IB Chemistry Summer Notes E1-E8 Holly Chaisson

1. Air Pollution
a. Overview
i. Dry air that is not polluted contains 78% nitrogen gas, 21% oxygen gas, 1% argon
and 0.03% carbon dioxide
ii. Air pollutants: substances present in a high enough concentration to cause harmful
effects
1. Primary air pollutants: carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of
sulfur, particulates and VOCs
b. Carbon Monoxide
i. A polar molecule with covalent bonds between the atoms
1. Colorless, odorless, tasteless, toxic, not soluble in water
2. Formed due to the incomplete oxidation of carbon-containing compounds
(ex. Fossil fuels)
ii. Main sources
1. 90%- natural sources (oxidation of methane gas)
2. 10%-man-made sources (combustion of fossil fuels)
c. Oxides of Nitrogen
i. Any reaction between nitrogen and oxygen gas is highly endothermic
ii. Principal sources: 10% from human activity (emissions by automobiles and
airplanes) and natural NO is quickly oxidized to NO2
d. Oxides of Sulfur
i. SO2 is produced in large amounts and SO3 is produced in very small amounts
1. SO2 slowly becomes oxidized to SO3 in the atmosphere
ii. Principal sources: coal combustion, a product of smelting plants and a product of
sulfuric acid factories
e. Particulates
i. Solid particles suspended in the air such as sand, volcanic ash, smoke/soot,
asbestos, metallic particles and ash
f. Volatile Organic Compounds
i. Primary pollutants introduce directly into the environment
1. Includes hydrocarbon gases, tree produced VOCs called terpenes and
methane
2. Petroleum is the key source of VOC pollution produced by humans
g. Current Methods for the Reduction of Air Pollutants
i. Catalytic converters oxidize carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and convert
nitrogen monoxide to nitrogen gas
1. They can remove VOCs from automobile exhaust
ii. The use of air to fuel ratio to reduce automobile pollution
1. Theoretical ration is 16:1
2. Excess air = less carbon monoxide & VOCs and an increase in nitrogen
oxide levels
iii. Reduction of oxides of sulfur by post-combustion methods
1. The removal of sulfur dioxide before being released into the atmosphere
 a. By a reaction with calcium oxide, wet alkaline scrubbers, using low-
sulfur burning coal and refining
iv. Reduction of particulates
1. Electrostatic precipitation: a very high voltage is applied to the collector
plates and it ionizes the gas molecules present and the electrons produced
collect on the particulates and are attracted to the positively charge collector
plates
2. Acid Deposition
a. Overview
i. Refers to acidic particles/gases that deposit or fall to the earth
1. Pure rain water is naturally acidic due to dissolved carbon dioxide reacting
to form carbonic acid
2. Includes the wet deposition of acidic gases and particles brought down as
precipitation
b. Formation of Acid Deposition
i. From oxides of sulfur
1. W/ moisture, sulfur dioxide produces sulfurous acid
2. When oxidized in the presence of O2, sulfur oxides are then converted to
sulfuric acid
ii. From oxides of nitrogen
1. In the absence of oxygen, No2 can dissolve in H2O to produce nitrous acid
and nitric acid
2. Nitrogen dioxide can become nitric acid in the presence of oxygen gas
c. Effects of Acid Rain on Humans, Aquatic Life, and Various Materials
i. Irritates the human respiratory tract and eyes, may lead to Alzheimer’s
ii. Affects the functioning of gills in aquatic animals
iii. Leads to corrosion in many materials including limestone, marble and electrical
equipment
d. Methods to Counteract Acid Deposition
i. Catalytic converters, control of the air to fuel ration, coal pre-combustion methods,
alkaline scrubbers and the promotion of alt. energy sources
3. Greenhouse Effect
a. Overview
i. The temp. of the Earth depends on the amnt. of sunlight received, the proportions
absorbed by the Earth/reflected back into space, and the extent to which the
atmosphere contains the heat
ii. There’s a natural greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth’s avg. temp. around 60°F
1. Effect due to the presence of water vapor and carbon dioxide as greenhouse
gases present naturally in the atmosphere
b. Greenhouse Effects
i. The trapping of heat in the atmosphere
ii. Short wavelengths of sunlight penetrate the atmosphere but are reflected back in
longer wavelengths
1. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases and radiated back to
Earth, maintaining global temp.
c. Global Warming
 i. The gradual increase in planet-wide temps.
ii. The rate of increase is significantly faster than in previous years in the present
d. Greenhouse Gases
i. The major gases include: methane, water vapor, dinitrogen monoxide, ozone and
chlorofluorocarbons
1. The effects depend on abundance and ability to absorb heat radiation
ii. H2O: main sources include evaporation from bodies of water and the product of
hydrocarbon combustion; 0-4% volume; relatively ineffective and no contribution
to global warming
iii. CO2: main sources include combustion of fossil fuels, forest fires, and organic
decay; 3.7x10-2 % volume, contributes 50-60% to global warming
iv. CH4: main sources include anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, 1.7x10-4 %
volume, contributes 15-18% to global warming
v. N2O: main sources include bacterial action and use of nitrogen-based fertilizers,
3x10-5 % volume, contributes about 6% to global warming
vi. O3: main source is photo-chemical smog, 4x10-6 % volume, 12% contribution to
global warming
vii. CFCs: main sources include spray can propellants, solvents, production of plastic
foams, there are no natural sources, 2x10-8 % volume, contributes 8-14% to global
warming
e. Effects of Global Warming Over the Last Century
i. Increase in temp. of .5 degree centigrade
ii. 1% increase in precipitation
iii. 15-20cm rise in sea level resulting from the partial melting of glaciers and the phys.
Expansion of ocean water caused by warm temps.
iv. Climate change will continue to grow as the concentration of greenhouse gases
continues to increase
4. Ozone Depletion
a. Overview
i. Ozone (O3) is a naturally occurring component of the stratosphere
1. A pale bluish gas with an acrid smell
2. Very reactive
3. Essential to life and health by its presence in the ozone layer
ii. Ozone layer is about 15-45 km above the Earth’s surface
b. Formation of Ozone
i. The photo-dissociation of molecular oxygen by ultraviolet light represents the
principal mechanism of ozone’s formation in the upper atmosphere
1. High energy (short-length UV light) splits the strong double bond in oxygen
into oxygen atoms
c. Depletion of Ozone
i. Unlike O2 (with a double bond O=O) the resonance structures of ozone suggest that
two bonding electrons are spread over the entire structure of the molecule resulting
in a weaker bond and can be broken by less energy
ii. Reverse reaction takes place when ozone absorbs longer wavelength UV light to
form an oxygen molecule and an oxygen free radical
iii. Ozone is constantly being formed and broken down
 d. Ozone-Depleting Pollutants and their Sources
i. CFCs, when released, don’t decompose but float slowly through the atmosphere
into the stratosphere and are turned into reactive chlorine atoms w/ an unpaired
electron and then react with ozone
1. Nitric acid reacts with ozone also
ii. A decrease in ozone concentration means that more UV light reaches the Earth
resulting in damage to plants and animals, genetic mutation and changes in climate
iii. Alternatives to CFCs
1. CFCs are used due to their lack of reactivity, low toxicity, and low
flammability
2. Alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydro-fluorocarbons
5. Dissolved Oxygen in Water
a. The Importance of Dissolved Oxygen
i. The dissolved oxygen concentration of a body of water is one of the most important
indicators of its quality
1. Water is a highly polar and bent molecule whereas diatomic oxygen is a
non-polar molecule, hence a low solubility in water
ii. As temp. rises, the solubility of any gas decreases, in contrast to that of most solids
iii. The quality of water can be determined by the amount of oxygen present
1. @ 20°C a content of 8-9ppm O2 at sea level is good quality, @ 4.5ppm O2, it
is considered moderately polluted
iv. Quality of water depends on several factors: oxygen demanding wastes, disease
causing pathogens/microorganisms
1. Organic waste and industrial waste and the main oxygen demanding wastes
v. BOD- Biochemical Oxygen Demand; the measure of the amnt. of oxygen
consumed by the biodegradable wastes and ammonia in a given amnt. of water
vi. Aerobic decomposition of organic matter in the presence of oxygen happens when
bacteria break down and digest organic matter
1. Oxidation process in which complex organic matter is broken down into
simple organic matter, carbon dioxide and water by the bacteria
a. Organic nitrogen is converted into nitrates, organic sulfur to sulfates
and organic phosphorus to phosphates
2. Removes oxygen from water
vii. Anaerobic decomposition of organic matter takes place in the absence of oxygen by
microorganisms not requiring oxygen
1. Products include: ammonia & amines, methane, hydrogen sulfide and
phosphine
viii. Eutrophication is the process in which anaerobic processes produce toxic
substances and the area of water becomes lifeless
1. Red tides
ix. Thermal pollution: when power plants/factories dump the cooling water they use
(warm/hot) into streams, rivers or lakes
1. The concentration of gas dissolved in a liquid increase as temp. Increases
and if less dense warm water doesn’t mix rapidly with cooler dense water
then it stays on top and doesn’t absorb oxygen as well leading to reduced
oxygen levels.
 2. An increase in temp. also speeds up the rate @ which biochemical reactions
occur
3. Diss. Oxygen decreases, causing the metabolic rate of organisms to
increase, who then require more oxygen = change of rate of consumption of
oxygen
6. Water Treatment
a. Overview
i. Purpose of sewage treatment is to remove hazardous materials, kill microorganisms
and reduce Biological Oxygen Demand
ii. Pollutants include: heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins, organic matter, nitrates and
phosphates
b. Primary Sewage Treatment
i. First the sewage passes through screens, then settling tanks, then
holding/sedimentation tanks
1. Sedimentation can be speeded up by adding chemicals, creating clumping in
a process called flocculation
a. Achieved by adding aluminum sulfate
c. Secondary Sewage Treatment
i. Involves microbial activity and requires aeration, allowing aerobic bacteria to
thoroughly mix w/ the sewage in order to oxidize & break down organic matter
ii. Then the sewage is passed through a sedimentation tank where large quantities of
sludge collect
1. This stage can remove about 90% of organic oxygen-demanding waste &
suspended particles
iii. Primary & secondary treatments can’t remove dissolved inorganic substances
(nitrates, phosphates & heavy metal ions)
d. Tertiary Sewage Treatment
i. These processes use chemical, biological and physical treatment
ii. Carbon Bed method: uses carbon black and can absorb toxic organic chemicals
iii. Chemical Precipitation: sulfide salts are used to dissolve heavy metal ions
e. Distillation
i. Processes to remove salts from water
ii. Two common methods: multi-stage distillation and reverse osmosis
1. Distillation is the process that allows the separation of a volatile liquid from
non-volatile materials
iii. Reverse osmosis
1. Osmosis is the natural tendency of a solvent to move from an area of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration through a membrane
2. Reverse osmosis occurs when a pressure equal to the osmotic pressure of
the solution is applied and the flow of the solvent reverses
7. Soil
a. Overview
i. Soil consists of four components as a heterogeneous mix: inorganic matter, water,
air and organic matter
1. The amnt. Of water/air in the soil affect how life survives and then decays
2. Composition varies greatly depending on how and where it is formed
 ii. Inorganic matter contains mostly silica, silicates and aluminosilicates
iii. The soil food web is complex and greatly diverse
1. Nutrients found dissolved in the soil include: Ca3+, K2, NH4+ and Mg2+
2. Calcium is used in plant cell synthesis, potassium controls the amnt. of
water that enters during osmosis, nitrogen is used in the synthesis of amino
acids/proteins
b. Salinization
i. The accumulation of water soluble ions/salts in the soil due to irrigation, poor
drainage and low rainfall
ii. Salinization reduces plant growth
c. Nutrient Depletion or Loss
i. Results in decreased soil quality and a decline in yield of crops
d. Soil Pollution/Contamination
i. Result of pesticides/herbicides/fungicides
ii. Also arises from the addition of nitrate and phosphate fertilizers
iii. Contamination also caused by domestic and industrial wastes
iv. SOM: Soil organic matter refers to the mix of non-living organic compounds
present in the soil during stages of decomp.
e. SOM in Preventing Soil Degradation
i. Biological
1. SOM binds to many nutrients and is a reservoir of nitrogen, phosphorus and
sulfur
2. Bacteria & fungi decompose the SOM and release the nutrients to the plant
roots
ii. Mineralization
1. The process in which organic matter is broken down and nitrogen and
phosphorus are released to the roots
iii. Physical
1. Soil clusters together in clumps due to the SOM
a. Reduces soil erosion
2. Organic matter also affects the thermal properties of the soil
a. Soil with a higher water content experiences smaller temp. changes
and vice versa
f. Soil Pollutants
i. Petroleum hydrocarbons-discharge from petroleum industry
ii. Agrichemicals
iii. Household cleaning products
iv. Solvents- hexane, methyl bezon, and ethanol
v. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons- tar, coal, crude oil, industrial emissions
vi. Incinerator stacks
8. Waste
a. Waste Disposal Methods
i. Landfills, incinerators, composting and recycling
b. Sources/Types of Radioactive Waste
i. Alpha particles: pos. charged helium nuclei w/ a low penetrating power (stopped by
clothing and skin)
 ii. Beta particles: a stream of neg. charged electrons w/ moderate penetrating power
iii. Gamma rays: high energy electromagnetic radiation w/ high penetrating power;
stopped by several meters of concrete