tower is also treated and filtered to remove impurities, to maintain the pH
level, to avoid rusting, and corrosion and biological micro organisms. Several chemical like Zinc
Phosphate (corrosion inhibitor), sulfuric acid (maintains pH) etc are dozed to keep water quality
constant. A slime measuring unit is also employed to measure the quantity of slime (waste of
micro-organisms) in water.
10.1.3 Waste Water Disposal (Area 16)
The section ensures that the effluent disposal from plant is within safety limits and regulations
set by EPA or NEQS. Waste water is disposed to two places:
 Masuwah Canal; when parameters are in permissible range

 Evaporation ponds; when parameter are out from the set values
Effluents from various plants are in general collected in a common pit and treated before
disposal into Masuwah canal. The effluents of major concern are from ammonia, urea and
water treatment plants. The effluents from boilers, carbon dioxide, and absorption unit are
mostly diluents.
T ABLE 14 NEQS L IMITS FOR W ATER W ATER D ISPOSAL
Parameters Permissible Range

pH 6–9
Ammonia 40 ppm
TSS 200 ppm
TDS 3500 ppm
COD 150 ppm
Grease & oil 10 ppm
Temperature increase ≤ 3 °C
Chloride 1000 ppm
BOD 80 ppm
Iron 8.0 ppm
Zinc 5.0 ppm

Sulfate 600 ppm
Chromium 1.0 ppm
Conductivity 2500 micro S/cm2
Waste water from all plant sites at a flow rate of 250 – 300 m3/h is collected in pit A, where it is
neutralized with sulfuric acid. The dosing of sulfuric acid is controlled by the pH transmitter
controller. It controls the pH between 6.5 -8.5. A stirrer in the pit helps the neutralization
reaction. The neutralized water overflows in the next pit B. Water from the settling ponds (if
any) also mixes up with neutralized water in pit B. Waste water is pumped to canal by means of
P-1603-A/B. In case of effluent not being within the permissible range, waste is directed to the
evaporation pond, to save canal from polluting.
Waste water is sampled at an interval of every 4 hour for lab testing to verify the chemical
dosage for neutralization.
10.1.4 Instrument Air Compression (Area 10)
The section provides compressed air for instrument and utilities to all units of ammonia and
urea plant. Instrument air make possible the functioning of pneumatic valves installed over
multiple locations on plant. The area is of extreme importance because in case of its failure,
plant might lead to shut down.
Air from process gas compressor in area 04 K-421, at a pressure of 8.5 kg/cm2 is fed to
ammonia receiver tank, during normal running of ammonia compression section. However, the
Area has two stages, double acting, non-lubricating, Y-shaped, motor driven two stand-by
compressor MK-1001/2. The compressor takes air from atmosphere in its first stage amd
discharges at the pressure of 1kg/cm2. Compression heats the air to 160°C, which is than cooled
to 45°C in inter cooler before feeding to the second stage of compression. The second stage
discharges at 8 kg/cm2 and 175°C. Compressed air is then passed though a damping vessel V-
1003/4, fitted with baffles to remove any condensate. Air is then passed through an after cooler
E-1002B/3B, where it is cooled down to 50°C. Downstream of after cooler is fitted with cyclone
separator to remove the condensate water produced as a result of cooling. Cooling is

automatically operated through SDV, while the pressure is controlled by PCVs.
The output is provided with selector having positions: auto, 50% manual, 100 manual.
Switching selector to 50% manual makes half of the suction valves idle, reducing compressor
capacity to 50 %. At 100% manual, all valves are in service and machine is operated at 100 %
capacity.
The air receiver V-1001 has a capacity of 100 Nm3. Air supply from K-1001/1002 is stored at
50°C and 8 kg/cm2. Receiver provides the compressed air to utility air network and air drying
station for instrument air supply. PCV protects vessel by blowing at 9 kg/cm 2.
The compressed air from V-1001 is sent to air drying section through a cooler E-1001 and
condensate separator V-1002. The air cools down to 37°C while passing through the final cooler
E-1001 and condensate is separated in V-1002. The compressed air is then fed to air dryers MD-
1001 A/B (one in service and other on regeneration), where in moisture is absorbed in activated
alumina. Dried air is finally passed through air filters ME-1001 A/B, where sub-micron particles
are removed from air. The resulting dry and clean instrument air is supplied to plant at 7
kg/cm2.
10.1.5 Natural Gas Station (Area 15)

The purpose of natural gas station is to supply natural gas after filtration to meet the demands:
 Process gas
 Fuel gas
 Township supply
Natural gas is drawing from the Mari Gas Field through 16’’ diameter header. Distance between
plant and Mari Gas field is about 20km. Pressure of this natural gas is about 31.5 kg/cm2. Gas is
passed through the two gas filters ME-1501 A/B (one in service, other in standby), which
allow on less than 5 micron size particles to pass through them. Gas circulates
centrifugally due to which velocity increases and heavy particles and mainly liquids are
settled down. The condensate consists of Iron, Manganese and Chlorides. Each filter
consists of 18 elements as filter media. Process gas is then fed to steam reformer F-201
at 46 kg/cm2. Fuel gas to boilers and furnaces is supplied at 5.6 kg/cm 2. Natural gas to
township is supplies at 2.5 kg/cm2 after adding odorizing agent tetra thiophene (THT) to
it.
10.1.6 Auxiliary Boilers (Area 06)
Boilers are designed to produce steam as dry as possible at high temperature and pressure.
Steam is necessary for every plant which is used to move turbines. These turbines are used to
generate electricity, to compress the air in compressors, in cracking of natural gas and in some
heating processes. Boiler installed in area have a capacity of 110 ton/hr.
DM water is pre-heated and de-aerated to be converted to BFW. DM water is degasified i.e. DO

and carbon dioxide are removed from water in a deaerator V-603. At BP, almost all dissolved
gases are practically removed. Water is heated with steam to increase the temperature and
consequently remove the dissolved gases. The surface area of water is increased by spraying it
in the form of jets. This increases the degasification reaction.
DM water after being pre-heated in ammonia section (area 02) enters the top of the deaerator
and is collected in a jacket. The jacket is fitted with jet sprayers, which spray water against the
saturated steam rising up. Water is then collected in a collecting tray and flows down to the re-
boiling section, where water is stripped with rising steam and fed to the storage tank. The
deaerated water is pumped through BFW pumps P-601 A/B/C. The BFW water at 150 kg/cm2
and 110°C flows to flue gas-swept economizer situated in convection zone of furnace. The feed
water is heated to 350°C by a heat exchange with counter current flow of hot flue gases, and
fed to the steam drum. Feed water is then transferred to rear heaters and side tube walls of the
boiler through the down-comers. Uniform partial evaporation is promoted by a fairly even
flame radiation over the furnace walls. The steam-water mixture flows back in to the drum by
natural convection and separated. The saturated steam leaves the steam drum across the
drying unit and reaches the super heater stage, situated in convection zone of boiler furnace.
The three super heaters raise the temperature of steam to 510°C and recycle it back to steam
drum, from where steam is fed to turbine.
DM Water BFW Pre-

Deaerator
Tank T-901 heater
Accumulator Economiser Steam Drum Turbine
Boiler Super heater
F IGURE 15 B OILER N ETWORK
10.1.7 Power Generation (Area 07)
Electric Power is generated through turbo generators (TG), which are the turbine driven for the
production of electricity. There are the major source of electricity for all the plant having a
capacity of 16 Mega Watts (2 generators each has capacity 8 Mega Watts). An emergency stand
by diesel generators (EDG) having a capacity of 1.5 Mega watts, is also installed.
The turbine has 14 stages. The High pressure section of the turbine consists of 8 stages all
shrouded blades with moving blades profile milled from a solid forging. The Low Pressure
section of the turbine consists of 6 stages with moving blades profile milled from a solid forging
as well. The impellers are connected on a single shaft. The KS Saturated steam at 105 kg/cm2
Pressure and 510°C temperature is injected in the turbine impeller chanber on the first stage.
The steam apply force on the impellers and get its velocity lower. The velocity head is
converted into pressure head on having large area. Again the steam enters to the next impeller
via nozzles. The pressure head is converted into velocity head and this mechanism continue till
the discharge of the steam from the turbine. Then exit stream is condensed and send to boiler
for reuse.
A generator is connected with the turbine shaft via a gear box to lower down the RPM for
generator. The turbine is rotating at 11,000 RPM where as the generator is designed for 1500
RPM. So a gear box in installed to reduce the RPM. And other imported thing in the Turbo
Generators is Governors. These are just like a control valve. That controls the steam quantity
depending upon the load of generator.
EDG ME-702 is a V-shaped four stroke; single acting engines with 16 cylinders arranged eight on
each side of V-shape. It works on diesel cycle, coupled with electric generator capable of
producing 1900 K V A electricity.
10.2 Ammonia Unit
The core purpose of ammonia unit is to provide the raw materials for urea unit. They are:
 Liquid ammonia at – 4 °C
 Carbon dioxide gas (by-product)
For producing these urea raw materials, unit needs a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen gas in
ration 3:1. A limited degree of inert gases like argon and methane are also present. Source for
hydrogen are generally hydrocarbons in the form of natural gas. The source for nitrogen is
atmospheric air, both cheap and abundantly available. The following processes take place in
different sections of unit:
 Desulfurization section; removes sulfur content of natural gas

 Reforming section
o Primary reformer; cracks natural gas to give hydrogen
o Secondary reformer; eliminates oxygen from air leaving nitrogen
 Gas purification section
o Shift Conversion; converts carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
o Carbon dioxide Removal; separates carbon dioxide by absorption in Benfield sol.
o Methanation; convert residual carbon dioxide to methane convert
 Ammonia synthesis section; hydrogen and nitrogen reacts to give ammonia
 Cooling and Storage; product is compressed, cooled and stored
10.2.1 Desulfurization Section (Area 02)
The section removes the sulfur compounds from the natural gas feedstock to avoid poisoning of
catalyst in primary reformer (F-201) and Low Temperature Carbon monoxide Shift (R-205). Unit
consists of two absorbers R-201 A/B (one in use and other on stand-by) with zinc oxide bed;
which reduces sulfur content to about 0.1 ppm by weight. The key reaction is:
ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O (I)

Natural gas coming from Maripur gas field through Natural Gas Station (Area 15) has
compositions (Molecular Mass 20.91):
T ABLE 15 N ATURAL G AS C OMPOSITION
H2 0.1 %
N2 19.5 %
CO2 9%
CH4 71 %
C2H6 0.2 %
Natural gas at a flow rate of 36472 Nm3/h at 30 kg/cm2 and at 38°C is compressed in natural gas
compressor K-411 to 40 kg/cm2 and 72°C and mixed with a recycled synthesis (short: syn) gas
stream and the mixture is then pre-heated to 310°C in process gas pre-heater E-204 B and then
to 400°C in process gas pre-heater E-204 A (both in convection zone of primary reformer).
Despite the fact that key reaction of conversion of inorganic sulfur to zinc sulfide is possible at
ambient temperature conditions, stream is pre heated to:
 Convert organic sulfur to inorganic sulfur (350°C)

 Promote reaction of absorption bed with carbonyl sulfide (310°C)
ZnO + COS → ZnS + CO2 (II)
 Enable reaction of sulfides and disulfides with sulfur absorption catalyst (330°C – 440°C)
 Increase the absorption capacity of catalyst (350°C)
Syn gas recycling increases the reaction rate of conversion organic sulfur to inorganic sulfur and
efficiency of catalyst. Hot mixture at 400°C is passed through one of the two sulfur absorbers R-
201 A/B, the other vessel is kept as spare.
T ABLE 16 S YN G AS R ECYCLE C OMPOSITION
H2 74.4 %
N2 24.74 %
Ar 0.23 %
CH4 0.92 %
Each vessel contains 21 m3 of Topsoe sulfur absorption catalyst HTZ-3 (specially prepared Zinc
Oxide) in two beds with a bed height of 2.15 m each. The endothermic reaction reduces the
sulfur content according to the following rate of reaction:
KI = 2.5 x 10-6 at 380°C KII = 4 x 10-9 at 380°C
The rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature:
KI = 4 x 10-6 at 400°C KII = 7 x 10-9 at 400°C
Fresh or sulfide catalyst neither reacts with hydrogen nor oxygen at any practical temperature.
HTZ-3 has several advantages in comparison with other sulfur absorbents like activated iron
mass. The absorption capacity (expressed in weight of sulfur absorbed per volume of
absorbent) is more than twice as high for HTZ-3 as far iron oxide. Methanation of gas containing
carbon mono or dioxides will not occur using zinc oxide catalyst. The catalyst does not become
pyrophoric during operation and therefore its disposal presents no problems. The operation
temperature could vary from ambient to 50 kg/cm2 (700psig) or even higher. The normal
operating temperature ranges from 350°C to 400°C. Absorption capacity of catalyst is 39 kg
sulfur per 100 kg of catalyst or 545 kg of sulfur per cubic meter or reactor volume.
10.2.2 Reforming Section (Area 02)
The section produces synthesis gas containing necessary compounds (hydrogen and nitrogen in
ratio 3:1) for ammonia synthesis by catalytic steam reforming of natural gas and addition of
atmospheric air to give nitrogen content to mixture. Endothermic reactions consuming great
deal of energy, govern the process economics.
Section is divided into: primary reformer (F-201) and secondary reformer (R-203). Heat of
reaction is provided in two different ways. In primary reformer, it is provided as indirect heat by
firing. In secondary reformer it is supplied by mixing air into the gas resulting in auto-ignition
temperature conditions. Air supply in later is adjusted to give a desired hydrogen – nitrogen
ratio. Key reactions (reversible) of process are:
C2H6 + H2O ↔ CH4 + CO2 + 2H2 (500°C)

CH4 + 2H2O ↔ CO2 + 4 H2 (600°C)
CO2 + H2 ↔ CO + H2O
It is desired to keep the methane content of syn gas as low as possible to keep the inert level
minimum. Methane content is governed by reforming reaction which is promoted by high
temperature, low pressure and more steam. On the other hand, high pressure reforming can
give considerable savings in power consumption for syn gas compression and equipment size
could be reduced as well. An economic compromise has been achieved by keeping operating
pressure at 35 kg/cm2. The third reaction consumes important hydrogen and therefore is
minimized with excess steam to carbon ratio is increased to 3.75:1.
10.2.2.1 Primary Reformer

Primary reformer has a total of 288 reforming tubes installed in two radiant chambers with a
common flue gas channel and 648 burners on side walls. The side-fired tubular reformer offers:
 Uniform and higher heat flux

 Fewer tubes and longer tube life
 No risk of flame impingement
 Safer and more reliable operation
Tubes are loaded with 31.8 m3 RKS catalyst in form of ceramic rings is impregnated with nickel.
The magnesia-alumina-spinnel catalyst with 17% nickel oxide has stable pore system, high
thermal resistance and a negligible content of silica and other volatile compounds. The crush
point is 300 kg/cm2 and fusion is 2000°C. Catalyst is activated by reducing the oxide to nickel by
steam – hydrocarbon mixture. Deactivation is done through cooling by steam that re-oxidizes it.
The natural gas mixture is pre-heated to approximately 52°C and the passed downward
through the vertical tubes of filled with catalyst; placed inside a fired heater, primary reformer
F-201. Sensible heat is transferred by radiation from a number of wall burners to the tubes.
Methane is reformed through steam yielding an increase in hydrogen and carbon dioxide
content of mixture. Almost 90% of reforming takes place in primary reformer. The gas leaves
the primary reformer at 927°C.
T ABLE 17 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER P RIMARY R EFORMER F-201
H2 65.5
N2 7.14
CO 10.13
CO2 11.44
CH4 5.77
It is possible that during operation, carbon might deposit on the catalyst bed. This would lead to
an increase in pressure drop for outside deposition and reduction in activity and mechanical
strength of catalyst for inside deposition. Carbon formation is avoided by maintaining
equilibrium for each reaction step. Other reasoning for carbon formation includes:
 Catalyst poisoning by sulfur; reducing activity and increasing carbon deposition

 High contents of olefins, aromatics or naphthenes in hydrocarbon feed
 Low steam to carbon ratio
10.2.2.2 Secondary Reformer
Secondary Reformer R-203 is used to separate nitrogen from air by burning the oxygen with it
and reforming the remaining methane. 35 m3 of RKS-2 catalyst in the form of ceramic rings
placed on the lower portion of reformer. The combustion of air will give high gas temperature
at the top of catalyst bed. The reaction mixture contacts with catalyst at the temperature about
1100°C – 1200°C. Some of the catalyst activity is lost during the first high temperature
interaction, but continuous operation decreases the rate to very slow. The sintering
temperature of the catalyst is 1400°C – 1500°C. Activated catalyst should not be exposed to air
at temperatures above 100°C, which would cause spontaneous heating and destruction of
catalyst.
The gas from primary reformer then enters the upper portion of secondary reformer where a
pre-heated stream of 28167 Nm3/h compressed process air at 150°C and 35.5 kg/cm2 is mixed
with the gas. High temperature results in auto ignition and an exothermic reaction that
consumes the oxygen from air. The gas is then passed to the catalyst bed in lower section of the
reformer, where reforming reaction is completed with simultaneous cooling of gas. The outlet
gas leaves the chamber at 972°C and 31 kg/cm2.
T ABLE 18 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER S ECONDARY R EFORMER R-203
H2 55.93
N2 22.15
CO 12.14
CO2 9.02
Ar 0.20
CH4 0.30
Gas from secondary reformer is cooled in a waste heat boiler E-208, to 380°C. As the stream
contains considerable amount of carbon mono and dioxides, there is a probability of carbon
formation, when the gas is cooled.
2CO → CO2 + C (soot)
The reaction is only possible with the range of 650°C – 720°C because of equilibrium conditions.
At temperatures below 650°C, the rate of reaction is too slow to have any practical importance.
Therefore, a waste heat boiler is employed to provide a rapid cooling. The boiler rapidly
decreases the temperature by converting water into high pressure steam, without a contact
between process gas and hot surface.
10.2.3 Gas Purification Section (Area 03)
The section prepares a syn gas containing hydrogen and nitrogen in ratio of 3:1 by purification.
Only inert gases like methane and argon are permissible in lowest possible concentrations.
Carbon monoxide is converted in two shift convertors R-204 and R-205 according to the
following reaction to reduce the concentration to (0.4 % on dry basis).
CO + H2O ↔ CO2 + H2 + (heat)
Reaction increases the hydrogen yield with formation of carbon dioxide which is more easily
removable. After cooling of gas and condensation of water content, carbon dioxide is removed
up to 0.1 %, which is then converted to methane methanator R-311, at the cost of expensive
hydrogen.
CO + 3H2 ↔ CH4 + H2O + (heat)
CO2 + 4H2 ↔ CH4 + 2H2O + (heat)

Inert levels in ammonia synthesis loop are controlled via purging of inerts to keep the level low
and obtain higher production.
Reforming Section HTS Convertor LTS Convertor

(Area 02) R-204 R-205
Benfield
Ammonia Synthesis Regenerator
Methanator Benfield
Section (Area 05)
R-311 Absorber C-302 C-301
F IGURE 16 G AS P URIFICATION S ECTION (A REA 03)
10.2.3.1 Shift Conversion

Shift conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide is an equilibrium reaction with low
temperature and more water supporting the forward move. However, higher temperature will
give a higher reaction rate. More water can apparently give a lower reaction rate due to bigger
total volume giving a shorter contact time. An optimum temperature is therefore needed to
give the best conversion. Keeping in view the activity and quantity, conversion is performed in
two steps:
 High temperature shift (HTS); to increase the rate of reaction

 Low temperature shift (LTS); to favor equilibrium conditions
10.2.3.1.1 HT S – Convertor
The HTS convertor R-204 is installed with 61 m3 of SK conventional chromium oxide promoted
iron oxide catalyst, distributed on two beds, each 2.1 m high. Fresh catalyst has highest oxidized
level of iron oxide and therefore is not affected by air, steam carbon dioxide or inerts at
elevated temperatures. Catalyst should not be exposed to heating above 400°C. Methane is not
an inert for the catalyst and reduces it to be spoiled by carbon deposits. Catalyst is therefore
not exposed with reducing agents like hydrogen or carbon monoxide unless absolutely cold.
Catalyst is activated by reduction at 250°C with a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
after being preheated with steam (inert for catalyst). It is sensitive to salts in water and chlorine
level in gas, while inert to sulfur.
Gas stream from the secondary reformer enters the HTS convertor R-204 after being cooled by
waste heat boiler. The main part of reaction takes place here causing a temperature increase of
59°C. The outlet stream temperature is 435°C.
The gas from HTS convertor is then cooled in trim heater E-205, HP waste boiler E-210 and BFW
pre-heater E-211 to 220°C before being sent to LTS convertor.
T ABLE 19 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER HTS C ONVERTOR R-204
H2 59.66
N2 20.28
CO 2.87
CO2 16.73
Ar 0.19
CH4 0.127
10.2.3.1.2 LT S – Convertor
The LTS convertor R-205 consists of specially prepared zinc and chromium oxides catalyst with
much higher activity and therefore is used at lower temperatures of 220°C – 240°C. Catalyst
loses its activity if temperature is higher than 250°C – 270°C. 85 m3 of LSK catalyst is distributed
on two beds each 2.8 m high. The catalyst which is in the form of small pellets is sensitive to
sulfur, chlorides and gaseous silicon compounds. Activity is diminished by 0.2 wt % sulfur and
0.1 wt % chlorine. Catalyst is activated through reduction with natural gas at 150°C – 200°C
including 0.1 % hydrogen. Reduced catalyst is pyrophoric and is oxidized before unloading.
Stream from HTS Convertor enters the LTS convertor R-205 where remaining reaction is
completed. The gas leaves the vessel at 235°C and 29 kg/cm2.
T ABLE 20 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER LTS C ONVERTOR R-205
H2 50.54
N2 19.78
CO 0.08
CO2 18.75
Ar 0.18
CH4 0.27
10.2.3.2 Carbon dioxide Removal (Benfield Unit)

The section removes the carbon dioxide formed in shift conversion section by absorption in hot
aqueous Benfield solution containing about 30 wt % potassium carbonate (potash) partly
converted in to bicarbonate and 3 % di-ethanolamine (DEA) as an activator. The solution is kept

hot to increase the absorption rate and maintain bicarbonate content in solution. High
temperature is also an advantage for regeneration which requires the same temperature. Both
in absorber and in De-absorber the Demister pad are use to avoid the Benfield solution
particles goes with the gas stream.
Section has a Benfield Absorber C-302 and a Benfield Regenerator C-301. The absorber C-302
contains four beds of steel pall rings arranged in four beds in a column. The two upper beds
with bed height 7.7 m and dia 2.5 m contains a total of 75 m3 of 1.5’’ rings. The lower two beds
same bed height but dia 3.50 m contains a total of 148 m3 of 2’’ rings. The 4.5 m dia
regenerator C-301 contains four beds of 450 m3 2’’ pall rings with a total height of 28.20 m.
The gas from LTS convertor R-205 is passed through the LP steam boiler E-301 where water in
the stream is condensed, while the temperature is dropped to 160°C. Passing through the
separator V-305, process condensate is withdrawn and gas is further cooled through passage
from Benfield re-boiler E-302 and BFW pre-heater E-304 to minimize the temperature to 110°C
and 27.7 kg/cm2. Separator V-304 removes the further traces.
Gas is then passed to the bottom of Benfield absorber C-302, where it flows counter-currently
against the potash solution. A quarter of the solution flows from the top of the column at 70°C,
where as the remainder three fourth flows after the two top beds at 119°C. Process stream
leaves the column at 70°C for methanation. The reason for splitting the streams before entering
the absorber is to reduce the partial pressure, in order to help reduce to the lowest carbon
dioxide traces in process stream.
T ABLE 21 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER B ENFIELD A BSORBER C-302
H2 74.58
N2 24.29
CO 0.48
CO2 0.10
Ar 0.23
CH4 0.33
The rate of reaction for absorption is kept high by the combined effect of relative high
temperature and the activator.
K2CO3 + CO + H2O ↔ 2 KHCO3
The reversible reaction enables the regeneration of potash solution and recovery of carbon
dioxide by disturbing the equilibrium conditions. The solution is sent to the top of Benfield
regenerator C-301, where pressure is reduced to 5 kg/cm2 to flash the carbon dioxide off.
Remaining is removed from the solution by flowing it downwards through the packed tower in
a counter-current flow with LP steam at 138°C and 0.5 kg/cm2.
Regenerated solution from the bottom of the tower is pumped back to absorber through
circulation pump P-301. The main part of solution is introduced in the absorber under the
upper two beds, while the rest is cooled in LP BHW pre-heater E-307 and split stream cooler E-
303 to 70°C and introduce top of the absorber.
The steam – carbon dioxide mixture from the top at 105°C and 0.5 kg/cm2 is cooled in BFW pre-
heater E-305 and condenser E-306 before separation in separator V-301. Here 7874 Nm3/h
carbon dioxide is separated and sent to the urea unit at 45°C and 0.29 kg/cm2, while the
condensed steam is through condensate pumps P-302 A/B to sewer.
T ABLE 22 C ARBON DIOXIDE C OMPOSITION FROM B ENFIELD R EGENERATOR C-301
H2 1%
N2 0.5 %
CO2 98.5 %
10.2.3.3 Methanation
The traces of carbon dioxide are poison to reactor catalyst and therefore are converted to
methane (inert) in methanator R-311. Methanation is just the reverse of reforming, supported
by lower temperatures.
CO + 3H2 ↔ CH4 + H2O + (heat)
CO2 + 4H2 ↔ CH4 + 2H2O + (heat)
The reaction is based more upon the activity of catalyst rather than other parameters.
Efficiency is increased through higher temperature conditions but also reduces the life of the
catalyst. The reactor reduces the combined carbon mono and dioxides compositions to less
than 10 ppm with a temperature rise of 30°C.
Methanator R-3111 contains 30 m3 of PKR catalyst in the form of spheres in a single bed of 3.1
m height. The catalyst has approximately similar characteristics as reforming catalyst but great
activity due to reaction at lower operating temperatures.
Process gas stream from the top of the Benfield absorber C-302 passes through separator V-302
to remove the traces of potash solution. Passing through the shell of gas-gas exchanger E-311
and trim heater E-205, its temperature is increased to 320°C and fed to methanator R-311.
Methanated gas at 351°C is passed through the tubes of gas-gas exchanger E-311 and final gas
cooler E-312, it is fed to a separator V-311; from where it leaves for ammonia synthesis section
at 39°C and 25 kg/cm2.
T ABLE 23 G AS C OMPOSITION AFTER M ETHANATOR R-311
H2 74.4 %
N2 24.74 %
Ar 0.23 %
CH4 0.92 %
10.2.4 Ammonia Synthesis Section (Area 05)
The ammonia synthesis takes place in the ammonia convertor R-501 with a catalyst bed,
according to the reaction:
3H2 + N2 ↔ 2NH3 + (heat)
The synthesis being the equilibrium reaction does not reach completion and only a part is
converted to ammonia. Conversion is supported by high pressure and low temperature, but
high rate of reaction demands high temperature. Therefore, a compromise has been made
between theoretical conversion and approach to equilibrium in a single pass over to catalyst.
This gives an optimum level for catalyst temperatures to ensure maximum production.
The synthesis loop consists ammonia synthesis reactor R-501, re-circulating compressors
(integrated with synthesis gas compressor), BFW pre-heat; for cooling the syn gas and
condensation and separation of ammonia. The synthesis loop is operated at 380°C – 520°C and
270 kg/cm2, with promoted iron catalyst containing small amounts of non-reducible oxides.
Reaction liberates about 750 kcal/kg ammonia produced, part of which is utilized to pre-heat
the HP boiler feed water.
The convertor R-501 is a radial type convertor with the gas flowing through the two catalyst
beds in a radial direction. It contains a total of 33 m3 catalyst, distributed in three beds with bed
height 5 m3, 10 m3 and 18 m3 respectively. Catalyst size decreases downward in beds, increases
the catalytic activity of smaller particles. The catalyst is stable in air below 100 °C, while above
100°C it reacts and spontaneously heat up. The catalyst is activated by reducing the iron oxide
surface layer to the free iron, by circulating syn gas. Catalyst activity decreases slowly during
normal operation, with a catalyst life of 5 – 8 years. Catalyst life is much influences by process
conditions like temperature in the catalyst bed and concentrations of catalyst poisons in syn gas
convertor. Lower temperatures reduce catalyst activity and prolong lifetime. Therefore lowest
possible temperatures are maintained observing a stable operation. The catalyst temperature
ranges 500°C – 530°C. Compounds like water, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, sulfur or
phosphorous compounds are all poisons to the catalyst.
The gas compositions for ammonia synthesis loop are characterized by any one of the
following:
 Ammonia content
 Inert gases content (argon and methane)
 Hydrogen to nitrogen ratio
 Purity
The hydrogen to nitrogen ration in synthesis loop is of great importance. A small change of ratio
in fresh feed will result in a much bigger change in the ratio in circulating synthesis gas.
Decreasing the ratio in circulating synthesis gas decreases the efficiency of convertor, leading to
an increased ammonia concentration at convertor inlet.
Temperature conditions at the reactor inlet are also an important governing factor. At the top
of the convertor, where has enters the catalyst layer, a certain minimum temperature of 380°C
- 400°C is required to ensure a sufficient reaction rate. If the temperature at the catalyst inlet is
below 370°C – 380°C, the reaction rate will become so low that the heat liberated by the
convertor and the reaction will quickly extinguish itself, if proper process adjustments are not
made properly.
The reactor is so designed to increase the temperature of an inlet gas through exchangers up to
400°C, where it enters the first catalyst bed from bottom. As the gas passes through the
catalyst bed, the temperature is increased to a maximum temperature at the outlet from the
first bed. The temperature here is about 520°C, which is normally the highest in the convertor
and is called “The Hot Spot”. The gas from the first bed is quenched with cold gas to 400°C –
420°C before the second bed. After the second bed, the outlet temperature is about 500°C.
The syn gas from methanator R-311 is compressed in synthesis re-circulation compressor K-
431/432 and fed to the synthesis loop at 39°C and 261 kg/cm2. As the gas has a maximum
carbon mono and dioxide concentration up to 10 ppm and water vapor concentration in order
of 330 ppm, depending upon synthesis pressure. Therefore, this large amount of water is
removed by absorption in the shell side of condensing ammonia chiller E-506 before the gas
enters the convertor.
T ABLE 24 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER C OMPRESSOR K-431/432
H2 74.11 %
N2 24.74 %
CO 10 ppm
CO2 10 pm
Ar 0.3 %
CH4 0.92 %
The carbon dioxide contained in make-up gas will also be removed by absorption in condensing
ammonia. The carbon dioxide will further more react with gaseous or liquid ammonia with
formation of ammonium carbamate. In case of no liquid ammonia, carbamate will separate
from the gaseous phase as a solid which will tend to plug the system. Therefore, make-up gas is
introduced between the ammonia chillers E-505 and E-506, so that carbamate remains
dissolved in liquid ammonia.
The carbon monoxide content of gas does not react with ammonia as dioxide does, neither is it
absorbed by the condensing ammonia. The total amount of carbon dioxide is therefore fed to
the catalyst, where it is hydrogenated to water and methane. This reduces the activity of the
catalyst and hence the monoxide concentrations are kept as low as possible.
T ABLE 25 G AS C OMPOSITIONS OF C IRCULATING S YNTHESIS G AS B EFORE C ONVERTOR R-501
NH3 3.60 %
H2 63.31 %
N2 21.09 %
Ar 2.44 %
CH4 9.56 %
The circulation syn gas separated by ammonia separator V-501 at 0°C is passed through the
shell of cold heat exchanger E-504 and compressed; to be fed to the convertor R-501 at 150°C
and 269 kg/cm2. The gas contains up to 3.6 % of ammonia (function of operating temperature
and pressure conditions), which is of importance for the conversion obtained. A low ammonia
concentration at convertor inlet gives a high reaction rate and thus a high production capacity.
In convertor R-501, only about 25 % of hydrogen and nitrogen (obtained in syn gas at convertor
inlet) are converted to ammonia therefore it is necessary to recycle the unconverted syn gas to
convertor.
T ABLE 26 G AS C OMPOSITIONS AFTER C ONVERTOR R-501
NH3 15 %
H2 52.94 %
N2 17.62 %
Ar 2.74 %
CH4 10.70 %
Convertor effluent gas from the convertor exit at 325°C and 265 kg/cm2 is cooled to 195°C in
BFW pre-heater E-501 A/B, then in the hot heat exchanger E-502 to 79°C and in the water
cooler E-503°C, where condensation of ammonia starts. Further cooling and condensation takes
place in the cold heat exchanger E-504 to 25°C, in the first ammonia chiller E-505 to 11°C , and
finally in the second ammonia chiller to 0°C. The condensed ammonia is separated from the
circulating syn gas in the ammonia separator V-501. Make-up gas is introduced between the
two chillers.
The circulating syn gas contains about 12 % inerts (argon and methane) which do not go any
chemical reaction in convertor. As syn gas is recycled, the inerts level is increased until constant
addition of inerts with fresh feed is counter-balanced by a constant removal of the same
quantity of inert gases from the synthesis loop. At designed conditions, 7437 Nm3/h of
synthesis gas is constantly purged from the loop after the first ammonia chiller E-505 (inert
level is high after the first chiller). However, purge rate is so adjusted to keep the inerts level 12
% in the loop. With catalyst age and decrease in activity, purge should gradually be increased to
maintain the constant production. Dissolved inerts flash off in the let-down vessel V-502, where
pressure is decreased to 25 kg/cm2.
Ammonia liquid stream from ammonia separator V-501 goes to a let-down vessel V-502 to for
further removal of gaseous contents, from where it is further directed to ammonia spheres S-
501 and S-502 or the Urea Unit.
T ABLE 27 A MMONIA C OMPOSITIONS AFTER L ET -D OWN V ESSEL V-502
NH3 99.94 %
H2 0.015 %
N2 0.015 %
Ar 0.015 %
CH4 0.015 %
10.3 Urea Unit
The unit manages the urea production from raw materials:
 Ammonia (liquid)
 Carbon dioxide (gas)
These raw materials are provided by the ammonia unit, are reacted to form ammonium
carbamate, which dehydrates to give urea. Urea synthesis is divided into following sections:
 High pressure section

o Urea synthesis
o Stripping
o Carbamate recovery
 Medium pressure/Low pressure section
o Ammonia recovery
o Carbon dioxide recovery
 Vacuum section
o Urea concentration
o Prilling
 Waste water treatment section
Optimum temperature conditions and retention time in process are extre3mely important
because high temperature and more residence time causes:
 High biuret content

 More energy input
 More water circulation
 Overloading of vacuum condensers and ejectors
 Pressure increase in system
 Reduced efficiency
These highly disturb the economics of the process and are always prevented.
Reactor Vacuum Separators Brilling Bucket

R-101 MV-106/7 ME-109
Stripper Pre-concentrator Conveyer Belts

E-101 E-150 ME-112 A/B/C/D/E/F
MPD
LPD E-103 Bagging and Shipment
E-102
F IGURE 17 U REA S YNTHESIS L OOP
10.3.1 High Pressure Section

The purpose of the section is to synthesize urea from the reaction of liquid ammonia and
carbon dioxide in the urea reactor R-101 and to decompose the unconverted carbamate in the
stripper to carbon dioxide, ammonia and water, which are then condensed, absorbed and
recycled back to the reactor with the help of an ejector system.
The major control parameters of HP section include oxygen content in carbon dioxide gas,
ammonia to carbon dioxide ratio, reactor top temperature, synthesis pressure and stripper
bottom level. A decrease in oxygen content of carbon dioxide from urea section increases the
corrosion of stain less steel (line) surfaces. An increase would result in decrease in urea
conversion. Therefore the range of oxygen content should lie with 0.1 % - 0.7 %. The ammonia
to carbon dioxide ratio is kept more than the theoretical demand of 2:1 to keep the urea
conversion maximum. But an increase than 3.6:1 would cause a part of ammonia to evaporate
from the reactor without being reacted, thus increasing load on MP section for ammonia
recovery. High temperature is mandatory for optimum urea conversion on top. If reactor top
temperature is too low, it may be due to a pressure fault or incorrect ammonia to carbon
dioxide ratio. Optimum synthesis pressure is necessary. Too high pressures may disturb the
degree of condensation in carbamate condensers. A level rise in a stripper causes a decrease in
its efficiency, increase in retention time, increase in biuret formation and hydrolysis reaction. A
low level will permit gases to escape to MP section, increasing its pressure excessively.
The liquid ammonia coming from plant at -4°C and 24 kg/cm2, is collected in ammonia receiver
tank V-101 after pre-heating to nearby ambient temperature in the ammonia pre-heater E-109.
From V-101 it is fed through ammonia booster pump P-105 to the high pressure motor driven
ammonia pumps P-101 A/B/C. The three low speed, heavy duty reciprocating pumps boost the
pressure to 232 kg/cm2. Before entering the reactor, ammonia is used as a driving fluid in
carbamate ejector EJ-101, where carbamate coming from the bottom of the carbamate
separator MV-101 is injected in to the reactor R-101 along with ammonia.
The carbon dioxide received from urea plant at 51°C and 0.29 kg/cm2is compressed by a
centrifugal compressor K-101 to 100°C and 160 kg/cm2. A small quantity of air is added to
passivate the stainless steel surfaces of HP synthesis section, protecting from the corrosive
action of ammonium carbamate.
HP section is heated uniformly prior to start-up. This prevents the thermal stresses in materials
and avoids the possibility of crystallization due to cold piping. The rate of heating is monitored
not exceed more than 40°C/hr till 100°C and 15 – 20°C/hr for 100 – 150°C.
In the reactor R-101, the ammonia and carbon dioxide react to form ammonium carbamate, a
portion of which dehydrates to form urea and water. The reactions are as follows:
2 NH3 + CO2 ↔ NH2COONH4 ∆H = 37.65 kcal
NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H = 6.3 kcal
At synthesis conditions, of 188°C and 155 kg/cm2 the first reaction is instantaneous and goes to
completion, the second reaction occurs slowly and determines the volume of reactor. The
fraction of ammonium that dehydrates is determined by the ratios of various reactants,
operating temperature and residence time. The mole ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide is
3.6:1.0 and the mole ratio of water to carbon dioxide is 0.6:1.0. Excess water will reduce the
urea conversion. The reactor volume is such as to give the residence time of about 45 minutes
at full capacity.
T ABLE 28 S OLUTION C OMPOSITION AFTER R EACTOR R-101
NH3 32.13 %
CO2 15.82 %
H2O 19.67 %
Urea 32.38
Total 280403 kg/h
The reaction products leaving the reactor enter the stripper E-101, which operates as the same
pressure as reactor. The mixture is heated by MS as it flows down the falling film exchanger.
The carbon dioxide content of the solution is reduced by stripping action of ammonia as it boils
out of the solution. Almost 80 % of carbamate is decomposed in stripper. The over head gases
from the top of the stripper enter the carbamate mixer ME-106 along with carbonate solution
from the discharge of MP carbonate pumps P-102 A/B. Mixed phase then enters the kettle type
carbamate condensers E-105 A/B, where the total mixture, except for few inerts is condensed
and recycled back to the reactor. Inerts are removed through carbamate separator MV-101,
which sends them to the medium pressure decomposer holder ME-102, to passivate the
equipment. The bottom product of stripper goes to the MPD top separator MV-102.
T ABLE 29 S OLUTION C ONCENRTATION AFTER S TRIPPER E-101
NH3 25.03 %
CO2 6.75 %
H2O 24.53 %
Urea 43.69 %
Inets 0.1%
Total 207641 kg/h
10.3.2 Medium/ Low Pressure Section
The purpose of the section is to purify urea by recovering ammonia and carbon dioxide for
being recycled to the reactor. The section is divided into:
 Medium Pressure Decomposer

 Low Pressure Decomposer
The exchangers where urea is purified are called decomposers because the residual carbamate
is decomposed in them giving ammonia and carbon dioxide.
10.3.2.1 Medium Pressure Decomposition
The solution with low residual carbon dioxide content, leaving the bottom of the stripper is
expanded at the pressure of 18 ata and enters the MPD E-102 (falling film type). MPD is divided
in to three parts:
 Top separator MV-102; released flash gases are removed before the solution enters the
tube bundle
 Decomposing Exchanger E-102; residual carbamate is decomposed and the required
heat is supplied by means of MC flowing out of the stripper
 Bottom Holder ME-102; holds the solution to avoid their escape to LP section
The ammonia and carbon dioxide rich gases ay 134°C and 17.2 ata leaving the top separator are
sent to the medium pressure condenser E-107 through the shell of E-150, where they are
partially absorbed in aqueous carbonate solution coming from the recovery section. The
absorption heat is removed by cooling water. A tempered water circuit is provided to prevent
carbamate solidification and to keep a suitable cooling water temperature at MP condenser
inlet re-circulating the cooling water by means of the in-line pump P-116.
In the mixture, the carbon dioxide is almost totally absorbed. The mixture from E-107 flows to
the MP absorber C-101 where the gaseous phase coming up from the solution enters the
rectification section.
The column is a bubble cap trays type and performs carbon dioxide absorption and ammonia
rectification. The trays are fed by pure reflux ammonia which eliminates residual carbon dioxide
and water contained in the inert gases. Reflux ammonia is drawn from the ammonia receiver V-
101 and sent to the column by means of the centrifugal pumps P-105.
A current of inert gases saturated with ammonia with minimum carbon dioxide residue (20 –
100 ppm) comes out from the top of the rectification section. The bottom of the solution is
recycled by the low speed reciprocating pump P-102 to mixer ME-106 in the synthesis recovery
section.
Ammonia with inert gases leaving the column top is mostly condensed in the ammonia
condenser E-110, where the condensation heat is removed by cooling water. From here the
two phases are sent to the ammonia receiver V-101 through two different lines. The inert
gases, saturated with ammonia, leaving the receiver, enter the ammonia pre-heater E-109
where an additional amount of ammonia is condensed and the condensation heat is recovered
by heating the cold ammonia from the urea plant.
The condensed ammonia is recovered in V-10. The inert gases with the residue ammonia
contents are sent to the MP falling film absorber E-111. Where they meet counter current flow
of water which absorbs gaseous ammonia. The absorption heat is removed by MP absorber C-
101 by means of centrifugal pump P-107. The upper part of the medium pressure absorber
consists of three valve trays (C-103) where the inert gases are submitted to a final washing by
means of the same absorption water. This way, inerts are vented practically free from
ammonia. Level in holder ME-102m from where bottom products are fed to LPD section; is very
important because a low level will result in breakthrough of HP gases to LP section and a high
level will increase the residence time followed by biuret formation.
T ABLE 30 S OLUTION C ONCENTRATIONS AFTER MPD E-102
NH3 6.83 %
CO2 1.86 %
H2O 28.97 %
Urea 62.34 %
Total 145530 kg/h
10.3.2.2 Lower Pressure Decomposer
The solution leaving the bottom of MPD is expanded at 4.5 ata pressure and entered in LPD E-
103 (falling film type). LPD is also divided in to three parts:
 Top separator (MV-103); where the released flash gases are removed before the
solution enters the tube bundle
 Decomposition section (E-103); where the last residual carbamate is decomposed and
the required heat is supplied by means of steam saturated at 4.5 Ata.
 Bottom holder (ME-103); where gases are prevent from their escape to vacuum section
The gases leaving the top separator are sent to low pressure condenser E-108 where they are
absorbed in an aqueous carbonate solution coming from the waste water treatment section.
The absorption heat is removed by cooling water. From the condenser bottom the liquid phase,
with the remaining inert gases, is sent to the carbonate solution tank V-103. From here the
carbonate solution is recycled back to the medium pressure condenser E-107 by means of
centrifugal pump P-103.
The inert gases, which essentially contain ammonia vapor, flow directly into the low pressure
falling film absorber E-112 where the ammonia is absorbed by a countercurrent water flow. The
inert gases, washed through the low pressure inert washing tower C-104, are collected to vent
practically free from ammonia.
T ABLE 31 S OLUTION C OMPOSITIONS A FTER LPD E-103
NH3 1.67 %
CO2 0.76 %
H2O 28.71 %
Urea 68.87 %
Total 131729 kg/h
10.3.3 Vacuum Section
The urea solution after removal of ammonia and carbon dioxide is concentrated through
evaporation of water in pre-concentrator E-150 and vacuum separators MV-106 and MV-107.
Vacuum separators are employed due to their functioning at low temperature conditions and
less steam consumptions. Further they also reduce the probability of biuret formation.
The solution leaving the low pressure decomposer bottom with about 69% urea is sent to the
pre-concentrator E-150 in which a considerable amount of moisture is flashed off at a near
vacuum pressure of 0.4 ata. Then in the second chamber of the pre-concentrator the solution
exchanges heat with MPD top gases thus causing more water to vaporize.
T ABLE 32 S OLUTION C OMPOSITIONS A FTER P RE -C ONCENTRATOR E-150
NH3 0.38 %
CO2 0.1 %
H2O 16.24 %
Urea 83.28 %
Total 108928 kg/hr
Then the bottom product with water content and concentrated urea is sent to first vacuum
separator exchanger E-114 operating at 0.4 Ata. The mixed phase coming out from E-114 enters
the gas-liquid separator MV-104, while the solution enters the second vacuum concentrator E-
115 operating at the pressure of 0.04 Ata.
The mixed phase coming out from E-115 enters the gas-liquid separator MV-107 where from
the vapours are extracted by the second vacuum system ME-105 while the melted urea is
separated in the holder ME-107. The water thus removed is sent to the tank T-102, the water
production ratio with carbon dioxide inlet is 0.67:1.
The melted urea leaving the second vacuum separator MV-107 is sent to the prilling bucket ME-
109 by means of centrifugal pump P-108.The urea coming out from the bucket in the forms of
drops falling along the prilling tower ME-108 and encounters a cold air flow which causes its
solidification. The vapor coming from the top of the tower is condensed into the overhead
condenser E-117.
T ABLE 33 S OLUTION C ONCENTRATIONSS A FTER V ACUUM S EPARATOR MV-106 AND MV-107
Urea 99.62 %
H2O 0.38 %
Total 90291 kg/hr
The carbonate solution is collected in the accumulator V-110. By means of the centrifugal pump
P-115 part of this solution is recycled back to the top of the tower as reflux, the remaining part
of the low pressure condenser E-108. This distilled water containing only traces of ammonia,
after cooling in E-118, is sent to the urea battery limits by means of the centrifugal pump P-114.
An injection of a small quantity of air in the bottom of the tower is provided to passivate the
tower itself and the overhead condenser. The air is collected to vent from V-110. The tower is
provided with five motor driven conveying belts (ME-112 A/B/C/D/E) that transports urea to
the bagging section.
T ABLE 34 E XPECTRED U REA Q UALITY
Nitrogen content 46.3 min

Biuret content 0.8 max
Moisture 0.225 max
Prill size range 1 mm – 2.4mm
Temperature 65°C max
10.3.4 Waste Water Treatment Section
The water containing ammonia and carbon dioxide coming from the first and second vacuum
separators MV-106 and MV-107 respectively is collected in waste water collector tank T-102. It
is then pumped to waste water distillation tower C-102 operating at pressure of about 2.5 ata.
Before entering the top of the column, the solution is pre-heated in a heat exchanger E-118 by
means of the distilled water flowing out from the bottom of the tower. In the column ammonia
and carbon dioxide are stripped by means of vapor produced in the re-boiler E-116. Column is
divided by a chimney tray which directs the bottom product of top section to a hydrolyser R-
102 through a heat exchanger E-119 A/B. The pump P-121 is used for service. Hydrolyser
decomposes the remaining amount of carbon dioxide and ammonia and sprays it again in the
distillation tower.
10.4 Bagging and Shipment Unit
Urea from urea plant is transferred to bagging unit through belt conveyers.
There are three areas in unit:
 Area 12 ( storage + fresh feed belts)
 Area 13 ( cleaning system or screening and recycling)
 Area 14 ( dispatching area , packing , stitching)
Urea is fed to hoppers in area 12, there are two main kinds of hopper:
 Hopper for fresh feed
 Hopper for both fresh and recycle feed
Hopper feed urea to feeders for being transferred to the belts. Bags used for packing are woven
poly-propylene bags. Inside covering of bag is made of nylon to prevent incoming and outgoing
of moisture. In order to remove dust there is a suction air system of cleaning. In air cleaning
system SOVs operate and separate air from dust by pressure
Certain securities concerned in urea transferring include:
 Misalignment switches
 Pull card
 Speed monitors
 Thermal overload
Usually every belt has different capacity and speed. Fresh feed belts are have above 90 ton
capacity.
11 Conclusion
The four week internship at production unit FFC MM developed an understanding of urea
fertilizer production. Experience and exposure was not only limited to process flow but was
widened to operating logics, process control and economics, production techniques and
problem handling and troubleshooting.
The plant division and design, management and operation enhanced the concept and
perspective about safe and smooth process.
Literature review from TTC library, study of PFDs, manuals and SOP of different plant areas and
equipment, discussion with engineers and technical staff and visit to plant site added a sound
potion of knowledge.
The cooperative coordination of management and staff raised the morale in the journey of
lifelong learning and a ChEmE.

12 Citations and Bibliography

API. (1987). Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations in Petroleum Refineries.
Washington: American Petroleum Institute.
FFC Safety Section. (2004). Emergency Response Information. Mirpur Mathelo: Fauji Fertilizer
Company Ltd.
FFC Safety Section. (2010, June 22). Safety Orientation Training. Mirpur Mathelo, Sindh,
Pakistan.
Industrial Risk Insurers. (1990). Plant Layout and Spacing for Oil and Chemical Plants. Hartford:
Industrial Risk Insurers.
Ludwig, E. E. (1979). Applied Process Design for Chemical and Pharmaceutical Plants. Houston
Tex.: Gulf Publishing.
M. Yaqoob Ch. (1987). Process and Operating Manual for Utilities Plant. Mirpur Mathelo:
PakSaudi Fertilizers Limited.
Marsh & McLennan, Inc. (Published Annually). Large Property Damage Losses in th
Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industries (III ed.). Chicago: Marsh & McLennan, Inc.,.
National Fire Protection Association, N. (2002). Electrical Installations in Chemical Plants.

Quincy: National Electrical Code.
National Safety Council. (1988). Fundamentals of Indutrial Hygiene. Chicago.
NSC. (1988). Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations - Administration and
Programs (9th ed.). Chicago: National Safety Council.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1999). Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Air Contaminants, 29 CFR 1910.1000, and Hazard Communication, 29 CFR
1910,1200. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1999). Occupational Safety and Health
Standars, Respiratory Protection. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor.
OSU. (2005). Fire Extinguisher Training. Ohama: Ohama State University.
Prugh, R. W. (1992). Hazardous Fluid Releases: Prevention and Protection by Design and
Operation. J. Loss Prevention Proc. Inc.
Richard W. Prugh. (2006). Safety. In Kirk-Othmer, & A. Seidel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology (5th ed., Vol. 21, pp. 826-869). New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Speight, J. G. (2002). Chemical Process and Design Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.). Incident Rates. Retrieved July 8, 2010, from U.S.
Department of Labor: www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osh/os/ostb/355.pdf
Utilities Unit. (2009). Utilities Production Manual; Pretreatment of Water. Mirpur Mathelo: Fauji
Fertilizer Company Ltd.
Internship Report (Production Unit) A
Appendix I
FFC MM Site Map
F IGURE 18 FFC MM S ITE M AP
T ABLE 35 FFC MM P LANT A REA D ESCRIPTION

Area Number Unit Area
Area No. 1 Urea Urea Section
Area No. 2 Ammonia Synthesis Gas Preparation
Area No. 3 Ammonia Carbon dioxide removal
Area No. 4 Ammonia Compression Section
Area No. 5 Ammonia Ammonia Synthesis & Refrigeration
Area No. 6 Utilities Turbo Generator
Area No. 7 Utilities Boiler
Area No. 8 Utilities Cooling Tower
Area No. 9 Utilities Pre-treatment and treatment
Area No. 10 Utilities Instrument Air
Area No. 11 B&S Urea Storage
Area No. 12 B&S Urea storage and fresh feed belts
Area No. 13 B&S Urea screening and recycling
Area No. 14 B & Storage Urea packing and dispatch
Area No. 15 Utilities Natural Gas
Area No. 16 Utilities Waste Water Treatment
Area No. 17 Utilities Diesel Storage
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) B
Appendix II
FFC MM Plant Safety Policy
(Policy is released from the office of GM)
FFCrecognizes the significance of maintaining an injury free environment at plant and therefore
must strive to avoid any injury to personnel and any damage to equipment etc. In order to
achieve this, Management spells out (FFC Safety Section, 2004) the plant safety policy and
expects all employees to comply.
1) The management shall always remain strongly committed to the cause of safety.
2) Safety shall be given at least the same importance as production.
3) Safety shall have a due consideration in performance appraisal of each employee.
4) Management believes that God willing most accidents can be prevented since most of
them are caused by human errors and omission.
5) As and when an accident occurs, the investigation shall be carried out on high priority.
6) The company shall provide safety training and facilities to all employees, whereas
working safely is the condition of employment.
7) Adequate personal protective shall be provided to employees against hazards at plant
full compliance shall be demanded.
8) The Management shall formulate safety regulations / procedures while employees shall
comply with these regulations and procedures.
9) The contractors shall also follow Company's safety discipline.
10) A good standard of housekeeping shall be maintained at the plant.
11) Off-The-Job safety shall be promoted among employees and their families.
12) Employees are expected to maintain pollution free environment and hygienic conditions
throughout the plant.
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) C
Appendix III
FFC MM Plant Safety Rules and
Regulations
All operating areas of the plant are hazardous, because of the fluids handled and the kind of
operations involved. Therefore following rules & regulations (FFC Safety Section, 2004) are
approved for compliance:
1) Smoking is not allowed in the operating areas except in the offices and smoking cabins
(where provided) or designated areas.
2) It is forbidden. To carry out any repair/maintenance without a valid work permit
3) Wearing of safety shoes is mandatory in the plant.
4) Use of safety helmet, glasses & escape mask is mandatory in operating areas except
where exempted.
5) Use special personal protective equipment where required.
6) Observe safety procedures/regulations as prescribed or advised for accomplishing all
jobs at the plant.
7) All accidents, near misses and injuries on the job should be reported to immediate
supervisor and safety section without loss of time.
8) It is forbidden to remove or modify safety locks and protection devices without
authorization.
9) Visitors are not allowed to enter the operating areas unless approved by competent
authority and guided.
10) Vehicle entry in operating areas is forbidden except under a valid permit.
11) Observe traffic rules.
12) All hazardous and unsafe conditions should be rectified by the areas themselves; safety
section is an audit and advisory function.
Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) D
Appendix III
Process Flow Diagrams
Figure 19 PFD (Utility): Water Pre-treatment I........................................................................ E
Figure 20 PFD (Utility): Water Pre-treatment II....................................................................... F
Figure 21 PFD (Utility): Water Treatment ............................................................................... G
Figure 22 PFD (Utility): Instrument Air Plant........................................................................... H
Figure 23 PFD (Utility): Natural Gas Station ............................................................................. I
Figure 24 PFD (Urea) ............................................................................................................... J
Figure 25 PFD (Ammonia): Front End ..................................................................................... K
Figure 25 PFD (Ammonia): BackEnd ....................................................................................... L

Internship Report (Production Unit) E
F IGURE 19 PFD (U TILITY ): W ATER P RE - TREATMENT I

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) F
HLA-03
LlA-04 09-ME-926 Clarified Water Distribution System
Prepared by AYAZ
Reviewed by MF
Utilities FFC MM
09-ME-926
Clarified Water Basin V-40
09-LIC-01
Vent
V-11 V-24
Tube Well Water
09-T-920
TUBE WLL WATER
Filtered water tank
V-16 V-18 V-19
Make up water to E-800-K-L-M Make up water to E-800-A-J

BMR V-6 V-7
09-MP-923-A 09-MP-923-B 09-MP-923-C
V-15 V-14 V-8 V-9
V-20 V-21 V-22

V-12 V-13
09-LIC-02
Filtered water to T-920

P-13 09-SD-16
09-SD-14
09-V-920-A-D
09-MP-902-A 09-MP-902-B 09-MP-926 09-MP-926-B
K-920 09-SD-11
09-SD-12
09-SD-15
MK-920
F IGURE 20 PFD (U TILITY ): W ATER P RE - TREATMENT II

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) G
F IGURE 21 PFD (U TILITY ): W ATER T REATMENT

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) H
F IGURE 22 PFD (U TILITY ): I NSTRUMENT A IR P LANT

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) I
F IGURE 23 PFD (U TILITY ): N ATURAL G AS S TATION

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) J
F IGURE 24 PFD (U REA )

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) K
F IGURE 25 PFD (A MMONIA ): F RONT E ND

Internship ’10 Report (Production Unit) L
F IGURE 26 PFD (A MMONIA ): B ACK E ND

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Internship Report (Production Unit) i

Fauji Fertilizer Company | Mirpur Mathelo

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

It is anticipated that response will be reflected.

For His unlimited blessings and bounties,

And for keeping him sane, sound and successful;

His parents and friends,

His teachers and guides,

For teaching him things he knew not;

NUST Internship and Placement Office,

For bringing the opportunity of this excellent learning and exposure;

And last but never the least

Management and Staff of Fauji Fertilizer Company Mirpur Mathelo

Especially Unit Managers, Shift Engineers, Supervisors and Operators,

For their utmost help, guidance and time

Which made author make most of his internship at plant site;

9.2.2 Use of Personal Protective Equipment ................................................................... 26

Appendix III ..................................................................................................................................... C

 Urea unit; produces urea by dehydration of carbamate, made by reaction of liquid

ammonia and carbon dioxide gas

understanding of meeting the consumer requirements in easy way.

capacity is the governing factor.

major component of chemical industry has a lot to develop an understanding of a chemical

chemical reaction engineering.

urea per day.

Plant nutrients are further classified into: macro-nutrients (primary), macro-nutrients

8.2 Ammonia Manufacture

F IGURE 1 A MMONIA M ANUFACTURE FROM H YDROGEN AND N ITROGEN BY H ABER P ROCESS

8.3 Urea Manufacture

Urea (carbamide) is a colorless crystalline solid, somewhat hygroscopic, that sublimes

CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2COONH4

The exothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic decomposition of the ammonium

NH2COONH4 →NH2CONH2 + H2O

F IGURE 2 U REA P RODUCTION FROM A MMONIA AND C ARBON DIOXIDE

8.4 Industrial Water

b) Carbonate and non carbonate hardness

T ABLE 1 D EGREE OF H ARDNESS

Softening is the term which refers to the process of hardness removal.

T ABLE 2 A LKALINITY I NDICATION (U TILITIES U NIT , 2009)

T ABLE 3 W ATER Q UALITY C OMPARISON

Surface Water Underground Water

Flocculation is the bridging together of the coagulated particles. Flocculants (e.g.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O

2 Fe3+ + 3 Ca(OH)2 → 2 Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3 Ca 2+

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 +Ca(OH) 2 → MgCO3 ↓ + CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaCO3 ↓

F IGURE 3 C LARIFICATION T ANK

Gravity Filter Pressure Filter

8.4.2.3 Ion Exchange

 Strongly acidic cation

 Styrene-divinyl benzene copolymer bead structure.

Physical classification of resins is:

F IGURE 5 P ROCESS S AFETY C ONTROL H IERARCHY

8.5.1 Process and Production Safety

8.5.1.1 Engineering Controls

Those providing inherent safety controls include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):

i. Intensification: Minimizing the amount of hazardous material or hazardous operations

Design and operating control include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):

i. Containment: Designing for plant and process integrity

8.5.1.2 Administrative Controls

The administrative controls include (Richard W. Prugh, 2006):

F IGURE 6 E MERGENCY D IRECTION S IGNBOARD (FFC, MM)

8.5.2 Personal Protection Equipment