1.

1 INTRODUCTION OF EVAPORATION

1.1.1 Concepts of evaporation

An evaporator is a type of heat exchanger with usually low pressure steam generator that
involves the process called evaporation. Evaporator is largely used in many industrial processes
mostly food and dairy products, pharmaceuticals, fruit juices, chemicals as well as pulp and
paper industries, in order to concentrate a particular non-volatile solute from a solvent.
Evaporation is a process where liquid mixture is separated from another liquid of higher boiling
point or from a solid which is dissolved in it in order to form liquid product of either concentrate
or thick vapour with a vapour by-product. Nevertheless, in most cases, the liquid evaporated is
water and the vapour is the product instead of the concentrated liquid.

Evaporation has four general methods, and the methods are by spontaneous evaporation
in the open air, by application of heat directly or indirectly by means of steam and with or
without pressure from a fire to the vessel with liquid content, as well as evaporation under
reduced pressure.

The first method, which is by spontaneously in the open air is comparatively slow and
also requires a very large surface area of liquid exposed to the air. The humidity and temperature
of the air influence the product residence time. This method is usually applied for manufacturing
salt from sea water or from natural brines.

The second method, which is by direct application of heat from fire, has two general
ways of evaporation. Firstly, the flame or hot gases from the fire is allowed to play directly on
the bottom of the vessel containing the liquid or passed through pipes. However, using numerous
pipes is expensive to build besides require frequent maintenance. Secondly, the flames and hot
gases are conducted over the surface of the liquid to be evaporated. This method has an
advantage, where the bottom of the pan is less susceptible to be affected by the crusting of
precipitate upon it. However, as flue dust and ashes are at high risk of falling into the pans, the
product is therefore usually impure.

1|Page
 The third method of evaporation is by the use of steam heat, and it is suitable for making
product that is dangerous and may cause overheating. Thus, this may be prevented by using
jacketed pans or kettles, or by allowing the steam to circulate through coils or pipes and the
temperature of the liquid is influenced by the pressure of the steam.

The fourth method is by evaporation under reduced pressure or in vacuum. Solutions that
are heat sensitive are necessary to be boiled under atmospheric pressure, or liquids boiled to a
high temperature, are then evaporated in vacuum pans.

Evaporation has a significant difference with distillation process, as it works in a volatile

solvent with a non-volatile solute meanwhile distillation system involves processing both
components as volatile. Evaporator basically has two main roles, which are to boil the liquid or
solution as well as to separate the vapour from the liquid. Heat is technically transferred from a
heating medium to a solution by conduction as a medium of heat transfer, by passing through a
solid surface or technically, the tube walls.

1.1.2 Types of evaporators

There are many types of evaporators and many variations in processing techniques that
have been developed to accommodate various product characteristics and operating parameters,
the percent of concentration required, and regional energy costs, as evaporation is indeed one of
the most energy intensive processes. The most common types of evaporators used include batch
pan, natural circulation, forced circulation, wiped film, rising film tubular, falling film tubular,
and plate equivalents of tubular evaporators.

Batch pan evaporator is literally one of the oldest methods of concentration. Yet, it is
still used in a few limited applications, for examples, the concentration of jams and jellies and
pharmaceuticals products processing. Batch pan evaporator usually requires hours of time period
for products processing. As heat sensitive and thermo degradable product is involved, therefore it
is essential to operate in a low temperature and high vacuum. Due to vessel shapes and natural
convection conditions, the heat transfer areas are usually small and it efficiency is respectively
low. Thus, these conditions limit the evaporation capacity. However, it can be improved by

2|Page
agitation. On the contrary, large value of log mean temperature difference is not preferable for
fear of fouling effect on the heat transfer surface.

Next, evaporation by using natural circulation tubular evaporators is occurred by using

short tube bundle within a batch pan or by applying an external shell and tube heat heater outside
of the main vessel, which size is independent of size or shape of the vessel itself. Therefore, large
evaporation capacities are able to be achieved.

Apart from that, a vertical tube with condensed steam on its outer surface is largely used
in rising film tubular evaporator. As the liquid inside the tube is boiled, a core in the center of
the tube is formed by the vapour generated. More vapour is formed as the fluid continuously
moves up the tube, resulting in a higher central core or vapour velocity, and thus increasing the
heat transfer coefficient and thinning the liquid film which is moving more rapidly, as well as
providing a shorter time for product generation. The application of rising film tubular evaporator
brings a lot of advantage as it provides a high heat transfer coefficient and thus, reduces the heat
transfer area requirements as well as energy costs. However, for a well-developed rising film,
this type of evaporator requires a driving film force, where the temperature difference across the
heating surface must not be less than 14°C.

The invention of falling film tubular evaporator started when manufacturers were
seeking for a design of an adequate system for even distribution of liquid to the tubes. Falling
film tubular evaporator is basically using a perforated plate which is at the top tube plate of the
calandria. The spreading of liquid to each tube in falling film evaporator is by moving down the
tube, which also provides advantages where thinner and faster of moving fluid, lesser product
residence time and higher value of heat transfer coefficient. Falling film tubular evaporator
however does not require a driving force limitation as rising film evaporator. Therefore, it is
feasible for a falling film evaporator to have as many effects used within the same overall
operating limits.

Next, a rising / falling film evaporator has its advantages as well, where liquid
distribution is easier with coupling of the raising film and lower head room requirements. The
height of tube bundle is approximately half of either a rising or falling film evaporator, and the
separator of vapour and liquid is at the bottom of the calandria.

3|Page
 For processing liquors which are susceptible to crystallization or scaling, forced
circulation tubular evaporator is best used. The rate of liquid circulation through the heat
exchanger is higher and presence of hydrostatic head maintained above the top tube plate
prevents from boiling. The main applications of forced circulation evaporator are in the
concentration of inversely soluble materials, crystallizing formations, as well as concentration in
thermo degradable materials which in turn forming deposition of solids. A higher rate of
recirculation as the temperature difference is monitored so as to be low as possible, results in
higher liquor velocities. These will then reduce the process of crystallization or deposition along
the heating surface. The operating costs of forced circulation evaporator is usually higher than
film evaporators as it needs a large bore circulating pipe work and recirculation pumps.

Besides, feed is introduced at the top of wiped or agitated thin film evaporator and is
then separated to the vertical cylindrical surface inside the unit by wiper blades. Evaporation of
solvent occurs corresponding to the moving down of thin film to the evaporator wall. Steam or
oil is normally used as a heating medium with high pressure. The heat transfer surface area is
relatively small, therefore a high temperature heating medium is needed in order to obtain a
higher evaporation rates. Nevertheless, wiped film evaporator has its advantages due to its small
heat transfer surface, thus requires moving parts such as wiper blades, which surely need
periodic maintenance. Due to this, wiped film evaporator has very high capital costs.

Plate type evaporators were introduced as an alternative to tubular systems. It has many
advantages, which includes full accessibility to heat transfer surfaces besides providing flexible
capacity with addition of many plate units. The product residence time is also shortened, and
thus produces a superior quality concentrate, low headroom requirements and most importantly,
low installation costs. Plate type evaporators are technically dealing with products that are heat
sensitive, such as apple juice, amino acids, gelatine, skim milk, sugars, cheese whey, and whey
protein as well as pharmaceuticals products.

The rising / falling film type evaporator involves the use of a number of plate packs or
units, each consisting of two steam plates and product plates. The first product passage is a rising
pass and the second is a falling pass. Normally, feed is introduced at a temperature slightly
higher than the evaporation temperature. Rising boiling occurs due to heat transfer from
adjacent steam passage with the vapours generated, thus results in a thinner and faster of moving

4|Page
turbulent liquid film. The rapid of movement of liquid film assures the low residence time within
the evaporator as well as high transfer coefficient. Most rapid / falling film type evaporator are
used in many food, juice and dairy products industries where low temperature and residence time
are necessary for producing a quality concentrate.

1.2 DOUBLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Conservation of energy is one major consideration that needs to be well-treated in the

application of an evaporator system. This is due to the fact that the larger the evaporation process
unit, the more crucial it is to conserve energy. One of the techniques available for this purpose is
by applying double or multiple effect evaporator. The invention of multiple effect evaporators is
generally credited to Norbert Rillieux. Back then, Rillieux developed a multiple pan evaporation
system for use in sugar refining.

Double-effect evaporation generally involves processing the steam generated from

evaporation in first effect, where it is condensed in the heating element in order to provide the
heat for product evaporation in a second effect maintained at lower pressure. The boiling
temperature is usually high enough so that the evaporated water can serve as heating medium in
second effect. The first effect will however has the highest pressure. The effects in an evaporator
are usually the same in terms of size, construction and heat transfer and unless thermal oses are
significant, the capacity will be the same as well. The steam economy rises as the number of
effects used is increased. Increasing the number of effect does increase the capital investments;
therefore careful evaluation is necessary for such systems. In general, when the evaporation rate
is no lower than 3,000 lbs/h (1350 kg/h), thus application of multi-effect evaporator should be
considered.

The feed for double effect evaporator is normally transferred from first effect to another.
This will in turn leads to the ultimate product concentration to reach only in either one of the
effect. However, there are three different ways for feed introduction in double effect evaporator.
The feed order is not according to the number of effects, whereas effects are always numbered
according to reducing pressure.

5|Page
 The first feed way is by forward feed arrangement, where the raw feed is introduced in
the first effect and then to the second parallel to steam flows. Operating costs are increased since
the feed is raised to the highest operating temperature. The liquor produced are however most
concentrated and viscous in lowest temperature, and thus provides low heat transfer coefficient.

On the contrary, feed is introduced in the second effect and then is transferred to the first
effect. This method is termed as backward feed operation. Multiple pumps are needed to deal
with pressure drop of the system, and this method is suitable for viscous solution as the viscosity
will be reduced as long as the system is operated at high temperature. As a result, a high transfer
coefficient will also be attained.

The third method is by parallel feed systems where the feed stream is split and portion of
them are fed to each effect. This method however is suitable for producing substance that
involves crystallization where the product is likely to be slurry.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF DOUBLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR IN VARIOUS

INDUSTRIES

1.3.1 Caustic Soda

Caustic soda is usually manufactured by electrolytic process of sodium chloride brine.

The caustic soda solution produced needs to be concentrated by evaporation. This evaporation is
however difficult since caustic soda has high boiling point elevation. Double effect evaporator is
used in backward feed arrangement so that the highest concentration is on the first effect.
Besides that, caustic soda can corrode stainless steel at high temperature, therefore the first and
second effect calandrias are best fabricated in nickel that resists corrosion. Due to high
temperature, falling film tubular evaporations are the most suitable for this application.

6|Page
1.3.2 Brewery / Distillery Effluents

The effluents from brewery and distillery plants are often processed in evaporators to
recover the water and produce concentrated syrup, which can be sold in liquid form, or even
added to the spent grains prior to drying. Normally, falling film tubular calandria are used for the
pre evaporator with forced circulation plate or tubular evaporators as the finisher.

As a matter of fact, the viscosity of the concentrated liquids depends on the raw material
grain. As the viscosity is getting higher, thus the evaporator will have to be cleaned even more
frequent. Thus, on the finisher, it is preferable to use duplex heat exchangers, so that one can be
cleaned while the other is in operation.

1.3.3 Black Liquor

Literally, black water is caustic waste water generated at paper plants. Typically black
liquor contains 3% solids, and half of it is caustic soda. This results in merely high boiling point
elevation as the concentration increases, thus most black liquor evaporators are double-effect
evaporators.

1.3.4 Sugar Refining

Crystallization of very coarse refined sugar is done by using double-effect evaporator in

conjunction with thermal vapour compression. Conservation of energy is practised in this case
where vacuum is used from batch pans evaporator as heating steam. A controllable thermo-
compressor increases this vapour from 0.2 bar to 0.3 bar. In addition, vapour is supplied at
approximately 0.35 bars, thus reducing the heating steam requirements of the pan vapour.

7|Page
1.4 CONCLUSION

Evaporation is by far the most prevalent process used for the production of concentrates.
It provides a highly energy efficient means of removing water. In order to determine the
optimum design conditions, a large number of factors must be taken into account in order to
obtain the equipment that would have an optimum relationship between evaporation
performance, economy and quality of the product.

Besides the need to produce a quality concentrate, another factor which is most important
to be aware of is conservation of energy. Evaporation is in fact a process that consumes energy a
lot and therefore, it is crucial to conserve energy as much as it could. Hence, by applying double-
effect evaporator, energy is conserved as it involves circulation of liquid besides the dependency
on temperature and pressure.

1.5 REFERENCES

1. http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/evap3.html
2. http://www.ddpsinc.com/TeachingUnits/qts5.html
3. http://www.endersprocess.com/proc7.html
4. https://engineering.purdue.edu/ProPractice/Co-Op%20Student%20Work%20Reports/Jacob
%20Wooddell%20-%20BFPE.pdf
5. http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/josepbe/courses/CHEN3820/EvaporatorEquipmentAndObjec
tives.pdf
6. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/397107/multiple-effect-evaporator

8|Page
 1.6 APPENDICES

Natural Circulation Tubular Evaporator Rising Film Tubular Evaporator

Batch Pan Evaporator

Falling Film Tubular Evaporator

Rising \ Falling Film Tubular Evaporator Forced Circulation Tubular Evaporator

Rising \ Falling Film Plate Evaporator

9|Page
Backward Feed for Double Effect Evaporator

Forward feed for Double Effect Evaporator

10 | P a g e