ECE-MATH 311 MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS † A MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM CONSISTS OF

AXIOMS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNDEFINED TERMS.
„ AXIOMS – ALSO CALLED POSTULATES, ARE
PROOFS AND RULES OF INFERENCE
STATEMENTS THAT WE ASSUME TO BE TRUE.
„ DEFINITIONS – USED TO CREATE NEW
CONCEPTS IN TERMS OF EXISTING ONES.
– SOME TERMS ARE NOT
EXPLICITLY DEFINED BUT IMPLICITLY DEFINED
IN AN AXIOM.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM EXAMPLE:

MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM REAL NUMBERS
„ THEOREM – A PROPOSITION THAT HAS † AXIOMS
BEEN PROVEN TO BE TRUE. „ FOR ALL REAL NUMBERS x AND y, xy = yx.
† LEMMA – A THEOREM THAT IS NOT TOO „ THERE IS A SUBSET P OF REAL NUMBERS
INTERESTING ON ITS OWN BUT IS
SATISFYING
USEFUL IN PROVING ANOTHER
THEOREM. †IF x AND y ARE IN P, THEN x + y AND xy
† COROLLARY – A THEOREM THAT ARE IN P.
FOLLOWS FROM ANOTHER THEOREM. †IF x IS A REAL NUMBER, THEN EXACTLY
„ PROOF – AN ARGUMENT THAT ONE OF THE STATEMENTS IS TRUE:
ESTABLISHES THE TRUTH OF A THEOREM. x IS IN P, x = 0, –x IS IN P
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

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MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM EXAMPLE:
REAL NUMBERS
† DEFINITIONS
„ THE ELEMENTS IN P ARE CALLED
POSITIVE REAL NUMBERS.
„ THE ABSOLUTE VALUE | x | OF A REAL
NUMBER x IS DEFINED TO BE x IF x IS
POSITIVE OR 0 AND –x OTHERWISE.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM EXAMPLE:
REAL NUMBERS
† LEMMA
„ IF n IS A POSITIVE INTEGER, THEN EITHER
n – 1 IS A POSITIVE INTEGER OR n – 1 = 0.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM EXAMPLE:
REAL NUMBERS
† THEOREMS
„ x · 0 = 0 FOR EVERY REAL NUMBER.
„ FOR ALL REAL NUMBERS, x, y, AND z, IF
x ≤ y AND y ≤ z, THEN x ≤ z.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
PROOFS
† THEOREMS ARE OFTEN OF THE FORM
FOR ALL x, IF P(x), THEN Q(x).
THIS UNIVERSALLY QUANTIFIED STATEMENT
IS TRUE PROVIDED THE CONDITIONAL
PROPOSITION
IF P(x), THEN Q(x)
IS TRUE FOR ALL VALUES OF x IN THE
DOMAIN OF DISCOURSE.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
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DIRECT PROOF
† ASSUMES THAT P(x) IS TRUE AND THEN,
USING P(x) AS WELL AS OTHER AXIOMS,
DEFINITIONS AND PREVIOUSLY DERIVED
THEOREMS, SHOWS DIRECTLY THAT Q(x) IS
TRUE.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
VACUOUS PROOF AND TRIVIAL PROOF
† IN CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS WE KNOW
THAT p → q IS TRUE WHEN p IS FALSE AND
CALL IT TRUE BY DEFAULT OF VACUOUSLY
TRUE.
† CONSEQUENTLY, IF WE CAN SHOW THAT p IS
FALSE, THEN WE HAVE VACUOUS PROOF OF
THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT p → q.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
DIRECT PROOF EXAMPLE
† DEFINITION
AN INTEGER IS EVEN IF THERE IS AN
INTEGER k SUCH THAT n = 2k.
AN INTEGER IS ODD IF THERE IS AN
INTEGER k SUCH THAT n = 2k + 1.
† THEOREM
FOR ALL INTEGERS m AND n, IF m IS ODD
AND n IS EVEN, THEN m + n IS ODD.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
VACUOUS PROOF AND TRIVIAL PROOF
† WE CAN ALSO PROVE A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT IF WE KNOW THAT q IS TRUE. BY
SHOWING THAT q IS TRUE, IT FOLLOWS THAT
p → q IS MUST ALSO BE TRUE.
† A PROOF THAT USES THE FACT THAT q IS
TRUE TO PROVE p → q TO BE TRUE IS
CALLED A TRIVIAL PROOF.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
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PROOF BY CONTRADICTION PROOF BY CONTRADICTION EXAMPLE
† ASSUMES THAT P(x) IS TRUE AND Q(x) † THEOREM
FALSE AND THEN, USING p AND ¬q AS FOR ALL REAL NUMBERS x AND y, IF
WELL AS OTHER AXIOMS, DEFINITIONS, AND x + y ≥ 2, THEN EITHER x ≥ 1 OR y ≥ 1.
PREVIOUSLY DERIVED THEOREMS, DERIVES
A CONTRADICTION.
† A CONTRADICTION IS A PROPOSITION IN THE
FORM r ∧ ¬r.
† ALSO CALLED INDIRECT PROOF.

ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE PROOF BY CASES

† A SPECIAL CASE OF PROOF BY CONTRADICTION † USED WHEN THE ORIGINAL HYPOTHESIS NATURALLY
DIVIDES ITSELF INTO VARIOUS CASES.
† IF THE HYPOTHESIS IS IN THE FORM
† EXAMPLE:
p 1 ∨ p2 ∨ … ∨ pn
FOR ALL INTEGERS m, IF m2 IS ODD, THEN WHERE p1, …, pn ARE THE CASES, INSTEAD OF
m IS ODD. PROVING
(p1 ∨ p2 ∨ … ∨ pn) → q
WE PROVE
(p1 → q) ∧ (p2 → q) ∧ … ∧ (pn → q).

ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

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RULES OF INFERENCE
† ARGUMENT
„ A SEQUENCE OF PROPOSITIONAL STATEMENTS
„ ALL BUT THE LAST PROPOSITION ARE CALLED
PREMISES
„ THE FINAL PROPOSITION IS CALLED THE
CONCLUSION
„ THE PROCESS OF DRAWING A CONCLUSION FROM
A SEQUENCE OF PROPOSITIONS IS CALLED
DEDUCTIVE REASIONING.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
ARGUMENT EXAMPLE
LET
p: YOU HAVE A CURRENT PASSWORD.
q: YOU CAN LOG ONTO THE NETWORK.”
THE ARGUMENT HAS THE FORM
p→q
p WHEN
∴q
WHERE THE SYMBOL ∴ DENOTES “THEREFORE.”
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
ARGUMENT EXAMPLE
“IF YOU HAVE A CURRENT PASSWORD,
THEN YOU CAN LOG ONTO THE
NETWORK.”
“YOU HAVE A CURRENT PASSWORD.”
THEREFORE,
“YOU CAN LOG ONTO THE NETWORK.”
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
VALID ARGUMENT
† AN ARGUMENT IS VALID IF NO MATTER WHICH
PARTICULAR PROPOSITIONS ARE SUBSTITUTED
FOR THE PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES IN ITS
PREMISES, THE CONCLUSION IS TRUE IF ALL
THE PREMISES ARE TRUE.
† IN OTHER WORDS, THE ARGUMENT IS VALID
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ … ∧ pn) → q
IS A TAUTOLOGY.
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs
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MODUS PONENS MODUS PONENS EXAMPLE 1
† A RULE OF INFERENECE BASED ON THE “IF IT IS SNOWS TODAY, THEN WE WILL GO
TAUTOLOGY (p ∧ (p → q)) → q. SKIING.”
† ALSO CALLED LAW OF DETACHMENT
“IT IS SNOWING TODAY”

THEREFORE,

“WE WILL GO SKIING.”

ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

MODUS PONENS EXAMPLE 2 FALLACIES

“IF 2 > 32 , THEN ( 2) > ( )2

3 2
2 .”
† THE ARGUMENT OF THE FORM
[(p → q) ∧ q] → p

“WE KNOW THAT 2 > 32 .” IS NOT A TAUTOLOGY BECAUSE IT IS FALSE

WHEN p IS FALSE AND q IS TRUE. THIS IS
NOT A VALID ARGUMENT FORM. THIS FORM
CONSEQUENTLY,

( 2) = 2 > ( ) =
OF INCORRECT REASONING IS KNOWN AS
2
3 2 9 THE FALLACY OF AFFIRMING THE
2 4
CONCLUSION.

ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

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FALLACIES FALLACIES
† EXAMPLE: † THE ARGUMENT OF THE FORM
[(p → q) ∧ ¬p] → ¬q
“IF I HAVE AN INTEL CORE i7 PROCESSOR, THEN I
CAN RUN STARCRAFT 2.” IS ALSO NOT A TAUTOLOGY BECAUSE IT IS
FALSE WHEN p IS FALSE AND q IS TRUE.
“I CAN RUN STARCRAFT 2.” THIS IS NOT A VALID ARGUMENT FORM. THIS
FORM OF INCORRECT REASONING IS KNOWN
THEREFORE AS THE FALLACY OF DENYING THE
HYPOTHESIS.
“I HAVE AN INTEL CORE i7 PROCESSOR.”
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

RULES OF INFERENCE RULES OF INFERENCE

FORM TAUTOLOGY NAME FORM TAUTOLOGY NAME
p p∨ q
DISJUNCTIVE
p → q [p ∧ (p → q)] → q MODUS PONENS ¬p [(p ∨ q) ∧ ¬p)] → q
SYLLOGISM
∴q ∴q
¬q
p
p → q [¬q ∧ (p → q)] → ¬p MODUS TOLLENS p → (p ∨ q) ADDITION
∴ p∨ q
∴ ¬p
p → q
HYPOTHETICAL p∧ q
q → r [(p → q) ∧ (p → r)] → (p → r) (p ∧ q) → p SIMPLIFICATION
SYLLOGISM ∴ p
∴ p → r
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

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 RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
RULES OF INFERENCE QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
FORM TAUTOLOGY NAME † SUPPOSE THAT ∀xP(x), THEN P(d) IS TRUE
p WHEN d IS IN D. THIS MAKES THE
q [(p) ∧ (q)] → (p ∧ q) CONJUNCTION ARGUMENT
∴ p∧ q ∀ xP ( x )
p∨ q
¬p ∨ r [(p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r)] → (q ∨ r) RESOLUTION ∴ P ( d ) if d is in D
∴q∨ r VALID.
† THIS IS CALLED UNIVERSAL INSTANTIATION.

ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs

RULES OF INFERENCE FOR

QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
RULE OF INFERENCE NAME
∀xP ( x ) UNIVERSAL
∴ P ( d ) if d is in D INSTANTIATION
P ( d ) for every d in D UNIVERSAL
∴ ∀xP ( x ) GENERALIZATION
∃xP ( x) EXISTENTIAL
∴ P ( d ) for some d in D INSTANTIATION
P ( d ) for some d in D EXISTENTIAL
∴ ∃xP ( x) GENERALIZATION
ECE-MATH 311 – Logic and Proofs