Food Chain

The International Journal of

Small-Scale Food Processing
NUMBER 28 May 2001
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READ BY • Mali
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2
Greetings
Front Cover: Vijitha
Priyanthi uses the traditional
method of cashew
processing,
A4 Sri Lanka J7.17 ITDG/E Judge
Back Cover: Cashew fruit
A4 Sri Lanka J4.14 ITDG/Zul
Greetings
Following the success of the international
workshop ‘Cashing in on Cashew’ held in
Sri Lanka in November 2000, we have
decided to dedicate this issue of Food
Chain to cashews. There are several good
reasons why small-scale producers and
processors should get involved in cashew
processing:
● Cashew kernels are a high value luxury
commodity with sales growing at a
steady 7% each year and with every
expectation that the market will remain
strong.
● There is substantial potential to exploit
cashew by-products, such as cashew
butter from broken nuts, cashew nut
shell liquid (CNSL) for industrial and
medicinal purposes and the juice of the
cashew apple that can be processed
further.
● Cashew is a good crop for smallholder
farmers. In Mozambique cashew is
considered by smallholder farmers to
be one of their most lucrative crops. It
requires few inputs and harvesting
does not coincide with peak labour
demands for other food crops.
Cashew has the potential to increase the
incomes of poor producers, to create
employment opportunities during
harvesting and processing, and to
increase exports. However, as with all
small-scale processing operations, cashew
processing is not without risk or
problems. In order for the small-scale
processor to succeed, there are certain
constraints which also need to be
considered:
● Cashew production is very weather
dependent so supply is variable. World
prices, although stable on average, are
highly volatile in the short term.
● Luxury goods must be of high quality.
To compete directly in the world market
requires standards, branding and
marketing at a high level.
● Exploitation of the by-products requires
new technology, which may be
expensive or difficult to obtain.
● The production volume must be
sufficient to ensure consistent supply of
raw material.
These constraints are not insurmountable.
With good committed support from local
governments, introduction of policies that
favour rather than hinder the small-scale
entrepreneur and back-up from relevant
development organisations, cashew
processing can be an attractive and viable
option for the small-scale processor.
Cashew products
Three main cashew products are traded
on the international market – raw nuts,
cashew kernels and cashew nut shell
liquid (CNSL). There is a fourth product –
the cashew apple which is processed and
consumed locally. The raw cashew nut is
the main commercial product of the
cashew tree, though yields of the cashew
apple are eight to ten times the weight of
the raw nuts. Raw nuts are either exported
or processed prior to export.
The cashew kernel is a rich source of fat
(46%) and protein (18%) and is a good
source of calcium, phosphorus and iron. It
has a high percentage of polyunsaturated
fatty acids, especially the essential fatty
acid linoleic acid. The tart apple provides
vitamin C, calcium and iron. The bark,
leaves, gum and shell are all used in
medicine. The leaves and bark are
commonly used to relieve toothache and
sore gums, and the boiled water extract of
the leaf or bark is used as a mouth wash.
A paste of bark ground in water is applied
to skin to cure for ringworm; however, in
this form it can irritate the skin and should
not be applied to sensitive skin or to
children. The root has been used as a
purgative. Fibres from the leaves can be
used to strengthen fishing lines and nets,
and as folk remedies for calcium
deficiency and intestinal colic, as well as a
vitamin supplement. The water-resistant
wood is used for boats and ferries, while
the resin, in addition to having industrial
uses, is used as an expectorant, cough
remedy and insect repellent.
The cashew nut kernel is made up of
three different portions – the shell, the
kernel and the adhering testa. The primary
product of cashew nuts is the kernel,
which is the edible portion of the nut and
is consumed in three ways:
● directly by the consumer;
● as roasted and salted nuts;
● in confectionery and bakery products,
for example, finely chopped kernels are
used in the production of sweets, ice
creams, cakes and chocolates, both at
home and industrially, and as paste to
spread on bread.
ITDG Food Chain 28

Uses of cashew nut shell liquid
The cashew nut shell contains a viscous
and dark liquid that is extremely caustic,
known as cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). It
is contained in the thin honeycomb
structure between the soft outer skin of the
nut and the harder inner shell. The content
of CNSL in the raw nut is usually 20–25%.
CNSL is an important and versatile
industrial raw material. There are more
than 200 patents for its industrial
application, in particular, its use as raw
material for phenolic resins and friction
powder for the automotive industry (brake
linings and clutch disks). CNSL is also used
in mouldings, acid-resistant paints, foundry
resins, varnishes, enamels and black
lacquers for decorating vases, insecticides
and fungicides. In tropical medicine, CNSL
has been used in treating leprosy,
elephantiasis, psoriasis, ringworm, warts
and corns.
Uses of the cashew apple
The cashew “apple” or false fruit is an
edible food rich in vitamin C. A glass of
cashew apple juice meets an adult
individual’s daily need of vitamin C (30
mg). The cashew apple is also rich in
sugars, and contains considerable
amounts of tannins and minerals, mainly
calcium, iron and phosphorous.
Furthermore, the fruit has medicinal
properties. It is used for curing scurvy and
diarrhoea, and it is effective for preventing
cholera. It is useful in neurological pain
and rheumatism. It is also regarded as a
first-class source of energy.
The cashew apple can be dried, canned
as a preserve, or eaten fresh from the tree.
It can also be squeezed for fresh juice,
which can then be fermented into cashew
wine which is a very popular drink in West
Africa. In parts of India, it is used to distill
a cashew liquor called feni. In some parts
of South America, local inhabitants regard
the apple, rather than the nut kernel, as a
delicacy. In Brazil, the apple is used to
manufacture jams, and soft and alcoholic
drinks.
However, until recently, the potential of
cashew apple had not been investigated
due to its highly astringent and acrid taste
which is believed to originate in the waxy
layer of the skin and causes tongue and
ITDG Food Chain 28
3
throat irritation after eating. The fruits can
Cashew Products
be made suitable for consumption by
removing the undesirable tannins and
processing the apples into value-added
products, such as juices, syrups, canned
fruits, pickles, jams, chutneys, candy and
toffee. The recommended methods for
removing the astringent properties of the
cashew apple include steaming the fruit
for five minutes before washing it in cold
water; boiling the fruit in salt water for five
minutes; or adding gelatin solution to the
expressed juice.
The fruits should be picked from the
tree by hand to avoid bruising the delicate
flesh. They are then carefully washed and
the nuts are removed for processing.
Cashew apples should be processed
within two to three hours of picking, since
they perish when kept for a longer time.
Cashew processing
Cashew processing was, and in many
countries still is, traditionally a manual
operation. The irregular shape of the
cashew nut, the presence of a tough outer
shell and the corrosive CNSL within the
shell combine to make processing, in
particular the shelling stage, a dirty and
arduous task. Also, for the same reasons,
it has been extremely difficult to
mechanise this process while at the same
time maintaining high quality of the
product. Over the years various
mechanised cutters and shellers have
been developed and introduced. Since
cashew is a luxury commodity, often
exported, it is imperative that the quality
of processed kernels is high and
consistent. Mechanised cutters often
produce a lower quality product than the
manual shelling methods.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation
of the United Nations (FAO) has recently
revised their publication on small-scale
cashew processing. This manual has been
used as an important source of reference
for the articles in this issue. Readers are
asked to refer to this publication (which at
the time of production of this journal is
still in press) for further technical
information.
Emma Judge – Editor/Production Manager
 Global agricultural practices for
4
successful cashew development
Botanical characterisics
The cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale L.,
belongs to the Anacardiaceae family of
Agricultural practices
plants, which also includes the mango, the
pistachio and the poison ivy. The tree is a
native of Brazil, but it has spread to other
parts of tropical South and Central
America, Mexico and the West Indies. In
the 1600s, Portuguese traders introduced
the cashew tree into India and Africa to
prevent soil erosion. It is now widely
cultivated for its nuts and other products
in the coastal regions of South Africa,
Madagascar and Tanzania, and in South
Asia, from Sri Lanka to the Philippines.
The cashew tree is a tropical
evergreen, resistant to drought, which
grows up to 12 metres high and has a
symmetrical spread of up to
approximately 25 metres. It grows with a
minimum of attention and is easily
cultivated. It is usually found from sea
level to an altitude of 1000 metres, in
regions with annual rainfall as low as 500
mm and as high as 3750 mm. For
maximum productivity, good soil and
adequate moisture are essential.
Optimum conditions include an annual
rainfall of at least 889 mm and not more
than 3048 mm. The tree has an extensive
root system, which helps it tolerate a
wide range of moisture levels and soil
types, but commercial production is only
advisable in well-drained, sandy loam or
red soils. The cashew tree can flourish in
the sand of open beaches, but it grows
poorly in heavy clay or limestone.
Most cashew trees start bearing fruit in
the third or fourth year, and are likely to
reach their mature yield by the seventh
year if the conditions are favourable. The
average yield of nuts of a mature tree is in
the range of 7–11 kg per annum. Although
the cashew tree is capable of living for
50–60 years, most trees produce nuts for
about 15–20 years.
Sowing
The cashew tree is usually grown from
seeds placed directly in the field because
seedlings do not transplant well due to
their delicate root system. Seed nuts
should be thoroughly dry, clean and free
from insect or fungal attack. Unless there
are irrigation facilities, or seedlings are
raised in polythene bags in a nursery
where water is available, the seeds should
be stored until the next rainy season
before they are planted in the field. After a
few months, stored nuts gradually lose
their germination capacity.
Seeds should be water tested prior to
planting – those that sink should be
chosen as they have a high success rate
and tend to germinate quickly. Seeds
should be planted at a depth of about 5
cm. The maximum depth at which a seed
should be sown is about 10 cm,
depending on the soil conditions. Two or
three seeds should be planted together,
stem end up, at a slight incline and
covered with 5–8 cm of soil. Germination
usually takes place in 15–20 days,
although seeds of low density (i.e. those
that float in water) may require as long
as eight weeks to germinate. Using
seeds of high density, from selected
trees, considerably increases the chance
that some of the seeds at one site will
perform well. Two months after
sprouting, the two weakest seedlings
should be removed from the site, leaving
only the strongest one to grow. By
planting more than one seed, the
occurrence of gaps in a plantation is
reduced (Ohler, 19791).
In orchard practice, pits measuring
from 30 cm Χ 30 cm Χ 30 cm to 60 cm Χ 60
cm Χ 60 cm are dug and left to weather
for a month or two. They are then filled
with soil which has been mixed with
rotting manure about two weeks before
seeding. In loose soils of sufficient
fertility, the root system of the seedlings
develops so quickly that, when growing
naturally, root lengths would exceed the
size of the planting hole within a few
months and therefore in optimum
growing conditions planting holes are not
essential.
Advantages of sowing
● The plant can develop its root system
and especially its root tap quickly.
● It is the cheapest method of planting.
● It is the quickest method of planting –
one person can plant 400–500 sites
each day.
Disadvantages of sowing
● Lower rate of germination.
● Danger of serious damage by animals.
● Less opportunity for selection of
seedlings than when planting seedlings
that are raised in plastic bags in the
nursery.
ITDG Food Chain 28

Seasonal planting
In areas without irrigation facilities,
cashew seeds should be sown or planted
in the rainy season. The best time for
planting is when the rains have started to
fall regularly so that the soil does not dry
out again. If the soil dries out before the
germinated seeds have become securely
rooted, they may die. The advantage of
early planting is that it gives the seedlings
more time to develop before the dry
season starts.
In climates with irregular rainfall and
short rainy seasons, the risk of germinated
seedlings drying out can be reduced by
pre-soaking the seeds before planting,
deep sowing (5–10 cm) and covering the
site with mulching material to reduce
evaporation. The mulching material
should be carefully selected, and any
weeds with mature seeds should be
removed.
Raising seedlings in a nursery
Where it is necessary to raise seedlings in
a nursery, the seeds should be sown in
containers of a type that can be set in the
ground and readily disintegrate. In Cuba,
baskets of uva-grass or cona brava are
used, and cut away before setting the plant
into the ground. In Jamaica, it has been
The stem is girdled to induce The girdled stem is covered
root formation above the cut. with damp moss.
ITDG Food Chain 28
5
found that nursery seedlings can be raised
in the ground and transplanted with 90%
success, providing the plant is taken up
Agricultural practices
with a good ball of soil and the top is cut
back by one third when it is put into the
field. It is recommended that the seedlings
are transplanted within a week of
emerging, to ensure that the
transplantation is successful (CTCS, 19932).
Seedlings can also be planted using
plastic bags as containers. The seedlings
should be lifted into their planting holes
in the plastic bags, which are then
carefully slit with a sharp knife and
removed.
Air-layering
Air-layering has been one of the most
successful methods of vegetative
propagation in cashew. The method is
rather laborious and the cost is relatively
high, but the advantages of obtaining a
plantation from high yielding, uniform
material make these costs extremely
worthwhile. A disadvantage of this
method, as with all methods of layering,
is the relatively small number of layers
that can be produced by one tree per
year. It is estimated that from one tree,
80 to 120 successful layers can be
obtained.
Aluminium foil or plastic sheeting is
wrapped around the moss and tied at both
ends. This cover is removed 2–3 months
after tying or when roots can be seen.
Figure 1: Air-layering
6
A strip of bark about 0.5 cm wide is
removed from either a year old branch or
a pencil-thick shoot (about 1 cm
Agricultural practices
diameter) of the current season, at about
20–30 cm from the growing point. The
exposed wood is wrapped with twine to
prevent the bark from growing over it
during the healing process and covered
thickly with moist moss, wood shavings
or sand. It is then wrapped securely in a
sheet of 100–150 gauge plastic and the
ends are tied tightly to the branch with
twine (Figure 1).
After 20–30 days, callus is formed at
the foot of the layer and 40–50 days later,
small roots emerge from the callus
tissue. After approximately 75 days,
there should be adequate root formation
(five or more well formed roots
measuring 1.0–1.5 cm long) to separate
the twig from the tree. The part of the
twig below the layer is cut about halfway
through. One week later, the cut is
deepened and a few days later the layer
can be removed and transplanted into
plastic bags or other containers and
hardened off before planting. If the layer
is separated from the tree in one cut, the
shock will be too great for it to survive.
The whole process takes about two and a
half months.
Ground layering
The lowest branches of the cashew tree
tend to trail on the ground at a distance of
several metres from the trunk. Where
branches touch the ground, spontaneous
rooting may occur. Covering such
branches with soil and keeping the area
moist encourages rooting, a method
which has been used in India for a long
Two independent Identical slices of
plants with stems wood and bark (2.5–5
approximately the cm long) are cut from
same size e.g. seedling both stems. The
plants in containers stems are placed
Figure 2: The processes and established plants. closely together.
involved in inarching
time. However, such layers cannot be
easily transplanted to other places, and
the shape of the material tends to produce
low trees of spreading habit. The number
of layers that can be obtained in this way
is also rather low.
Approach-grafting or inarching
The technique of approach-grafting is
relatively easy but labour intensive, and
like air-layering has to be done in the
field. Seedlings to be grown as
rootstocks are raised in containers. Once
they are 8–9 months old, they are cut
back to half their height, and kept in
grass baskets for a month in the shade
until new shoots appear. The basket is
replaced by a sheet of 100 gauge plastic
to retain moisture and the seedling is
joined to a year old branch of the same
diameter on a selected tree as described
below (Figure 2).
From the stem of the seedling, and
from the shoot with which it will be
united, strips of bark and inner wood,
measuring about 5–8 cm in length, are
removed. Both cut surfaces, which should
be of the same size, are bound together
with twine and the join is firmly tied with
string, binding the seedling stem and the
shoot together. In 90 days the union
should be complete, and the grafted plant
is gradually separated from the parent. A
“v” cut is made half way through the
branch 2 cm below the graft, and a similar
cut is made in the rootstock 2 cm above
the graft. Seven or eight days later the
cuts are deepened and after a further
period of four days the severing is
completed. About 60% take is expected.
The stems are After graft union heals, the
bound tightly stock plant is cut above the
together with union, and the scion cut below
string, raffia or the union.
tape.
ITDG Food Chain 28

Land preparation
Cashew seedlings are very sensitive to
competition with weeds, but in many
areas, especially on sloping land, the
vegetation should not be removed
completely before planting because of the
danger of water and wind erosion. In
tropical countries with a marked dry
season, and where the rainy season tends
to start with torrential rains, the danger of
erosion increases if large areas of land
have been cleared.
If the soil is very sandy and subject to
strong winds, clearing the land may
result in severe wind erosion which is
virtually impossible to stop. In these
areas, the land should be cleared in
strips which are perpendicular to the
direction of the prevailing winds. Once
the cashew trees have developed to such
an extent that their rows act as wind
breaks, the remaining land can be
cleared. Another important reason for
leaving strips of natural vegetation is to
ensure that the insect population
required for pollinating the cashew
flowers is maintained.
The removal of tree stumps is an
expensive but essential part of the
clearing process. The sprouting stumps
need to be slashed each year as they
compete with the cashew trees and
prevent a good view between the rows.
Spacing
To promote maximum development and
reduce competition for available moisture,
it is recommended that the seedlings are
planted 10–15 metres apart. This is
considered to be the most productive
spacing for mature trees. The average
yield per hectare will be 700–1000 kg but
yields outside these limits are
encountered. However, cashew trees are
normally planted more closely, which
results in overcrowding, and they are
often intermixed with other trees either in
small orchards or in the wild.
Diseases and pests
Cashew seedlings can be affected by a
number of different diseases. The fungus,
Colletotrichum glocosporioides, is one of the
most common pathogens in cashew
(Ohler, 19791). Initial symptoms show the
development of reddish-brown, shiny,
water-soaked lesions, followed by resin
oozing out onto the affected parts. As the
ITDG Food Chain 28
7
lesions grow, the affected shoots and
inflorescences are killed and the leaves
become crumpled. The affected nuts and
Agricultural practices
apples decay and shrivel, and the flowers
turn black and fall off. The trees can be
sprayed with various fungicides,
including Bordeaux mixture, to control
the fungus.
Several diseases that result in the
terminal twigs dying off are grouped
under the name “die-back” or “pink
disease” which is produced by
Glocosporium. There may be associated
pitting of the surface of the nut. This
serious disease requires the affected
branches to be pruned and sprayed with a
1% Bordeaux mixture or other copper-
based fungicides.
Characteristic symptoms of infections
which attack cashew include wilting and
withering; the yellowing of the lower
leaves; the seedlings turning pale and
showing water-soaked girdles of darkened
tissue around the stems; or the rotting of
the underground portion of the stem.
Powdery mildew may appear on young
leaves and inflorescences during dry
weather.
Insect pests are a major source of crop
loss in all cashew-growing areas of the
world. More than 60 species of insects
attack the crop during its different stages
of growth. These pests include sap-
sucking bugs, leaf-chewing caterpillars,
beetles, aphids, scales, thrips and some
mites. They can cause considerable
damage to the tree and the crop by
bringing about the death of the floral-
flushing shoots, the early abortion of
young nuts and loss of yield.
Rodents, such as rats, squirrels and
porcupines, may cause serious damage to
cashew seedlings, especially once they
emerge above the ground. Cashew apples
are sometimes attacked by fruit flies.
Monkeys are partial to ripe apples and can
cause damage to the cashew trees whilst
foraging for the fruit. Bats and parrots also
like to eat cashew apples.
1 Ohler, J.G. 1979. Cashew. Amsterdam,
Department of Agricultural Research.
2 Caribbean Technological Consultancy Services
(CTCS) Network, 1993. Information package on
cultivation, processing and marketing of
cashews. St.Michael, Barbados, Caribbean
Technological Consultancy Services Network.
 Harvesting cashews
8
Harvesting
The harvesting and processing of cashew
is very labour intensive. Generally,
Harvesting
harvesting consists of collecting the nuts
once they have dropped to the ground
after maturing. Workers scour the area
and detach the nut from the fruit. For the
nuts to be easily traced, the surface under
the tree has to be free from weeds. In
some places, the whole area under the
tree is swept free of dry leaves as well.
The nuts should be collected in baskets or
sacks. Cashew fruit are generally left to
fall to the ground before being collected,
as this is an indication that the kernel is
mature. If fruit are picked from the trees,
the cashew apple will be ripe, but the
kernel will still be immature.
In very dry climates where the topsoil
remains dry overnight, nuts can be left
under the trees for several weeks without
their quality being affected. However,
where humidity of the air or soil causes
moisture and dew to form, the nuts
should be reaped at least twice a week.
If the apples are being used for
processing into products such as jam or
juices, the fruit should be picked from the
tree before they fall naturally. If the
apples fall to the ground they may burst
and lose some of their juice. Once
damaged, the apples may ferment and
deteriorate quite rapidly. The riper the
apple, the sweeter it will be, and
therefore it is recommended that the
apple is picked as it is about to fall. At
this stage the nut has already been fully
grown for about two weeks and so it is
also ripe and ready for harvesting.
Apples which are not within reach of
the picker’s hands can be harvested using
a small basket or sack attached to a ring at
the end of a long stick. Fully ripe apples
will drop into the sack when the tree is
shaken. Apples that have not matured
completely should be cut off with a small
knife attached to the stick. The nuts have
to remain attached to the apple, as some
juice may be lost once they are removed.
The cashew apple will only keep for 24
hours after it has been picked.
Transporting large quantities of apples is
difficult and losses are usually incurred.
When the soft and delicate produce are
stacked in layers, those apples in the
lower layers may burst and lose their
juice because of the weight on top of
them.
Drying of the raw material
Cashew nuts are dried in the sun for two
reasons:
● To reduce the moisture content in the
nut
● To mature the seed in the infra-red and
ultra-violet rays of the sun
Cashew nuts can keep for 12 months or
more, provided they are dried to reduce
the moisture content to 8% or below,
packed in sealed polythene bags and
stored in proper conditions. The moisture
content of cashew nuts at harvest
depends on climatic conditions, moisture
of the soil on which the nuts have fallen,
weed growth density under the tree and
the time between nut fall and harvest.
High moisture content may cause
deterioration of the kernel due to mould or
bacterial attack. Drying the nuts
immediately after harvesting is essential
to preserve their quality, but this process
is often neglected.
Sun drying of cashew nuts can be done
on specially prepared drying floors, or
mats made of bamboo or palm leaves.
The drying areas should be smooth and
slightly sloping to allow rainwater to run
off. The cashew nut layer on the drying
floor should not be thicker than 10 cm,
which allows for about 60 kg of nuts per
square metre. The nuts should be
constantly raked to ensure that they all
receive the same benefit of the sun’s rays
and therefore they are dried evenly. In the
evening, the nuts should be heaped
together and covered. If the heaping is
done while the nuts are still warm, they
will continue to dry under the cover of a
tarpaulin. The nuts should be checked the
following morning to see if they still
require further drying and if so they
should be respread on the drying floors or
mats.
The nuts should be dried until they
make a rattling sound when falling, which
can take between one to three days
depending upon local climatic conditions.
As soon as the nuts are dry, they should
be stored and protected from rain.
Storage
Technical requirements for storage
depend very much on the climate. As
cashew nuts are usually produced in
climates with a long dry season, simple
buildings with concrete floors and walls,
ITDG Food Chain 28

and roofs of corrugated iron, should
provide adequate storage.
There are certain prerequisites that
must be satisfied to ensure safe storage:
● a waterproof, dry floor
● a firm and secure roof
● the openings in the wall must be
protected to stop rain entering the
room
● sufficient head room to allow the bags
in a stack to be moved around if large
quantities are to be stored
● facilities for being able to inspect the
store, and sufficient space between the
wall and the bags to allow people to
International Conference on
Wild Rice (ICWR)
November 4 to 10, 2001
Kathmandu, Nepal
Topics to be covered include:
● Present field status of wild rice
● Field conservation status of wild rice
in nature
● Field research and its application in
breeding
● Genetic research on wild rice
● Fundamental research on wild rice
● Field research on wild rice
● Conservation and related research
on wild rice
● Institutional efforts on above
subjects
● Donors’ efforts on wild rice research
● Donors’ efforts on in situ
conservation of wild rice
● Other wild relatives of cultivated rice
● Any other subjects related to wild
rice
The Green Energy Mission/Nepal
(GEM/Nepal), established in November
1994, is a national level non-
governmental organisation (NGO)
involved in research and development
of plant genetic resources of Nepal that
are of global interest, and of genetic,
ITDG Food Chain 28
9
walk around to check whether the stack
is holding firm
● a raised wooden platform on the floor
Harvesting
to prevent moisture being drawn from
the floor into the nuts
Infestation of harvested nuts
Raw cashew nuts, stored in sacks,
sometimes in the open awaiting shipment,
and frequently without protection from
rain, are subject to infestation through the
stem-end, and this may go undetected
until damage has progressed to the point
of heavy loss. Infestation also occurs in
the shelled kernels at various stages of
handling.
medicinal, cultural, religious and socio-
economic values. One of its research
activities is in agricultural crops and
their wild relatives in Nepal.
Submission of papers
The abstract must be written in good
English and should not be less than
one page, or more than two pages, in
length. It should contain the names and
addresses of authors, including
telephone, fax and e-mail details.
Please state clearly the objective of the
work and its relevance to wild rice,
including some results and a brief
conclusion wherever possible. All
abstracts should be sent in triplicate to
the address below.
For further information, please contact:
Gyan L. Shrestha Ph.D.
Conference Chairman and Executive Director
Green Energy Mission / Nepal
Anaam Nagar, Kathmandu
P.O. Box 10674
Nepal
Tel: +997 1 248152 Fax: +997 1 410857
E-mail: comquick@wlink.com.np
 Methods for processing cashews
10
Introduction
The main objective of processing is to
Processing remove the valuable cashew kernel from
the shell with as little damage as possible.
Whole kernels command a higher price
than broken pieces. Also, pale ivory
coloured or white kernels are preferable to
coloured or burnt ones. The acrid cashew
shell nut liquid (CNSL) has to be removed
during the process, without either
contaminating the cashew kernels or
burning the hand of the processor.
Processing methods have improved
considerably over the years. The main
difficulties in shelling cashew nuts are the
irregular shape of the nut, the tough
leathery outer shell, and the CNSL within
the shell that must not be allowed to
contaminate the kernel during its removal
from the shell.
Traditionally, extraction of the kernel
from the shell of the cashew nut has been
a manual operation. The nut is roasted
which makes the shell brittle and loosens

Cleaning

Soaking in water

Roasting

Open pan roasting Drum roasting Hot oil roating

Use ashes
or gloves
Shelling

Manual Mechanical

Expeller CNSL
extraction

Pre-grading

Drying
Solar/furnace High volume
Open sun drying
drying furnace dryer

Peeling

Grading

Key: Dotted boxes – Large

scale production
Packaging
Overview of cashew nut
processing

ITDG Food Chain 28

 11
the kernel from the inside of the shell. By Roasting
soaking the nuts in water, the moisture Following conditioning, the nuts need to

Processing
content of the kernel is raised, reducing be prepared for the removal of shells. The
the risk of it being scorched during application of heat to the nut releases the
roasting and making it more flexible so it cashew nut shell liquid and makes the
is less likely to crack. The CNSL is shell brittle which facilitates the extraction
released when the nuts are roasted. Its of the kernel when breaking the shell
value makes collection in sufficient open. Three methods of roasting exist:
quantities economically advantageous. open pan, drum roasting and the ‘hot oil’
However, for very small-scale processors, method. The latter is more suitable to
this stage is unlikely to take place due to medium-scale operations because of the
the high cost of the special roasting associated higher equipment costs and
equipment required for the CNSL viability of CNSL collection. The roasted
collection. cashew nuts may be centrifuged to
remove any adhering surface liquid from
Cleaning the nut.
The first processing operation for all
processors is to remove foreign matter Open pan roasting
and dirt from the nuts. The nuts are An open, mild steel, circular dished pan of
collected from the ground where they around 2 feet (60 cm) in diameter is
have fallen from the trees. The apples supported on a basic earth fireplace
are still attached and need to be (Figure 1). When heated, 2–3 lbs (1 kg) of
nuts are placed on the pan at one time
removed along with other foreign matter.
and stirred constantly. The CNSL starts to
At the simplest level, the nuts can be
exude and then ignites. This produces a
sieved by hand using a three-quarter
long flame and black smoke. After
inch (20 mm) mesh sieve to remove dust
approximately two minutes, the pan is
and dirt.
dowsed and the charred, swollen and
brittle nuts are thrown out of the pan. The
Soaking or conditioning moisture evaporates quickly leaving the
The nuts are soaked in water to avoid nuts ready for shelling.
scorching them during the roasting
operation. For a small-scale operation, Drum roasting
after cleaning, the nuts are placed in a The idea of continually feeding the nuts
large open drum (180–220 litres / 40–45 into a rotating drum over a fire developed
gallons). Water is poured into the drum
and the nuts allowed to stand for ten
minutes before the water is drained off
through a hole in the base of the drum.
The damp nuts are left to stand to absorb
the adhering water. The soaking and
conditioning operation is repeated up to
three or four times until the nuts have a
moisture content of 9%, reducing the risk
of scorching during roasting and making
them more flexible so they are less likely
to crack.
Where the production output runs
from 2–10 tonnes of nuts per day, a
simple cleaning and conditioning
arrangement can be used. Two people
open the sacks of harvested nuts on a
stand and clean the raw nuts as they are
moved along a flat sieve, to two vats
which are used for storage until the
soaking process begins. Two vats are
useful because one can be emptied while
the other is being filled. Figure 1: Pan roasting

ITDG Food Chain 28

12
from the pan method. A slight horizontal
slope in the mounting ensures the
Processing movement of the nuts through the drum.
The drum is pierced so that the flames
touch the nuts and the smoke is controlled
by a hood and chimney arrangement. The
nuts are dowsed using a continuous
spray.
This process was modified by
harnessing the heat from the burning
CNSL and using it to further roast the
nuts. The roaster consists of a contained
helical screw which moves the burning
nuts at a controlled rate. The design was a
distinct improvement, with little fuel being
consumed and there being greater control
on the roasting time.
‘Hot oil’ roasting
The principle employed in this method is
that oil-bearing substances i.e. the shells,
when immersed in the same oil at high
temperature, will lose their oil, thus
increasing the volume of the oil in the
tank. For this method, conditioning
becomes important. The equipment
required consists of a tank of CNSL heated
to a temperature of 185–190°C by a
furnace underneath and a wire basket to
hold the nuts for immersion into the tank.
The depth of the basket must be sufficient
so that the rim remains well above the oil
during the roasting. Immersion time can
range from 1.5 to 4 minutes. About 50% of
the liquid is extracted from the nuts.
Draining trays are needed at the end of
the tank for the roasted nuts to dry and
the residue oil can be returned to the tank.
Caution must be taken not to heat the tank
to over 200°C because at this point
polymerization of the CNSL takes place.
The temperature can be maintained by
continuous firing. The tank should be
emptied and cleaned after each day’s
roasting. The life of a tank made of mild
steel plate (3mm thick) should exceed one
and a half years and can be constructed
locally with welding facilities.
The ‘hot oil’ method is favoured by
larger scale processors. However, a power
driven plant requires capital and is less
flexible than a less sophisticated drum
roaster.
Shelling
The objective of shelling is to produce
clean, whole kernels free of cracks. The
shell can either be cracked manually,
using a hammer, or mechanically.
Manually operated blade openers are
relatively inexpensive, however the more
successful mechanical methods depend
on the nuts having passed through the
‘hot oil’ CNSL extraction operation. Once
the kernel is removed from the shell, it is
dried, the testa is peeled off and the kernel
is graded and packaged.
Manual shelling
In the manual shelling process, the nuts
are placed on a flat stone and cracked with
a wooden mallet. If the nuts are being
manually shelled, gloves need to be used
or alternatively, the nuts should be
tumbled in sawdust or ashes to absorb the
liquid coating which has a harmful effect
on the skin. An average sheller can open
one nut in about six seconds or ten nuts
per minute. In an eight hour working day,
this amounts to about 4,800 nuts or about
5 kg of kernels. At an extraction rate of
24%, this quantity corresponds with about
21 kg of raw nuts per day or about 7 tonnes
per year. However, experienced shellers in
India can produce around half as much
again, with a quality of 90% whole kernels.
Other countries have difficulty in
competing with the great skill and the low
wages of the Indian workers. Therefore,
India has enjoyed a virtual monopoly of
cashew processing for a long time. Manual
shelling is still relevant to the small-scale
processor, although a close look at the
mechanical option is advisable in all cases.
Mechanical shelling
A range of equipment has been developed
to remove shells from cashew nuts. The
main challenge with mechanical shelling
is to remove the kernel without damage or
contamination from the CNSL. The most
successful mechanised decorticators work
on nuts that have been conditioned by the
‘hot oil’ process which makes the shell
brittle and easier to break.
A semi-mechanised process that has
been used predominantly in Brazil uses a
pair of knives, each shaped in the contour
of half a nut. When the knives come
together by means of a foot-operated
lever, they cut through the shell around
the nut, leaving the kernel untouched. Two
people work at each table; the first cuts
the nuts and the second person opens
them and separates the kernel from the
ITDG Food Chain 28

shell. Daily production is about 15 kg of
kernels per team.
The first mechanised shelling system,
Oltremare, is also based on two nut-shaped
knives. The nuts are brought to the knives
on a chain, each nut aligned to fit between
the knives. The nuts are pushed between
the knives and cut. The chain itself has to
be fed manually. After coming together,
the knives make a twisting movement,
thus separating the shell halves. The
disadvantages of this method are that
nuts smaller than 18 mm cannot be
processed, and output is reduced because
not all the spaces on the chain can be
filled; this can count for as much as 10%
of the production volume.
The shelling machines of the Cashco
system are also chain fed but the nuts are
automatically aligned. The shelling device
has two knives that cut the sides of the nut,
and a pin that is wedged into the stalk end
of the nut separates the shell halves. The
advantage of this system is a fully
mechanised operation with an output of
about 75% whole kernel quality. Nuts
smaller than 15 mm cannot be processed.
Centrifugal shellers use a system which
is simple and enables a continuous flow. A
rotary paddle projects the shells against
the solid casing of the machine and the
impact cracks open the shell without
breaking the kernel. All sizes of nuts can
be processed by this method, however, it
is necessary to grade the nuts into about
four sizes because a different rotary speed
is used for the various size groups. The
percentage of whole kernels produced is
around 75%. By weakening the shells with
grooves before the operation begins, this
percentage can be increased. The speed of
the rotor can be reduced and the risk of
damaging the kernels is minimised.
Separation
After shelling, shell pieces and kernels are
separated, and the unshelled nuts are
returned to the shelling operation. Usually
blowers and shakers are used to separate
the lighter shell pieces from the kernels.
The greatest problem is to recover small
pieces of kernel sticking to the shell. This
is usually done manually from a conveyor
belt used to carry all the sorted semi-
shelled nuts.
ITDG Food Chain 28
13
Pre-grading
Pre-grading can be done before or after
Processing
drying the kernels and may greatly reduce
the final grading work. For large-scale
processors pre-grading can be done
mechanically, separating mainly the whole
from the broken kernels and sometimes
separating the different size groups of
whole kernels.
Drying
The shelled kernel is covered with the
testa and to facilitate removal, i.e. to peel
in order to produce the blanched kernel,
the shelled kernel is dried. This shrinks the
kernel so that the testa can easily be
removed by hand with a knife or by
mechanical means. Drying also protects
the kernel from pest and fungus attack at
this vulnerable stage. All processors dry
the shelled kernels before peeling.
The moisture content is approximately
6% before drying and 3% after. It is
important that the drying capacity is
higher than the shelling capacity, in case
there are periods of heavy rainfall. In
these circumstances, the drying operation
will be lengthened, since the kernels
absorb moisture very quickly.
Sun drying, where the kernels are
spread out in thin layers under strong
sunshine is possible, however it is heavily
reliant on a constant supply of sunshine.
There is no danger of scorching the
kernels using this method, but it may be
prolonged in cases of bad weather, which
can lead to the development of mould.
Artificial drying is more reliable and is
necessary for medium or large-scale
producers. Drying usually takes six hours,
at a temperature of around 70°C. A
uniform temperature throughout the drier
is essential to avoid under drying or
scorching. Various designs of drier are
available. A tray drier, designed by ITDG,
contains a series of mesh-bottom trays
that are slotted into the drying cabinet
(Figure 2). The trays should be of a size
that can be lifted when full. A lever
mechanism automatically moves the trays
down when dried trays are removed and
new ones are entered into the cabinet. Hot
air circulates over the trays and out
through the chimney. The heat source can
either be a gas or electric powered heater
or generated by burning cashew shells or
other sources of fuel.
14
Processing
Turbine ventilator
Loading door
Main door
Unloading door
Sight glasses
Hand wheel
6 inches
Drying programmes are normally
organised so that the kernels from one
day’s shelling go directly into the oven for
overnight drying. In the dried state, the
kernels are at their most vulnerable. They
are brittle and will break very easily. It is
essential that the kernels are handled
carefully to minimise damage.
Peeling
At this stage, the testa is loosely attached
Figure 2: Diagram of a to the kernel, although a small amount of
tray drier kernels may have already lost the testa
during the previous operations. Manual
peeling is done by gently rubbing with the
fingers. Those parts still attached to the
kernel are removed by the use of a
bamboo knife. One person can peel about
10–12 kg of kernels per day.
It is important that the kernels are not
cut or damaged during the peeling
process. The use of knives increases the
likelihood of the kernels becoming
damaged, but it is also essential that all
the testa is removed. Gentle scraping of
the testa with a blunt knife is the most
effective way of removing it.
The peeler can separate the peeled
kernels into different grades. At the most
basic level, the kernels are separated into
white wholes, scorched wholes, white
pieces, scorched pieces, browns and
refuse. However, the more experienced
graders are able to separate into more
categories. It is preferable that grading is
carried out at the time of peeling as this
cuts down on handling of the brittle
kernels. However, there is the opportunity
for further grading after the peeling has
finished.
It is essential that the peelers work in
well lit conditions to enable them to
remove all the testa. At the end of the day,
the removed testa is winnowed and all
cashew pieces removed. The dust and
very fine pieces that cannot be peeled,
together with the diseased pieces, are
classified as refuse and are thrown away.
The browns, which are kernels that are
badly diseased and which have not been
separated out during the shelling
operation, must also be removed and
discarded (FAO, 20011).
The mechanised processes of peeling
differ widely. They include air-blasting,
suction, a freezing operation and a system
of rubber rollers. These systems offer low
efficiencies due to the difficulty of
removing the testa, and the amount of
breakages can be as high as 30%.
Currently research and development is
taking place to improve the viability of the
mechanisation of this operation.
After peeling, the kernels are weighed
to record the daily production. The peeled
kernels are vulnerable to insect infestation
and growth of mould. They are also prone
to rodent attack and should be stored in
rodent-proof containers or rooms.
Grading
The grading operation is important as it is
the last opportunity for quality control on
the kernels. After the kernels are extracted
from the shells, dried and peeled, they are
graded for export according to size and
condition. The grading system is known
as the American Standard, which is also
incorporated in the Indian Government
export. Kernels are categorised into types
according to their colour and condition
and these are roughly divided into three
groups – white whole, white pieces and
scorched grades.
With the exception of a few grading
aids, all grading is done by hand. Graders
sit on high stools or stand at tables that
are covered in blankets to provide a soft
surface and reduce breakage. The blankets
also hold any dust that is removed from
the kernel. It is essential that the room is
ITDG Food Chain 28

well lit as colour is an important grading
criterion. With experience, graders
become accustomed to picking out kernels
of one particular size. In addition, all
graders also pick out scorched kernels and
broken pieces.
There have been several attempts to
mechanise the grading of kernels, but with
limited success. Power driven rotary
sieves are one mechanical method,
another being two outwardly rotating
rubber rollers aligned at a diverging angle.
For large operations looking towards
export markets, it is necessary to grade
the kernels to an international level.
Quality has emerged, ahead of price, as
the most vital criterion for any item if it is
seeking entry into the global market.
Quality aspects include safety, reliability,
durability and acceptability of the product
to the consumer (Nayar, 19952). Small-
scale processors have to match the
standards set by importers, consumers
and standards agencies. Details of the
minimum requirements for export will be
available from the Ministry for Export or
the Chambers of Commerce.
There are no grading standards for raw
cashews, but certain minimum
requirements apply:
Minimum requirements
1 Kernels should be free from any deterioration likely
to affect the natural keeping quality of the nuts and
make them unfit for human consumption. They
should be:
● Sufficiently developed and ripe
● Clean, practically free from any visible foreign
matter
● Free from living or dead insects, whatever their
stage of development
● Free from visible insect damage, mites or other
parasites
● Free from mould or rancidity
● Free from adhering shell liquid or taste
● Free of any foreign smell or taste
2 Cashew kernels should have a moisture content no
greater than 5%.
Rehumidification
Before the kernels are packed, it is
necessary to ensure that their moisture
content rises from 3%up to around 5%.
This is to make the kernels less fragile,
thus lessening the risk of breakage during
transport. In humid climates, the kernels
ITDG Food Chain 28
15
may absorb enough moisture during
peeling and grading to make a further
Processing
rehumidification process unnecessary.
The final moisture content is critical
since, if it is above 6%, conditions will be
ideal for mould growth. The optimum
moisture content is 5%, and many
processors have facilities for bringing the
moisture content up to this level if it is
low, and drying down to 5% if it is higher.
For increasing moisture content,
processors have conditioning rooms.
These are rooms that can be completely
closed, in which trays of cashew kernels
are placed overnight to absorb moisture
from the surrounding air. If the humidity is
low, the floor is sprayed with water before
closing the door. If relative humidity is
high, it may be unnecessary to add water
to the floor. Steam is sometimes used for
humidifying the kernels. Saturated steam
is allowed into the conditioning room. The
amount of steam to be injected is
determined with experience.
Packing
The normal packaging for export of
kernels is in air-tight tins of 25 lbs (11.34
kg) in weight. The packing needs to be
impermeable, as cashew kernels are
subject to rancidity and go stale very
quickly.
After filling and weighing, the cap
should be soldered on in preparation for
the vita pack process. This consists of
removing all the air from the tin and
substituting this with carbon dioxide
(CO2). The advantages of packing cashew
kernels in carbon dioxide are twofold.
Firstly, carbon dioxide will not support life
so any infestation that may have been
present is arrested. Secondly, carbon
dioxide is soluble in cashew oil and goes
into solution as soon as the seals are
made. In a short space of time, a decrease
in pressure takes place as the carbon
dioxide goes into solution and the sides,
top and bottom of the can are drawn
inwards. Thus the kernels are held tight in
the tin, preventing movement and
breakage during transport. Carbon
dioxide, being a heavy gas, causes the
upward displacement of air and will
remain in the tins after the filling process.
Some large-scale machines will operate
on six tins at a time, creating a vacuum in
each and then filling them with carbon
dioxide.
16
Some processors do not have vacuum
pumps, and displace the air in the tin by
Processing feeding in carbon dioxide through a small
hole in the bottom of a side of the tin. The
carbon dioxide valve is turned off when all
the air has been replaced. The holes in the
tin are then sealed, with the hole at the
bottom of the side of the tin being done
first, and the one on the top last.
Infestation
Far too little attention is paid to the
infestation hazards of cashew kernels.
These hazards are more prevalent at some
times of the year than others, however a
good processor will be vigilant all the
time. The main insect pests are ants, grain
weevils and meal moths.
The most important defence against
infestation of any type is cleanliness, and
is essential in the rooms used for drying,
peeling, grading, conditioning, and
packaging. Floors and walls must be
sound and free from cracks. They should
Agromisa Courses: Participation in
Local Government
Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Agromisa is a knowledge centre for the
south, focusing on small-scale
sustainable agriculture. Agromisa has
been organising the course ‘Participation
in Local Government’ since 1994.
The A-Week: An introductory course
on the concept of participation and
various participatory methods. This five
day course offers a mix of theory and
practice and is useful for development
workers from a wide range of
disciplines, especially those who have
little or no experience in the use of
participatory methods.
Year 2001: next A-week coming up
24–28 September 2001
The A-Week Plus: This course is
mainly practically based. It is designed
to give the course participant practical
skills in facilitating group processes
and training. The week is completed
with a Participatory Implementation
Plan for the participant’s own working
situation. This five day course builds on
be kept white-washed regularly. Some
processors have filled the corners and
places where the wall meets the floor with
a curved filling so that the room can be
properly swept, all corners having been
eliminated.
Speed of operations between drying
and packaging must be stressed as this
reduces the critical period when attacks
may occur to a minimum. The equipment
used must also be thoroughly cleaned on
a regular basis as insects may breed in
hidden crevices and gaps.
It is in the dried condition that the
kernels are most vulnerable, being both
brittle and susceptible to insect infestation.
Therefore, at this stage, they must be
handled with care and moved to the next
stage of peeling as quickly as possible.
1 FAO. 2001. Small-scale cashew nut processing, by
S. Azam-Ali and E. Judge. FAO, Rome (In press).
2 Nayar, K.G. 1995. Cashew: a crop with unlimited
potential. The Cashew, Jan – March, 1995.
knowledge gained in the A-week and is
meant for people who have completed
the A-week or have experience in
participatory methods.
Year 2001: next A-week Plus coming
up 1–5 October 2001
Cost: Euro 1300–/ (approximately
US$1250), including VAT (Fees include
meals, accommodation and course
materials). Please note that Agromisa
cannot fund course fees, as we are a
not-for-profit organisation and we have
limited financial resources. We also offer
“tailor made courses”. The course can
be adapted entirely to the needs and
wishes of your organisation and/or work.
For more information and registration forms
please contact:
The Agromisa Foundation, P.O. Box 41,
6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 412217 Fax: +31 317 419178
E-mail: agromisa@wxs.nl
Internet: www.agralin.nl/agromisa
ITDG Food Chain 28
Cashew sub-sector intervention strategy
This article is an extract from a paper presented by
Carlos Costa at the international conference
‘Cashing in on Cashew’ held in Sri Lanka. It
describes the production of cashew in Mozambique,
the problems facing small-scale producers and
possible solutions to improve processing techniques.
Introduction
Mozambique, once the main cashew
producing country in the world, has seen
its production drop drastically in the last
20 years. Average annual production is
now only 50,000 tonnes, whereas it once
reached a peak of 200,000 tonnes. This
decline in production is consistent
throughout eastern African producing
countries.
Together with a decline in the
production of cashews, Mozambique has
also seen a decrease in the proportion of
nuts that are processed in country, with a
rise in the level of exports of raw nuts. The
large processing units now stand empty
and almost derelict and the country’s
cashew producers depend on raw nut
importers for sale of their stock. The price
they receive for their raw nuts is highly
dependent on the price of nuts harvested
in India.
The purpose of this study was to
investigate the cashew sub-sector and to
recommend how the sector could be
rejuvenated, so as to bring benefits to the
smallholder producers and processors in
Mozambique.
Structure of the cashew sub-sector
in Mozambique
According to the findings of a study1
conducted by the World Bank and the
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
(MAP) on the cashew sub-sector,
agriculture is the primary and dominant
occupation in rural Mozambique. Around
89% of household heads have declared
that machamba (smallholding) work is
their main occupation while only about
one in five households receives any off-
farm income.
The importance of the cashew crop among
the smallholder producers
Cashew is the most important cash crop
among rural Mozambican households and
represents an important source of rural
household income. Nationally, 40% of
rural households have cashew trees.
ITDG Food Chain 28
17
Among the three main cashew producing
Mozambique
provinces, as many as 80% of all
households have cashew trees and about
65% of all households harvest cashew.
Cashew-producing households have
about 60 trees each. Cashew is also the
most intensively produced cash crop
among female-headed households (37%
cultivate cashew), although the scale of
production among these households
tends to be marginally smaller (48 trees
per female headed household versus 64
trees per male headed household). The
average production of nuts per tree is 1.3
Africa
kg.
The sale of raw cashew nuts,
furthermore, constitutes an important
source of income for the average rural
household in the main cashew growing
provinces. Many households convert
cashew to alcohol (31%), juice (34%), dry
apple (25%), and kernel (62%). In the
south, the income from the sale of alcohol
is significant in relation to household
earnings.
The provinces of Nampula, Inhambane
and Gaza differ markedly with respect to
cashew production and marketing.
Nampula has a large population density.
The farms are small in size. At household
level, the production of cashew seems
very small, but at the district or provincial
level, this is not the case. Nampula has 2%
of the country’s population while
Inhambane and Gaza have 10 and 8%
respectively. The trading in Nampula is
comparatively higher than in the other
provinces. As a result, commercialised
cashew output per household in Nampula
was more than three times that of
Inhambane and almost twice that of Gaza
in 1995/96.
Cashew nut commercialisation
There are many players in the process of
commercialising cashew. The smallholder
producers are the price takers and the
processors are obliged to pay the benefits
of middlemen. The distribution of nuts is
as follows:
Smallholder producer ➔ retailer ➔
district wholesaler ➔ provincial
wholesaler ➔ processor ➔ exporter
A gender pilot study indicates that cashew
is sold mainly to traders (lojas). Itinerant
traders (ambulantes) have a more
important role in the north than in the
18
south. Most individuals sell their cashew
Mozambique
to lojas (70%), followed by sales to
ambulantes (15%). There is not much
difference in this regard between male
and female-headed households.
Ambulantes are represented more in
Nampula (20%), whereas ‘other buyers’,
presumably agents of the processing
factories are found more often in Gaza
(19%) and Inhambane (12%). Only 9% of
households reported that traders came to
their farms.
Recently some stronger players
emerged in the channel. They are
Africa
associations organised with the support of
some NGOs in the north of the country.
These new players are expected to turn to
traders not only for cashew, but for other
agriculture products as well. They will
have a great role to play in boosting
agricultural production in the country.
Normally the smallholder producer does
not care for trees due to poor prices of the
raw nut. The associations, however, could
play a lead role in creating awareness on
the benefits to be gained by caring for
trees.
Farmers indicated several reasons for
low inputs and production of cashew nuts:
● Property rights on existing cashew
orchards are not clear and they are
difficult to enforce. As a result, thefts
are frequent occurrences.
● Limited knowledge of farmers about
farming cashew and limited ability to
finance treatment methods of plant
materials.
● Poor transport infrastructure in rural
areas, causing serious difficulties in the
trading of raw nuts even when they are
available.
● Some farmers have mentioned that
limited research is also a constraint.
Processing of cashew in Mozambique
In Mozambique, the processing units use
four different technologies to decorticate,
or extract the edible oil from the shell.
These include manual shelling with
hammer, semi-mechanical cutting,
mechanical cutting and impact shelling.
The remaining steps in the process do not
differ greatly between processing units.
The cashew industry in Mozambique
has a long tradition. The first cashew
business was set up by an Indian trader as
a cottage industry among black women in
the south of the country and it grew up to
become the first processing unit in
Mozambique. In certain areas, where
better skills were needed, women proved
to perform better than men. This was, and
still is, an advantage for the owners,
because they get better results but can
pay lower salaries to women. However,
conditions for the women workers are
dirty, difficult and sometimes dangerous.
Despite the long tradition of the cashew
industry in Mozambique, it is facing
several problems. With the decline in
production and in local processing, some
units have been forced to close down. In
others, large numbers of workers were
retrenched without compensation. Most
entrepreneurs affected by the lack of raw
cashew nuts blame the government for
making the market more liberal. However,
even if most factories could get enough
raw materials, they would not be able to
generate profits because they have
several other weaknesses and unless they
completely change their structure and
practices they will not succeed. Some of
the problems that have been highlighted
are:
● Obsolete technology and equipment
● Mixed technology – manual (Indian)
with automatic (Oltremare-Italian)
● Inefficient lay-out
● Lack of management skills (this has
been identified as the most serious
problem)
● Low turn out of wholes and white
kernel
● Located away from sources of raw nuts
Recommendations – alternatives to
improvement in processing
The core reason for restructuring the
processing industry is that Mozambique is
facing serious problems with the old
processing units due to several problems,
such as unsuitable technology, poor
management skills and poor location.
These problems outweigh the availability
of raw cashews. To improve the local
processing of cashews, Mozambique has
two main options:
1. Small complete units (accomplishing all
steps of processing)
2. Decentralised shelling (performing the
earlier steps on processing, shelling) –
these are units that are placed right
inside rural areas, need less electricity,
and perform only the first steps of
ITDG Food Chain 28
 19

Mozambique
Option 1. Placement of small complete units in rural areas

Pros Cons
Create jobs Requires capital
Motivated labour Weak local management skills
Potential for working capital management Export marketing capacity
Attracts private and public investment Need appropriate buildings
Requires local utilities, especially
electricity

Recommended interventions
● Identify and mobilise local entrepreneurs with investment capital, working capital
and management capacity.

Africa
● Identify partners with capacity for association building, and business and market
management.
● Mobilise community to secure necessary infrastructure especially water, electricity
and roads.
● Prepare business plan and assist in obtaining funding.

Option 2. Placement of decentralised shelling units in rural areas

Pros Cons
Creation of jobs Inadequacy of capital
Motivated labour Weak management skills
Potential for arranging working capital Lack of export marketing capacity
Attract private investment Need appropriate buildings
Facilitate access to investment capital Requires local utilities, especially water
Management skills, quality standards, Logistical requirements for daily
export marketing transport of shelled nuts
Electricity is required only for a central unit Large investment risks

Recommended interventions
● Identify and mobilise at least one local entrepreneur, relatively equipped, with
investment capital, working capital and management capacity.
● Identify small local business people to establish decentralised shelling units. Link
them to associations.
● Mobilise community to secure necessary infrastructure especially water and roads.
Electricity is needed only for central units.
● Prepare business plans and assist in obtaining funding.

processing, sending the peeled nuts to

1 MAP/WB. ‘Gender Pilot study on Cashew Sub-
the main factory, supposed to be the
sector’
nearest, complete unit.
Both options have positive and negative
aspects that are shown above, along with
recommendations for intervention.

ITDG Food Chain 28

 Strategies for addressing constraints in
20
micro-scale cashew processing
no mechanisms for the flow of accurate
Sri Lanka Mr W. A. Dhanapala from Techno Action, a local
NGO that has worked closely with ITDG, describes information on these quality standards
the approach and interventions taken by the to processors. This allowed a few
organisations to improve micro-level cashew intermediaries to monopolise the
processing in Sri Lanka. The intervention strategies market resulting in unsuitable practices
and issues identified should have wider application being followed with adulterated
to others involved in the cashew processing sector. products coming into the market.
● Low recognition of cottage level
operation by the industry and as a
Introduction result little access to services and
In 1990, a group of women from incentives. Processors were considered
Asia
Gampaha, Sri Lanka, approached Techno as being merely wage earning
Action, a local NGO, requesting access to labourers. This was the perception that
a tray drier used by the people who prevailed amongst processors and as
collected kernels from them. In 1992/93 such they did not realise their own
technical and socio-economic studies potential to improve product quality.
were carried out by Techno Action to gain ● Support systems (e.g. services of
a better understanding of the cashew financial institutions and credit
processing sector. The main observations agencies) assisted collectors and those
were: above them. Except for a few isolated
instances, cottage level processors
● There was a short supply of raw
were not organised into groups. These
material, due to low production and/or
organised groups had access to credit
lack of access to production.
through channels such as the Regional
● Processing was based on traditional
Rural Development Banks and the
manual practices and was largely a
Sarvodaya credit programme. Many
two-phase operation. The first being
processors continued to work in
mainly home or cottage based shelling
isolation, and were dependent on
and peeling, followed by drying and
moneylenders and collectors, and
grading at collecting centres.
carried out their work without credit
● Cottage level processors usually bought
support.
or acquired raw nuts on credit from
● Accurate market information (grading,
suppliers, with the understanding that
pricing etc.) was not available to cottage
the kernels would be sold back to them.
level processors and they had no way to
● The low quality of product (kernel) was
acquire skills and knowledge to improve
the main problem in the processing
their status or to become collectors.
industry. Quality deterioration started at
● Cottage level processing was not
cottage level and continued through the
economically viable. Mostly women
processing cycle, with about 37%
were engaged in it. Low access to
rejects due to low quality at the point of
capital constrained cottage level
export. There was no improvement in
processors. As a result their activities
quality because local markets absorb
never expanded. They remained as
defective kernels. A short supply of
wage earning labourers.
kernels forced exporters not to pay
● The cottage level processors remained
serious attention to quality, but to look
scattered and depended totally on the
for markets where stringent quality
collectors for the required information
standards were not enforced.
and services. Achieving consistent
● No or low availability and awareness of
product quality through existing
alternative technologies for producing
technology practices and with
high quality products. For example, the
processors of varying skill levels was
Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation (SLCC)
difficult. Conventional control
processed cashew nuts with a high
mechanisms such as implementation of
quality output, but had virtually no
legislation for quality control had not
interaction with the private sector
worked in the past.
processing chain.
● Many processors were unaware of the Improvement of quality seemed to need
standards that have been developed alternatives with a concerted effort at all
and are available at the Sri Lanka stages of processing through proper
Standards Institution (SLSI). There were educational programmes and adoption of

ITDG Food Chain 28


appropriate technology. ITDG intervened
at the cottage level processing, because
the needs at that level had not been
recognised or addressed and they
believed that the results of improvements
would spin off to other levels.
The strategies adopted to improve
cottage level operation had two main
thrusts – making appropriate technology
available and empowering processors by
linking them with market information and
developing their skills. Running alongside
this was a continuous dialogue informing
other key stakeholders about the progress
at cottage level.
Intervention strategies and outcomes
Participatory technology development (PTD)
Development of appropriate technology for
processing, with the collective participation
of cottage level processors, was carried out
in selected locations. A drier developed by
ITDG was modified to suit the needs of
drying cashew at micro level. The modified
drier uses paddy husk/saw dust as a fuel
since rural areas have low access to other
forms of energy. It has an effective heat
exchanger system, methods of monitoring
and controlling drying temperatures,
provision for air flow and tray movement to
facilitate even drying. The drier was
modified several times based on the
feedback of women processors and rural
workshops. It therefore resulted in a user
friendly and efficient product over the years.
Awareness creation about quality and appro-
priate technology
Along with PTD, which gave an
opportunity for close interaction with
processors, information was shared on
markets, technology and quality
specifications. Representatives from
exporting companies, SLSI and SLCC
were invited for discussions. ITDG also
learned about the socio-economic issues
of concerned people useful for
appropriate technology development.
Adoption of appropriate changes to
technology and practices in cottage level
cashew processing resulted in an increase
in quality of the product and the
operations became economically viable.
With the introduction of modified driers,
traditional processes were also adapted.
Cashew kernels were dried as soon as
possible (within 24 hours after
decortication) which greatly improved the
ITDG Food Chain 28
21
colour and quality of the final product.
Sri Lanka
Peeling after drying rather than before, as
was the traditional practice, made the
process easier and contributed to an
improvement of quality. Grading of nuts,
according to sizes1, was carried out by the
women processors before packaging.
Facilitating links with the markets
The women familiarised themselves with
markets by making several visits to
Asia
exporters in Colombo. Negotiations
between women and exporters enabled
them to be more informed about the
quality required by markets, prices etc.
Currently they deal with exporters2 and
sell kernels with an increased return of
Rs.35/- per kg (approximately US$0.50).
Business skills
Women started working with business
acumen. Skills to run an effective business
became important and training designed
especially for micro-scale cashew
processing was conducted. Women are still
conducting their businesses effectively.
Gaining credibility
The cottage level processors are mainly
women and they are recognised by other
stakeholders in the industry. They sell
their products to the buyer who offers
them the highest prices, including
exporters in Colombo and the SLCC.
Exporters acknowledged the improved
quality of cashew by paying maximum
prices. They paid the full amount due on
delivery3 and the need to obtain an export
quality certificate by SLSI/CISIR4, was
waived for the women. However,
quantities supplied5 were small6. The
exporters are keen to increase the
production by micro-level processors.
Creating a conducive environment for replica-
tion of positive experiences and their sustain-
ability
The local light engineering workshops can
fabricate, repair and maintain tools and
equipment needed. Having a number of
training programmes (e.g. drier
fabrication) for manufacturers
strengthened their capacity. Engineering
drawings and instructions using simple
language, targeting local workshops, were
developed and disseminated. These are
available through ITDG.
Credit
Women were able to obtain higher
amounts of credit (Rs 250,000–1,300,000
22
collectively, compared to an average of Rs
Sri Lanka
5,000–10,000 granted as individual loans for
a limited number of processors). With such
enhanced credit they could buy enough
stock for processing to be self employed
throughout the year. Rural credit
programmes and banks, including the
commercial banks, are now interested in
providing credit to these groups. The
Seylan Bank shared its successful
experience with the other commercial and
Asia
state banks.
Networking
Information is shared amongst
processors and adoption of similar
methodologies by about 15 community
groups in various parts of the country is
being facilitated. Processors who adopted
alternative technology trained new
processor groups. It is hoped that new
processors would bear the cost of training
when financial returns become clearer.
Training depends on the time availability
of the women processors who usually
cannot leave their homes for long
periods. Yet, due to the high degree of
awareness, processors believe that
training new groups in alternative
methodology allows higher recognition
for their industry and future and are
therefore willing to train others. There
were instances where two or more
groups sold kernels together to the same
buyer for various benefits.
Sharing of information and experience
The key stakeholders at micro-level
should extend their co-operation to
sharing their experiences with relevant
state and other development
organisations. The technology could also
have great potential for improved drying
of high value spices.
Development at macro level
To address concerns about quality,
mandatory export certification was
reintroduced by the Sri Lankan
government in1995. The SLCC was active
in creating awareness about “quality”
amongst processors, when they decided
to buy semi-processed kernels to increase
the output of their factories in 1996. In
1997, the SLCC recognised cottage level
processors for an award during its Silver
Jubilee celebrations. ITDG also started
supporting processors through its Small
Enterprises Development Unit that was set
up in 1999.
The Samurdhi7 Programme was made
aware of cashew processing and ITDG
included this activity in its programmes.
Low quantities of raw nuts are still a
problem. However SLCC is conducting
intensified programmes to expand its
production. The project contributed to it
by influencing community groups in pilot
areas to engage in and expand cashew
cultivation.
Ensuring long term support to processors
ITDG is not an implementing agency and
hopes that successful experiences will be
replicated by other development
programmes and processors. The new
communities may still need technical
support and ITDG has taken a number of
steps to make it available in the long run.
ITDG encouraged its field officers
engaged in supporting this programme
for the last five years to give their skills to
others who need them. Techno Action
thus initiated and promoted micro-level
cashew processing and collective
marketing.
Lessons learned and recommendations
Analysis of the above experiences can be
used to draw a set of policy guidelines for
improving the quality of cashew
production in Sri Lanka. Guidelines are
relevant to strengthening programmes
aimed at developing and integrating the
micro production sector with mainstream
economic activity.
Recommendations
● Acknowledge the role of micro-level
processors. They are generally poor but
in large numbers so have the potential
to contribute significantly to
maintaining quality and collectively
supply sufficient quantities.
● Micro-level processors, along with other
stakeholders, should participate in the
initial design of programmes. This
would help to understand the problems
and allow the production of realistic
plans.
● Accurate socio-economic information
must be considered along with
information on quality and market
dynamics at the design stage of the
project. Understanding the multiple
responsibilities8 of women processors
and location specific socio-cultural
issues will make methodologies more
relevant and user friendly.
ITDG Food Chain 28

● Key considerations in developing
appropriate technology for micro-level
production should include: simplicity of
design, affordability, operation-friendly
users for women processors,
availability of resources, and facilities
for repair and maintenance locally.
● Technologies should be developed and
tested at a laboratory/workshop level
before testing with communities.
Models which do not work will
demoralise people.
● Collect feedback from micro-level
processors on technologies and
systems introduced to assess their
appropriateness for village level
application.
● Promote hygienic conditions and
practices in food processing.
● Demonstrate viability of technology.
This is essential to promote
programmes. Clear economic benefits
should be visible for replications to be
successful. Select sites for
demonstration carefully and work
intensively to mobilise communities.
● The facilitator should win the trust and
confidence of processors by being
transparent in dealings.
● Link small processors in groups9,
directly to markets.
● Improve business management of
small-scale production training and
skills development programmes.
● Ensure easy access of technology and
other essential information developed
as appropriate to different stakeholders.
● Strengthen the capacity of rural
workshops to repair and maintain
appropriate hardware being introduced.
● Ensure availability of appropriate credit
facilities.
● Programme implementers should only
be facilitators. Small processors should
not be allowed to be totally dependent
on facilitators. Their capacities to be
independent should be strengthened.
● Perceive small processors as credible
partners in business and worthy
customers amongst markets, credit
organisations and other essential
services.
● Ensure that readily accessible support
mechanisms are present.
Issues
There could be certain problems in
implementing the programmes.
ITDG Food Chain 28
23
● Development programmes can be
Sri Lanka
routine and general. While it is
recommended that alternative
methodology needs to be taken up by
development programmes, high
bureaucracy inherent to these
programmes could create a problem in
achieving maximum potential.
● Political decisions are frequently made
in carrying out programmes for the
very poor and marginalised
Asia
communities. Providing grants and
untimely credit is a frequent
phenomenon. This would hamper the
success of such programmes.
● Providing credit to micro-level
processors who usually have
insufficient or no collateral could
create a problem for financial
institutions.
● As emphasised earlier, successful
implementation of the programme
depends on greater participation of the
people. However, the definition of
participation could vary with different
organisations.
1 Only women carry out grading to separate
wholes, splits and pieces. Now they further grade
wholes to sizes such as 180W, 220W, 320W etc.
This was done by middlemen earlier. The bigger
sizes can be sold at higher prices.
2 Stassens Exports is the main buyer.
3 Usually only 60% of the product value is paid to
the supplier on delivery, and the balance is paid
after the quality check of full delivery of goods.
4 CISIR – Ceylon Institute of Scientific and
Industrial Research in 1995 made a rule to say
that for exports, certification of quality of
cashew should be compulsory. The exporters
imposed the condition on their suppliers.
5 Limited access to credit and other facilities
prevent them from producing larger quantities.
6 Exporters claim they require a minimum of
13,500 kg of high quality kernels, that is half a
container of cashew, to pay higher prices.
7 A Government poverty alleviation programme.
8 Women are mothers and housewives as well as
processors. These other responsibilities have
implications on their working hours, particularly
as cashew processing is a home-based activity.
9 Individually processors will be large in numbers
and will have logistical problems. In addition, as
a group, and networking with other similar
groups they will be a very powerful group who
also can raise their concerns.
 Food Chain ITDG United Kingdom
The Schumacher Centre for
Technology and Development
Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Rugby
CV23 9QZ
UK

Tel: +44 (0) 1788 661100

Fax: +44 (0) 1788 661101
Email: foodchain@itdg.org.uk
Website: http://www.oneworld.org/itdg

Contributions on all food processing related matters are invited for future issues of Food Chain
.

Content s
Our vision is of a more equitable and just world in
Greetings 2 which technology enriches and benefits the lives
of poor people.
Global agricultural practices for successful 4 Our mission is to build the technical skills of poor
cashewe development people in developing countries enabling them to
improve the quality of their lives and that of
future generations.
Harvesting cashews 8

International Conference on Wild Rice (ICWR) 9

Food Chain is part funded by the UK DFID and the
National Lottery Charities Board (NLCB).
Methods for processing cashews 10

Agromisa Courses: Participation in 16

Local Government
Cashew sub-sector intervention strategy
Strategies for addressing constraints in
micro-scale cashew processing
Editor/Production Manager: Emma Judge
17 Technical Editor: Barrie Axtell
Typeset by My Word! and printed by Neil Terry Printing on
environmentally friendly paper.
20 Intermediate Technology Development Group Ltd.
Company Reg. No. 871954, England. Reg. Charity No. 247257.
ISSN 0964-5810