AIR P O L L U T I O N : ITS ORIGIN AND EFFECTS
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
A m b i e n t a i r is a m i x t u r e of g a s e s
containing about 78$. nitrogen, 219c oxygen, l l f j
argon, 0 . 0 3 ^ carbondioxide a n d some other gases
like neon, helium, m e t h a n e , krypton etc. in very
low proportion. Water vapours a r e also present
ranging f f " T ' l to 3% on volume i feasis. In addition
to these'components, certain, constituents which
are known as air p o l l u t a n t s a r e also present at
very low back ground levels. ,
Air Pollution is an atmospheric condition in
which polluting c o n s t i t u e n t s are present in
concentre ions high enough above their normal
levels to produce detectable h a r m f u l impact on
different receptors like flora, fauna, material etc.
These constituents a r e air borne and generated
t h r o u g h n a t u r a l on m a n m a d e (anthropogenic)
activities.
The importance and comparative
significance of air can be judged from the fact t h a t
we can live for about 5 weeks without food, 5 days
without w a t e r and it is difficult to survive even 5
m i n u t e s without air. It is also essential for senses
smell and hearing. Air is such a vital necessity
t h a t i t s p o l l u t i o n h a s r e c e i v e d world w i d e
attention.
2. NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION
Air P o l l u t a n t s a r e n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l
c o n t a m i n a n t s which a r e responsible for alteration
of a t m o s p h e r e . It can also be defined as "The
p r e s e n c e in t h e outdoor a t m o s p h e r e of ong.or
more c o n t a m i n a n t s or combinations thereof? in
such q u a n t i t i e s a n d of such durations as may be,
or m a y tend to be injurious to h u m a n , plant or
a n i m a l life, or property or which unreasonably
i n t e r f e r e with comfortable enjoyment of life or
property or conduct of business.
The air pollutants can be classified based
on their physical s t a t e , origin or presence of key
chemical element.
P o l l u t a n t s exist in all the three physical
s t a t e s of m a t t e r , solid, liquid and gases. Solid and
liquid state pollutants a r e jointly designated as
p a r t i c u l a t e s , for e x a m p l e d u s t , s m o k e f u m e s ,
flyash etc. exist in solid s t a t e w h e r e a s mist fog
and spray occur in liquid state. Oxides of sulfur,
nitrogen, carbon; ozone and hydrocarbons exist in
the gaseous phase.
According to origin, p o l l u t a n t s are
classified sis primary and secondary. P o l l u t a n t s
emitted directly into a t m o s p h e r e and found in the
same form as emitted from the source are called
P r i m a r y Pollutants, for e x a m p l e S u l f u r dioxide
(SOa), Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), N i t r i c w i d e (NO),
Carbon mono and dioxide (CO & CO2). Secondary
pollutants are not directly emitted from t h e source
but formed in the a t m o s p h e r e by chemical
reactions between primary pollutants and other
normal atmospheric constituents. Some examples
of'secondary p o l l u t a n t s a r e s u l f u r i c acid m i s t ,
n i t r a t e s and sulfates, ozone etc. Photochemical
g j j n o g is an other example of secondary pollutant,
which is a m i x t u r e of ozone, o r g a n i c n i t r a t e s ,
oxidized hydrocarbons etc. which a r e formed by
photochemical interaction of oxides of nitrogen
and h y d r o c a r b o n s in low h u m i d i t y a n d b r i g h t
sunlight.
A t h i r d t y p e of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a i r
pollutants which is generally followed in s t a n d a r d
texts is based on the presence of a key element like
s u l f u r , nitrogen, carbon, halogen in addition to
hydrocarbons, particulate m a t t e r a n d radioactive
compounds.
3, S O U R C E S
Air Pollution sources can be categorized in
a n u m b e r of ways. One is t h e n a t u r a l and
anthropogenic sources. Emission of most of the
Pollutants due to n a t u r a l sources far exceeds in
quantity as compared to anthropogenic emission
on global basis. H o w e v e r for typical u r b a n
s i t u a t i o n s , a n t h r o p o g e n i c a c t i v i t i e s a r e only
predominant sources responsible for a i r pollution.
Typical natural sources of emission a r e volcanoes,
s e a s p r a y s , biological d e c a y , f o r e s t f i r e s , etc.
A n t h r o p o g e n i c s o u r c e s i n c l u d e e l e c t r i c power
g e n e r a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l and domestic fuel use,
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d industrial process emissions.
In addition, refuse incineration, storage and
h a n d l i n g of p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s and emission of
odors from p u l p a n d p a p e r mills, stock yards and
s l a u g h t e r house, etc. also contribute to air
pollution.
T h e f o r m a t i o n a n d e m i s s i o n s of some air
p o l l u t a n t s with p a r t i c u l a r element is briefly
discussed h e r e .
3.1 Sulfur Containing Compounds
T h e m a j o r s u l f u r containing pollutants in
the a t m o s p h e r e a r e oxides of s u l f u r (SO2 and SO3)
sulfuric acid mist, s u l f a t e salts, hydrogen sulfide
etc. T h e sources of atmospheric s u l f u r compounds
a r e c o m b u s t i o n of fossil fuels, decomposition of
organic m a t t e r , s e a s p r a y over oceans and
volcanoes. According to an estimate, contribution
of an thropogenic sources in introducing sulfur to
t h e global a t m o s p h e r e is i n c r e a s i n g at a rate of
3.5% pey y e a r .
T h e combustion of fossil fuel is the main
anthropogenic source of sulfur containing
compounds in a t m o s p h e r e . Sulfur is present in
coal in form of organic s u l f u r , sulfates and pyrites
and in fuel oils as sulfides, m e r c a p t a n s ,
p o l y s u l f i d e s a n d t h i e p h e n e s . D u r i n g coal
combustion, of the total s u l f u r present, about 90%
is converted into gaseous oxides and rest goes in
to a s h as sulfates, 99% of t h e total emitted oxides
a r e SO2 a n d the r e m a i n i n g as SO3. The coal is
found to contain s u l f u r content upto 5% but
I n d i a n coals g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n less t h a n 0.5%
sulfur.
H y d r o g e n s u l f i d e (H2§) is e m i t t e d to the
a t m o s p h e r e in large q u a n t i f i e s from natural
s o u r c e s o f H2S a r e d i s t i l l a t i o n o f t a r ,
m a n u f a c t u r i n g of viscose r a y o n and refining of
p e t r o l e u m a n d n a t u r a l g a s . H2S i s r a p i d l y
oxidised to SO2 in t h e atmosphere.
3.2 N i t r o g e n C o n t a i n i n g C o m p o u n d s
T h e i m p o r t a n t nitrogen containing gases
which contribute to a i r pollution are nitric oxide
( N O ) a n d N i t r o g e n d i o x i d e (NO2) collectively
called NO*. NO is emitted by n a t u r a l as.weil as
anthropogenic sources. The main anthropogenic
sources of nitrogen oxides a r e fuel combusion in
domestic, industrial, power generation or
transportation activities. Fuel combustion
g e n e r a t e s NO to t h e e x t e n t of 0.1% to 0.5% at
flame temperatures, alongwith much smaller
a m o u n t s of NO2. NO2 is a l s o f o r m e d in t h e
atmosphere by oxidation of NO. Nitrogen oxides
are generated using organic nitrogen available in
the fuel and also d u e to t h e r m a l fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen at high t e m p e r a t u r e s . Coal
and fuel oils contain nitrogen in the range of 1-3%.
As the nitrogen in t h e fuel increases, proportion of
this nitrogen converted to oxides decreases.
Relative contribution of NO* f r o m m o t o r
vehicles a n d s t a t i o n e r y s o u r c e s , b e i n g a l m o s t
equal in heavily industrialised areas, comes at a
proportion of 90 to 10 in non-industrialised a r e a s
with heavy traffic activities. Atmospheric electric
discharges also produce small a m o u n t s of NO2.
Ammonia (NH3) is e m i t t e d from n a t u r a l
decomposition process of organic m a t t e r
containing nitrogen. Industrial emission sources
a r e fertilizer i n d u s t r i e s , m a n u f a c t u r e of n i t r i c
acid a n d c o k i n g p l a n t s . A m m o n i a c a n b e a i r
p o l l u t a n t w h e n e m i t t e d in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s to
substantially increase the ambient concentration
levels.
T h e s e n i t r o g e n o x i d e s a n d NH;j a r e
converted to particulate n i t r a t e s through
atmospheric oxidation processes.
3.3 C a r b o n C o n t a i n i n g C o m p o u n d s
Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CQ2) a r e two m a i n p o l l u t a n t s in t h i s category.
With the exception ofCOz, CO is the most
abundant air pollutant in t h e atmosphere. CO is
emitted d u e to incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels specially in automobile engines.
Incomplete combustion is t h e result of
incorrect air fuel ratio, insufficient mixing of air
and fuel, insufficient residence time in the flame
or quenching by cold surface. In properly designed
and operated furnaces, concentration levels o f C O
in Hue gases is generally less t h a n '200 ppm for
coal, 20 ppm for oil and 100 ppm for gas based
units. Carbondioxide is also g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g
combustion of all type of fossil fuels. Emission of
carbonmonoxide exceeds in quantity to the
emission of all o t h e r air p o l l u t a n t s from
anthropogenic activities. The major
anthropogenic sources of CO are motor vehicles
a n d o t h e r m o b i l e s o u r c e s , coal a n d f u e l oil
combustion, petroleum refining, industrial
processes and solid waste disposal. It is observed
that urban CO levels show a close correlation with
traffic volume.
H y d r o c a r b o n s is an other group of air
p o l l u t a n t s , N a t u r a l s o u r c e s a r e s w a m p s for
m e t h a n e a n d v e g e t a t i o n for t e r p e n e s . T h e
anthropogenic sources are coal and wood burning,
refining of petroleum, solvent use, etc. The most
predominant hydrocarbon in the a t m o s p h e r e is
methene (CH4), which is chemically inert and not
a p o l l u t a n t . A n u m b e r of h y d r o c a r b o n s a r e
detected in urban air, and thosecontainingcarbon
atoms 5 or less exist in atmosphere as gas phase.
3.4 P a r t i c u l a t e M a t t e r
P a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r is emitted into
a t m o s p h e r e b y n a t u r a l a s well a s m a n m a d e
sources. N a t u r a l sources include seasprays,
volcanic e r u p t i o n s , forest fires a n d wind risen
d u s t . Anthropogenic c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e mainly
combustion of fossil fuels, coal and stone crushing,
cemen* steel and fertilizer plants and veriety of
i ndusiftt<8&>perations.
These may be primary in origin such as air
borne d u s t or smoke and secondary particulates
which a r e formed d u e to gas phase chemical
reactions. Dust, smoke, mist, fog etc. are some of
the jpr. alant/'forms of particulates found in the
atmosphereTDusts are generated by mechanical
disintegration of n i a t e r i a l s such as grinding or
c r u s h i n g . S m o k e s a r e very s m a l l p a r t i c u l a t e
formed by c o n d e n s a t i o n of s u p e r s a t u r a t e d
vapours during combustion process. If most of the
p a r t i t a s are less than one micron, these are called
fumes. Suspension of water droplets formed by
condensation, exceeding 10 micron in size is called
mist and if mist concentration is sufficiently high,
it is known as fog.
Toxic metals are also present in liquid and
solid fuel. D u r i n g c o m b u s t i o n of liquid f u e l s ,
metais a r e emitted to the a t m o s p h e r e with the
fluegases. However in coal burning, most of the
metals find their way to ash except a few metals
like mercury and volatile oxides like a r s e n a t e s
and selenates.
In addition, some hazardous pollutants like
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) a r e
also generated during fuel combustion, which are
carcinogenic (cancer c a u s i n g ) in n a t u r e . It is
observed that combustions conditions affect the
gross emission and specific d i s t r i b u t i o n of
individual PAH.
4. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
There is substantial evidence that air
pollution d f f e c t s h e a l t h o f h u m a n b e i n g s a n d
animals, damage vegetation, reduce crop yields,
deteriorate meterials, affect climate, reduces
visibility and solar radiation, contributes to safety
hazards and generally interferes with the
enjoyment of life and property. Some of the effects
a r e specific and m e a s u r a b l e such as d a m a g e to
vegetation and m a t e r i a l and reduction in
visibility, but most are difficult to m e a s u r e 8uch as
effects on health and interference with
comfortable living.
Effect of air pollutants in most of the cases
is synergetic i. e. combined effect of two or more
pollutants is substantially greater t h a n t h e s u m of
individual effect of each pollutant.
The effect of a i r pollution on a t m o s p h e r i c
properties, material, vegetation and h u m a n
health is discussed here.
4.1 E f f e c t o n A t m o s p h e r i c P r o p e r t i e s
Air pollution affects atmospheric properties
through reduction in visibility and solar radiation,
fog f o r m a t i o n a n d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l t e r a t i o n in
temperatures and wind patterns.
The most noticeable effect of air pollution
on p r o p e r t i e s of a t m o s p h e r e is r e d u c t i o n in
visibility. This is not only aesthetically unpleasing
b u t also l e a d s t o s a f e t y h a z a r d . V i s i b i l i t y i s
reduced by scattering and absorption of light by
polluted air but former is more significant.
P a r t i c l e s m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n s c a t t e r i n g light a r e
those w i t h size c o m p a r a b l e to wave length of
visible light (04.-0.7 ).im).
Air pollution also effects urban climate with
r e s p e c t to i n c r e a s e d fog formation a n d reduced
solar r a d i a t i o n . S C h e m i t t e d d u r i n g combustion of
fossil f u e l s get oxidised in humid atmosphere to
form fog of s m a l l s u l f u r i c acid d r o p l e t s . Small
p a r t i c l e s a l s o a c t a s c o n d e n s a t i o n n u c l e i for
formation of fog droplets.
4.2 E f f e c t o n M a t e r i a l s
A i r p o l l u t a n t s e f f e c t m a t e r i a l , both b y
soiling £S<rs»ell as chemical deterioration. Smoke
and p a r t i c u l a t e s cause soiling of clothes and
s t r u c t u r e s . Acidic a n d alkaline particles corrode
materials, such as textiles, paints, masonary etc.
Ozone is very effective in deteriorating and
cracking&f-rubher. Hydrogen sulfide d a r k e n s t h e
lead b a s e p a i n t s . SO?.causes weakeningof leather
a n d textiles, w h e r e a s NO2 a n d ozone affect t h e
dyes of p r i n t e d clothes.
Building m a t e r i a l s are corroded and
disfigured by a i r pollution in addition to normal
w e a t h e u n g process. Smoke and tarry sticky
aerosols adhere to stones and other building
s u r f a c e s to give unsightly coatings. Acidic gases
such as SO2 a n d SO3 in presence of moisture react
with lime stone to form calcium sulfate (CaSO-i)
and Gypsum ( C a S O ^ H z O ) both of which are
soluble in w a t e r a n d hence washed away in rains.
4.3 E f f e c t o n V e g e t a t i o n
P o l l u t a n t s which a r e known phytotoxicants
are s u l f u r dioxide, peroxyacetyl nitrate and
ethelene. However chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen
chloride also a f f e c t the vegetation with less
intensity. T h e s e gaseous pollutants enter the
plants with air through stomata during their
normal course of respiration and destroy
chlorphyl to affect the vital photosynthetic
activities.
T h e r e s p o n s e of n p o l l u t a n t to a p l a n t
species is governed by a n u m b e r of factors like
d o s e o f p o l l u t a n t (concentration of p o l l u t a n t times
duration of exposure), climatic and physiological
factors, l ike stage of growth a n d presence of more
t h a n one pollutant at a time c a u s i n g synergetic
effect.
SO2 e n t e r i n g t h r o u g h s t o m e t a oxidises to
sulfite, which is toxic to metabolic processes of t h e
plant cells. Chlorosis is a v e i y c o m m o n visible
symptom observed due to most of the
phytotoxicants. However specific s y m p t o m s a r e
noticed for each pollutant. SO2 causes chlorosis,
bleached spots between veins, growth suppression
and reduction in yield.
Ozone is a very p o t e n t i a l p h y t o t o x i c a n t
showing t h e s y m t o m s of chlorosis (yellowing) to
bleaching (discoloration) to necrosis (destruction
of cells). Peroxyacetyl n i t r a t e is responsible for
silvering or bronzing on lower s u r f a c e of leaves.
Ethelene results in leaf abnormalities and flower
droppings. In addition p a r t i c u l a t e s form a dirty
l a y e r o n leaf s u r f a c e l e a d i n g t o b l o c k a g e o f
s t o m a t a and changes in other physiological
functions.
4.4 E f f e c t o f H u m a n H e a l t h
P o l l u t a n t s enter the body through
respiratory system which consist of nasal cavity
and traches known as u p p e r respiratory system
and bronchial t u b e s a n d lungs which constitute
lower respiratory system. Lungs contain several
hundred millions small sacs called alveoli which
provide a s u r f a c e a r e a e q u i v a l e n t to 50 m J for
e x c h a n g e of g a s e s . An a v e r a g e a d u l t b r e a t h e s
approximately 30 pounds of air per day. The
h a r m f u l g a s e s l i k e S 0 2 , NO2, C O e t c . a n d
suspended particulates of specific size range a n d
di fferent compositions enter t h e body with inhaled
air through nasal passage. .•
Our r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m h a s a s o u n d a n d
effective defence mechanism which collects a n d
e n t r a p s most of the particles, before they could
reach the alveoli of t h e lungs. T h i s is accomplished
with the help of motion of cilia lining the internal
wall of respiratory tract and inertial impaction of
large size particulates at s h a r p bends in bronchial
tree Inspite of this protection mechanism
particulates in the size range from 0.1 to 1 u m n r e
a b l e So p e n e t r a t e d e e p in to t h e l u n g s . T h e s e
part i d e s contain a veriety of toxic metals like lead,
c a d m i u m , a r s e n i c , m e r c u r y etc. and some
poly n u c l e a r a r o m e t i c hydrocarbons (PAH) like
B e n z o (a) p y r e n e , f l u o r a n t h e n e , b e n z o (a)
a n t h r a c e n e etc. T h e s e m e t a l s a r e absorbed and
a c c u m u l a t e d in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of the body,
d i s t u r b i n g t h e n o r m a l physiological functions.
T h e most common effect associated with metal
toxicity a r e a n a e m i a , liver and kidney d a m a g e
and nervous a n d gastrointestinal disturbances.
PAH a r e found to be carcinogenic.
. ,-tr
A d v e r s e effect of g a s e o u s poliixtants
depends upon relative solubility of the particular
gas in water, which decides the ratio of gas to be
absorbed in upper respiratory tract to that
r e a c h i n g d e e p into the lungs. SO2 g a s is q u i t e
soluble and is absorbed early leading to air way
resistance (swelling) and s t i m u l a t e d mucus
secret ion. It is also noted t h a t SO2 in combination
with high particulates causes several fold increase
in its response as the gas absorbed on the particles
can reach deep into the lungs.
T h e g a s e s like NOi, CO and O3 a r e
relatively insoluble and are able to p e n e t r a t e deep
in to t h e lungs. N i t r o g e n dioxide is known to
i r r i t a t e alveoli leading to s y m p t o m s of
REFERENCES
1. "Air Pollution, Vol. II : The Effects of Air Pollution* edited by A. C. Stern, Academic Press, New York.
2. "Air Pollution : Physical and Chemical Fundamentals" by John H. Seinfeld, McGraw Hill Book Company.
3. "Air Poll ution, Vol. IV : Engineering Control of Air Pollution" edited by A. C. Stem, Academic Press, New
York.
e m p h y s e m a in a d d i t i o n to i t s c o n v e r s i o n to
nitrosamines in the lungs which a r e s u s p e n d e d
carcinogens. Oxygen carrying capacity of blood is
affected due to exposure to CO. Carbon monoxide
gas which is r e l a t i v e l y i n s o l u b l e , r e a c h e s to
alveoli and diffuses through alveolar m e m b r a n e
to r e a c t with h a e m o g l o b i n of blood f o r m i n g
corboxy-haemoglobin, which d e c r e a s e s the
overall capacity of blood to carry oxygen to the
cells. Ozone, formaldehyde, acrolein and
peroxyacy! nitrates, a r e some of the pollutants
associated with photochemical smog. Ozone
c a u s e s i n c r e a s e d a i r way r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o
narrowing of air tubes, w h e r e a s formaldehyde,
acrolein and peroxyacyl n i t r a t e s a r e eye irritants.
o»»
Diseases of respiratory system are
generally associated with two types of reactions to
air pollution. One is acute reaction resulting into
irritative bronchities and other is chronic reaction
called chronic bronchities and p u l m o n a r y
e m p h y s e m a . B r o n c h i t i e s is a c o n d i t i o n of
inflamation of bronchial tree with increased
m u c u s production a n d cough. E m p h y s e m a is a
condition in which alveoli in t h e l u n g b e c o m e
uneven and o v e r d i s t e n e d d u e to d e s t r u c t i o n of
alveolar walls. This is accompanied by s h o r t n e s s
of b r e a t h and decreased ability to e l i m i n a t e the
foreign bodies which reach the alveolar region.