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MOVEMENT AND
SUPPORT IN ANIMALS

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 MOVEMENT &
SUPPORT

♠ Both aquatic and terrestrial organisms need a

skeleton to support them against the pull of
gravity.
♠ Skeleton fulfil 3 main functions:
 support,
 locomotion
 protection.
 MOVEMENT &
SUPPORT
♠ Other functions of skeleton :
 support the body and keep it in shape
 for muscle attachment and act as a level system for
movement and locomotion -- muscles are attached to
bones through ligaments and tendons to form a level
system which can keep the body in shape and produce
movement and locomotion through contraction and
relaxation of muscles
 protect the internal organs -- e.g. skull protects the brain;
thoracic cage protects lung and heart
 produce red blood cells -- red bone mallow in soft bonds
produces RBCs
 MUSCULAR
MOVEMENT
♣ Muscles are attached to bones to form lever systems
for movement
♣ Muscle contraction creates a driving force when
obtains energy from respiration;
♣ When a muscle relaxes, energy is not necessary
♣ There are 3 types of muscle:
 Skeletal muscle
 Smooth muscles,
 Cardiac muscle.
 Skeletal Muscle

♣ Muscles attached to bone surfaces

♣ Under conscious control (voluntary muscle)
♣ Each muscle fibre is multinucleate with striations
♣ Produces powerful contractions but becomes
fatigued if remains contracted for a long time
because lactic acid accumulates in the muscle
cells
♣ Skeletons function in support, protection, and
movement
Skeletal Muscle
 Smooth Muscle

♣ Found in internal organs

♣ Not under conscious control (involuntary

muscle)
♣ Possesses a central nucleus & is non-striated

♣ Produces less powerful contractions but can

remain contracted for a long time

Smooth Muscle
 Cardiac Muscle
♣ Found only in heart
♣ Not under conscious control (involuntary
muscle)
♣ Contracts automatically & is regulated by
nerves
♣ Each muscle fibre is striated, with bridges
joining neighbouring muscle fibres
♣ Contracts powerfully and does not become
fatigued unless the heart dies
Cardiac Muscle
 HYDROSKELETON
∂ Fluid is secreted within the body and enclosed by
body wall muscles.
∂ Muscles are not attached to any structures and
thus they can only pull against each other
∂ The combined effect of muscle contraction and
fluid pressure serves to maintain the shape and
form of the animal.
∂ Longitudinal and circular muscles act
antagonistically against each other to bring about
locomotion.
∂ Example: earthworm
HYDROSKELETON
 EXOSKELETON

∂ Epidermal cells secrete a non-cellular cuticle,

composed mainly of chitin. It acts as a hard
outer covering to the animal and is made up of
a series of articulated plates or tubes covering
or surrounding organs.
∂ The combination of a system of plates and
tubes joined together by flexible membranes
provides both protection and mobility.
∂ Example: arthropods
EXOSKELETON

Exoskeleton in beetle (insect)

 ENDOSKELETON

∂ Made either of cartilage or bone, is located

within the organism and is internal to the
muscles.
∂ It is composed of living tissue and so can grow
steadily within the animal
∂ Joints and elastic ligaments exist to allow
movement and maintain the correct relative
position
∂ Examples: human, dog
 JOINTS
∂ A joint is formed wherever two or more bones meet
∂ Types of joints :
 Immovable joints e.g. between bones of skull and
pelvic girdle
 Slightly movable joints e.g. vertebrae
 Freely movable joints
 Pivot joint e.g. joint between atlas & axis
 Hinge joint e.g. elbow & knee
 Ball & socket joint e.g. shoulder & hip
 Gliding joint e.g. wrist
 JOINTS

∂ The surface of joints is covered with cartilage

which contains pores. Synovial fluid is secreted

from synovial membrane for reducing friction and
absorbing shock.
∂ Joint is surrounded by strong fibrous capsule

which helps holding the bones of the joint in

position.
JOINTS
 LOCOMOTION

♠ Locomotion is the movement of a organism

from one place to another.

♠ Locomotion requires energy to overcome

friction, drag, inertia, and gravity.

 Functions
Animal move in order to :
♠ To obtain food
♠ To escape from predators
♠ To find a mate
♠ To distribute offspring
♠ To reduce competition
♠ To avoid danger
♠ To maintain position
♠ To avoid waste products
 LOCOMOTION IN
WATER
♠ Water has a greater density than air.
♠ It also offer considerable resistance to the
movement of the organisms within it.
♠ An aquatic animal's body is no denser than its
aqueous environment, it should be able to stay
afloat well enough.
♠ Though this means little energy need be expended
maintaining vertical position, it makes movement
in the horizontal plane much more difficult.
 LOCOMOTION IN
WATER

♠ Body shape is therefore important for efficient

movement, which is essential for basic
functions like catching prey. A fusiform,
torpedo-like body form is seen in many marine
animals, though the mechanisms they employ
for movement are diverse.
♠ Movement of the body may be from side to
side, as in sharks and many fishes, or up and
down, as in marine mammals.
SWIMMING ACTION
 LOCOMOTION IN
THE AIR
♠ Gravity is a major problem for flight through
the air. Because it is impossible for any
organism to approach the density of air, flying
animals must generate enough lift to ascend
and remain airborne.
♠ Wing shape is crucial in achieving this,
generating a pressure gradient that results in an
upward force on the animal' body.
 LOCOMOTION IN
THE AIR

♠ Flying animals must be very light to achieve

flight, the largest birds being around 20
kilograms.
♠ Other structural modifications of flying animals
include reduced and redistributed body weight,
fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles.
 FLIGHT ACTION

Gliding flight:
 Birds hold their large wings to create as much air
resistance as possible, then descend slowly,
covering large horizontal distances.
Flapping flight:
 Wings are moved up and down rhythmically to
create a greater resistance against the air on the
downward stroke than the upward stroke by the
large & powerful pectoralis major muscles and
smaller pectoralis minor muscles respectively.
FLIGHT ACTION
 LOCOMOTION ON
LAND
♠ A terrestrial animals required strong
skeletal and muscular framework for
structural support.
♠ Each step also requires much energy to
overcome inertia, and animals can store
elastic potential energy in their tendons to
help overcome this.
♠ Balance is also required for movement on
land.
 LOCOMOTION ON
LAND
♠ Other animals move in terrestrial habitats
without the aid of legs.
♠ For example, earthworms that crawl by a
peristalsis and snakes move using several
different modes of locomotion, depending
upon substrate type and desired speed.
♠ Some animals even can roll and some
have specialized for moving on non-
horizontal surfaces.
 ANIMALS
MOVEMENT

Creeping movement of earthworm

 ANIMALS
MOVEMENT

Strides of insect in walking

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