Surface Operations in Petroleum Production I

Developments in Petroleum Science, 19A
surface operations in
petroleum productlon, I
FURTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES
1 A.G. COLLINS
GEOCHEMISTRY OF OILFIELD WATERS
2 W.H.FERTL
ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURES
3 A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
4 C.E.B. CONYBEARE
GEOMORPHOLOGY O F OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN SANDSTONE BODIES
5 T.F. YEN and G.V. CHILINGARIAN (Editors)
OIL SHALE
6 D.W. PEACEMAN
FUNDAMENTALS OF NUMERICAL RESERVOIR SIMULATION
7 G.V. CHILINGARIAN and T.F. YEN (Editors)
BITUMENS, ASPHALTS AND TAR SANDS
8 L.P. DAKE
FUNDAMENTALS O F RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
9 K.MAGARA
COMPACTION AND FLUID MIGRATION
10 M.T. SILVIA and E.A. ROBINSON
DECONVOLUTION OF GEOPHYSICAL TIME SERIES IN THE EXF'LOR .ATION
FOR OIL AND NATURAL GAS
11 G.V. CHILINGARIAN and P. VORABUTR
DRILLING AND DRILLING FLUIDS
12 T.D. VAN GOLF-RACHT
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURED RESERVOIR ENGINEER.ING
13 J. FAYERS (Editor
ENHANCED o n RECOVER4
14 G.MOZES Editor)
PARAFFIN PRODUCkS
15A 0 . S E R R A
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
1. THE ACQUISITION OF LOGGING DATA
15B O.SERRA
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
2. THE INTERPRETATION OF LOGGING DATA
16 R.E. CHAPMAN
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
17A E.C. DONALDSON, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and T.F. YEN
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY, I
FUNDAMENTALS AND ANALYSES
18A A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT O F OIL AND GAS
A. FLOW MECHANICS A N D PRODUCTION
second completely revised edition
19A G.V. CHILINGARIAN, J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and S. KUMAR
SURFACE OPERATIONS IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION, I
19B G.V. CHILINGARIAN, J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and S. KUMAR
SURFACE OPERATIONS IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION, I1
20 A.J. DIKKERS
GEOLOGY IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
Developments in Petroleum Science, 19A
surface operations in
petroleum production, I
G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Petroleum Engineering Department, University of Southern California,
University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90089-121 1 , U.S.A.
J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr.

Earth Engineering, Inc., 4244 Live Oak St., Cudahy, CA 90201, U.S.A.
S. KUMAR
Petroleum Engineering Department, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-121 1 , U.S.A.
Associate Editors:
T.A. BERTNESS and C.M. BEESON

Petroleum Engineering Department, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
CA 90089-1211 , U.S.A.
with contributions from:
Moayed Yousif Al-Bassam Donald G. Knox
Axelson, Inc. Frank J. Lockhart
Donald U. Bessler Dawood Momeni
William G. Carter R.L. Pettefer
Erle C. Donaldson W.J. Powers
Clarence Dunbar K.M. Sasseen
Bruce A. Eckerson Varec, Inc.
Kern H. Guppy L.C. Waterman
W.B. Hatcher Phil Wilson
Arnold L. Johnson
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM - OXFORD - NEW YORK - TOKYO 1987
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
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P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Distributors for the United States and Canada:
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC.

52,Vanderbilt Avenue
New York, NY 10017, U.S.A.
Library of Congca C ~ ~at. ~ I I ~
Chilingarisn, George V., 1929-

Surface operations in petroleum production.
(kvelopments in petroleum science ; 19)

Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Petroleum engineering. I. Robertson, John 0 .
11. Kumar, 6. (SanJay), 1960-
IV. S e r i e s .
.
111. T i t l e .
TN871.C495 1966 622 ' .336 06-29126

ISBN 0-444-42473-3 (U.S. : V. 1)
ISBN 0-444-42473-3
(Vol. 19A)
ISBN 0-444-41625-0
(Series)
0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,1987
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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Printed in The Netherlands

This book is dedicated to George Deukmejian, Governor of California,
for his support of the petroleum industry.
VI
CONTRIBUTORS
M.Y. AL-BASSAM Getty Oil Co., P.O. Box 1, Mina Saud, State of Kuwait
Axelson, Inc. P.O. Box 2427, Longview, TX 75606, U.S.A.
C.M. BEESON Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1211,
U.S.A.
D.U. BESSLER Tretolite, Petrolite Corporation, 369 Marshall Avenue,
St. Louis, MO 63119, U.S.A.
T.A. BERTNESS Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A. (also: Consultant, 14827 La Cuarte Street,
Whittier, CA 90605, U.S.A.)
W.G. CARTER Earth Engineering, Inc., 4244 Live Oak Street, Cudahy,
CA 90201, U.S.A.
G.V. CHILINGARIAN Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
E.C. DONALDSON Petroleum & Geology Engineering, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, U.S.A.
C. DUNBAR Senior Application Engineer, TRW Reda Pump Divi -
sion, Bartlesville, Okla., U.S.A.
B.A. ECKERSON Vanson Engineering Co., 1061-B Kraemer Place,
Anaheim, CA 92806, U.S.A.
K.H. GUPPY Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
W.B. HATCHER Texaco, Inc., Taft, CA 93268
A.L. JOHNSON Vanson Engineering Co., 1061-B Kraemer Place,
Anaheim, CA 92806, U.S.A.
D.G. KNOX Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
S. KUMAR Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
F.J. LOCKHART Chemical Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
D. MOMENI Petroleum Engineering Department, University of
U.S.A.
VII
R.L. PETTEFER Petrolite Corporation, Petreco Equipment Group, 369

Marshall Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63119, U.S.A.
W.J. POWERS Manager Marketing Services, TRW Reda Pump Divi-
sion, Bartlesville, Okla., U S A .
J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr. Earth Engineering, Inc., 4244 Live Oak Street, Cudahy,
CA 90201, U.S.A.
K.M. SASSEEN HTI-Superior, Inc., Berry Industries Company, P.O.
Box 3908, Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670, U.S.A.
Varec, Inc. VAREC Division, Emerson Electric Co., 10800 Valley
View Street, Cypress, CA 90630, U.S.A.
L.C. WATERMAN Petrolite Corporation, Petreco Equipment Group, 369
Marshall Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63119, U.S.A.
P. WILSON Kobe Inc., 3040 East Slauson Avenue, Huntington
Park, CA 90255, U.S.A.
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IX
PREFACE
This book has been developed at a time when oil producers are taking a much
closer look at the economy of oilfield operation and redesign of production
technology to improve ultimate recovery. The very high cost, and risk, of the search
for new oilfields demands the reevaluation of production technology and reservoir
engineering to improve the production characteristics of existing oilfields. This book
serves the need of field production managers and engineers for a comprehensive
reference on petroleum production surface operations and technology. Teachers and
students will find that it fills the need for a text on production technology to
complement the study of reservoir engineering.
The book presents a lucid description of the physical and chemical properties of
the fluids encountered by engineers in the field. The properties, methods of
separation, measurement, and transportation of these fluids (gases, condensate
liquids derived from natural gas, crude oils and oilfield waters) are also presented.
Thus these chapters form the basis for the explanation of surface equipment, which
exploits physical and chemical properties to process the fluids in the field for their
processing and transportation. Oilfield emulsions and the chemistry of their control,
as well as the equipment and processes used for emulsion separation in the oilfield,
are discussed in the opening chapters of the book.
Following a presentation of the fluids and their process technology, a series of
chapters present a thorough discussion of every type of surface equipment that is
encountered in the myriad aspects of oilfield operations ranging from waterflooding
to new enhanced oil recovery techniques. Included are methods for pumping, water
control, production logging and corrosion control.
The book is so comprehensive that it also includes, as a third general category:
well completion and work-over operations, methods for design and operation of
underground gas storage, and a review of offshore technology. Thus, this two-volume
book on oilfield surface operations offers a complete reference for all surface
technology for the manager, engineer, teacher and student.
The preparation of this valuable book is the result of cooperation from the
experts in petroleum production who have devoted their time to the lucid expression
of the knowledge that they have acquired through experience in the evaluation and
solution of field problems, and development of economic field processes. Oil
production companies have been generous in their cooperation through assistance
and encouragement to the authors and permission to publish data, designs and
photographs.
It is hoped that this book will find a prominent place in the Developments in
Petroleum Science Series and that it will be instrumental in the improvement of the
global enhancement of oil production and ultimate recovery.
Erle C . Donaldson, Ph.D., P.E.

Petroleum and Geological Engineering
University of Oklahoma
This
XI
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS ........................................................ VI
PREFACE .............................................................. 1X
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

K.M. Sasseen and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Gatheringsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
..... 3
..... 4
- Heater treaters, 6
...... 11
.........
. . . . . . . ..
....................... 12
Sample problems . . . ...... . .

Exchanger problem . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Solution, 21
Washtank problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field data, 23 - Required, 23
Appendix 1.1 - Some fundamental fluid mechanics concepts and sample problems . .
Fundamental equation of fluid statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
General energy equation. . . .
Compressible flow formula . . . ... . . . . . ... .... . . ..... .. . .. .. ..... . . ........

~ 27
. . . . . . . . .... . ... . 28
Solution, 28
Example problem 2. Compressible flow ( n o d e )
Solution, 29
Solution, 31
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 32
Saturated hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Unsaturated hydrocarbons .... 35
Naphthene hydrocarbons . ........................................ 3s
Aromatic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Classification of petroleums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... 38
XI1
Some rules of nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM GASES AND LIQUIDS

F.J.Lockhart and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Density of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Example2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Density of liquids . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Example 2-2 .... 47
Viscosity of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Example2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Viscosity of liquids . .......... 50
52
52
Example24 .......................................................... 55
55
56
56
58
Chapter 3. SEPARATION OF OIL AND GAS

F.J. Lockhart, G.V. Chilingaxian and S. Kumar
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Equilibrium flash calculations 60
Basic equilibrium relations for 60
Types of separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Internal parts of a separator . .... ..................... 63
Factors influencing separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Separatordesi g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Gascapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Liquidcapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Vessel design . . . . . . . . ... .... 68
Example 3-1, 68 - Example 3-2, 70
Separator design using actual manufacturers’ field test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Stage separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 71
Determination of optimum pressure f stage is atmospheric . . . . . , . 73
Determination of optimum pressures for three-stage separation (Whinery-Campbell technique) 73
Methods of successive approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Isothermal flash for two phases . . . 77
Lockhart-McHenry method of flash-eq 78
Example 3-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
TheLockhartmethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Example3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Three-phase flash equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... ..... 83
Sample problems and questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Appendix 3.1 - Raoult’s, Dalton’s and Henry’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Example 3.1-1 ..... 86
XI11
Appendix 3.11 - Illustration, accessories, gas capacities, settling volumes, and specifications for:
(1) vertical low-pressure separators; (2) vertical high-pressure separators; (3) horizontal low-
pressure separators; (4) horizontal high-pressure separators; and ( 5 ) spherical separators . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter 4. OIL FIELD EMULSIONS AND THEIR ELECTRICAL RESOLUTION

L.C. Waterman, R.L. Pettefer and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Theory of emulsions
Electrical treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Electric dehydrators .... 118
Automated dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Sample questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Acknowledgements . ....
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Chapter 5 . CHEMICAL RESOLUTION OF PETROLEUM EMULSIONS

D.U. Bessler and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Nature of emulsions 125
125
Role of the emulsifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Stability of emulsions 126
Crude oil production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Reduced-temperature treating 130
Chemical resolution process . . 131
Action of demulsifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Operating procedures 133
Chemical injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Agitation 133
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Mechanical systems 134
Free water knock
- Vertical heater treater, 136 - Horizontal heater treater, 136 - Electrical dehydration,
136
Resolution of oil-in-water emulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Trouble shooting . 137
Chemicalinjection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
138
Freewaterknockout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Flowsplitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Heat exchangers 140
Gunbarrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Heatertreaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chemelectric treater . . . . . . .... 141
Producedfluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
XIV
Waste oil treating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Treatmenttanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
............ 144
............ 144
Stokes’law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Sample questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Appendix 5.1 - Derivation of Stokes’ law equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . 147
Chapter 6. VAPOR RECOVERY

Varec. G.V. Chilingarian and S. Kumar
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 149

Evaporation loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 149
Equipment required
Design of vapor recovery systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Storage pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Vent valve pressure settings . . . . . . . .
Valve flow capacity ................................... 165
Fast payouts from vapor recovery systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Example (A) - System payout from vapor recovery only
................ 168
................ 169
......................................................... 169
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
...... 170
Chapter 7. NATURAL GAS AND NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS

B.A. Eckerson. A.L. Johnson and G.V. Chilinganan
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Naturalgas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas processing plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas specifications . ........................ 182
Acid gas content ....... ........ 182
Water content ..................... 183

xv
Carbon dioxide and air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Hydrogen sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Specific gravity ..................................... 184
Heating value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 184
Gas measureme ............................ 184
Natural gas liquids .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
184
Ethane, 185 - Propane, 185 - Butane, 185 - Butane-pr
gasoline, 185
.................................................... 185
...................... 185
185
........... 188
189
189
....................... 190
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 191
Refrigeration processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Absorption . . . . . 193
198
198
200
................................................. 201
.................. 202
204
Ethylene recovery plant problem ............................ 204
..................................................... 205
....................... 206
Description of natural gaso
................................... 209
210
Chapter 8. OIL AND GAS TRANSPORT

S. Kumar and G.V. Chilinganan
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 211

Fundamentals of flow in pipes . . . . . .............. 211
Allowable working pressure of pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 213
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Friction head loss in fittings and connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Principles of pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Pumping mechanisms. . ............................................... 219
Measurement of perform e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... 219
Oil pipeline transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Example 8-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 224
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Increasing flow capacity of pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
(1) Complete loop, 226 - (2) Partial loop, 226
Example8-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 227
XVI
Solution, 227 - Booster pump stations, 228 - Branching pipelines, 228

Nonisothermalflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fundamentals of heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . , . . 230
Conduction, 231 - Convection, 232
Application of heat transfer concepts to buried pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 234
(1) Estimation of thermal constants from soil properties, 234 - (2) Estimation of thermal
constants by direct measurement, 234
Examples-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 236
Steady-state flow in buried pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 237
Examples-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Solution ................................... 239
Viscosity, 244 - Density, 246 - Kinematic viscosity, 247 - Specific heat, 247 -
Thermal conductivity, 247
Example 8-5 ............................................ 247
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Transient (unsteady state) flow of oil in buried pipelines 249
Heating up of a cold line by introduction of hot oil,
Transportation of heavy oils in pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Pipeline transportation of natural gas 254
Physical properties of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Gas compressibility, 254 - Density, 256 - Viscosity, 258 - Specific heat, 259
Gasflowfundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Weymouth approximation, 262
Mean pressure evaluation ..................................... 263
The hydrate point for hyd 265
Gas transmission systems . . . . . . . . . , . . 266
System of parallel lines, 266 - Lines in series, 267
Example8-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
268
269
................................................ 269
273
273
Sampleproblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Chapter 9. DESIGN OF FLOWING WELL SYSTEMS

S. Kumar, K.H. Guppy and G.V. Chilingaian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Reservoir fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Example 9-1, 280 - Find, 280 - Solution, 280 - Example 9-2, 282 - Find, 282 -
286
................................................. 286
289
Example 9-4, 289 - Find, 289 - Solution, 289
Multiphase flow in directional wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Example 9-5, 290 - Solution, 290
XVII
Horizontal flow in surface flowlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Horizontal flow correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Working pressure traverse curves for horizontal flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Inclined or hilly terrain multiphase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Flowthroughchokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Example 9-8, 295 - Determine, 295 - Solution, 295
The overall production system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
.
Vertical correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Horizontal correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Sample problems . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. 299
Appendix9.I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300
Appendix 9.11 - Introduction to chokes . , . . .. 323
References . . . . . . . . ................................................... 326
Chapter 10. WELL TESTING
S. Kumar and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Drillstem testing . . . . . . . . . . 327
Component parts of a conv ............................... 329
Anchor shoe, 329 - Perforated anchor pipe, 329 - Pressure recorders, 329 - Packers,
331 - Equalizing valve,331 - Tester valve, 332 - Choke, 332 - Shut-in valve, 332 -
Circulating valve, 332 - Other components, 332
Drillstem test procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Qualitative drillstem test interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Buildup and drawdown test fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Solution to the diffusivity equation for infinite reservoirs 343
Pseudosteady state flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Radius of drainage and stabilization time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Drawdown test ................ 347
Multiple-rate drawdown testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Example 10-1,351 - Given, 352 - Solution, 352
Pressure buildup test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Buildup following a long producing time .... 356
Equivalent producing time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Drawdown and buildup tests in gas wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
................ 359
365
testing, 367 - Vertical interference tests, 368 - Injection and fall-off tests, 368 - Well
test analysis in the presence of a gas phase, 369
Sample questions and problems . . . . . . . . . . . 369
References ... 370
Chapter 11. PRODUCTION LOGGING
S. Kumar and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Logging devices 373
XVIII
High-resolution thermometer . . . . . . ..................................... 374

Gradiomanometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 374
Inflatable packer flowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Continuousflowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fullbore spinner flowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 377
Caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ........... 378
Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ........... 380
Radioactive tracer surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
(1) Velocity-shot method. 380 - (2) Timed runs (controlled-time method). 381 - (3)
Differential injection method. 383
Miscellaneous tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Interpretation of flowmeter logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Monophasicflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
In-situ spinner calibration. 385
Polyphasicflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
......................... 387
s. 387 - Triphasic flow types. 388
Flowparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Spinner response in diphasic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Interpretation of the gradiomanometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Temperature surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Dynamic conditions . ............ ... ....................... 393
Static conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
(1) Lost circulation. 393 - (2) Cementing. 393 - (3) Fracturing. 395 - (4) Pr
396 - (5) Fluid injection. 397
Appendix 11.1 - Production logging (field examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Example 11.1-1 - PCT survey in a gas well . . . . . . . .......................... 401
Example 11.1-2 - Completion evaluation: initial flow profile . . . . . . . . . 401
Conclusion. 402
Example 11.1-3 - Evaluation of completion: monitoring of acidizing . . . . 403
Example 11.1-4 - Evaluation of completion: monitoring the perforati
completion in a gas well . . . . . 404
Example 11.1.5 - Diagnosis of ater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Example 11.1-6 - Diagnosis of a well problem: gas channeling behind liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Example 11.1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Production logs. 411 .Quick-look interpretation. 412 - Quantitative interpretation. 412
- Conclusion. 412
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Chapter 12. GAS LIFT

J.O. Robertson, Jr., G.V. Chilinganan. W.G. Carter and S. Kumar
Introduction 415
Review of gas lift fundamentals 416
Pressure gradients . . . . . . . 416
Derivation of pressure at bottom of gas column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Energy utilized in lifting fluids 420
Types of gas expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Isothermal expansion. 420 . Adiabatic expansion. 421 . Polytropic expansion. 421
Volume of gas necessary for gas lift . . . 421
XIX
Gas lift efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(a) Leakage, 422 - (b) Entrance and discharge losses, 422
(d) Friction losses, 422 - (e) Back pressure at discharge, 422
Kick-off pressure (without valves) . . . . . . .
Gas volumes necessary for gas lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid velocity in eductor tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average density of fluid in eductor tube . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles and methods of gas lift

Gas lift terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of gas lift . . . ....................................... 431
Spacing between gas lift valves . . . .

Continuous flow gas lift (unbalanced
Example 12-1 . . . .
Given, 446 - Solution, 447

Intermittent gas lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kick-off valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 453

Flow type valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Differential valves .............................. 454
Mechanically-controlled valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................... 456
..................... 460
.............................. 461
Sample problems and questions

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 13. PLUNGER LIFT

C.M. Beeson, D.G. Knox, M. Al-Bassam and G.V. Chilinganan
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
History . . . . . . ..................... 468
Free-cycling plunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 8
Cycle-controlled expanding plunger .................................... 468
Equipment developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Type M plunger lift Christmas tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Turbulent-seal plunger ...................... 473
Tandem plunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Segmented retractable pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Removable footpiece .............................. 474
Taylor Type K cycle controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
xx
Time cycle controller with attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Electronic controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Early prediction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Well data for cycle-controlled expanding plunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Least squares equations for plunger lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Description of plunger lift and need for equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Net operating pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Gas-liquid ratio gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Pressurebuildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Maximum production rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 484
Method of obtaining equations for gas and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Wells with 2.in . plungers .................... ...................... 485
Wells with 2.. in. plungers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 486
Method of obtaining equations for maximum production rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Constructing plunger lift nomographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 488
Need for nomographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Method of constructing nomographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Estimating average pressure at point where gas enters tubing. 488 - Derivation of
operating line for 2.in . plunger, 489 - Derivation of operating line for 2f.in . plunger, 490
- Mathematical operations by nomographs. 490 - Derivation of supplementary operat-
ing line for 2.in . plunger. 493 - Derivation of supplementary operating line for 2f.h .
plunger, 494
Method of testing effects of various well conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Tailpipe, 495 - Water cut, 496 - Oil gravity, 496
How to use plunger lift nomographs ..................... 496
Purpose of nomographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Nomograph instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Step I, 497 - Step 11, 498 - Step 111, 498 - Step IV, 498 - Step V.A, 498 - Step V.B,
500
Plunger lift nomographs and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Typesofexamplewells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Nomograph examples . . . ................. 505
Accuracy expected from res ............................................. 507
Plunger lift applications . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 510
Use of equations and figures without 510
Types of oil wells suitable for plunger lift ..................... 510
General considerations, 510 - Capac
How to determine if a well is a possible plunger lift candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Use of Figs. 13-10 and 13.11, 513 - Well depends entirely on formation gas, 515 - Well
has gas available from some outside source, 515
Intermittent flowing and plunger lift system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Equipping wells at start for intermittent flowing and plunger lift (free piston) system . . . . . . . 515
Tubing program, 515 - Christmas tree, 516- Well starting, 516 - Cycle controller for
intermittent flowing, 516
Advantages of intermittent flowing and plunger lift system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Gas well applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Predicting plunger lift performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Need to use tubing bottom as reference depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Example of change in productivity index with depth . . . . 518
Obtaining static and index consistent with operating 518
Changes in operating line with changes in static and index computed from operating
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
XXI
Actual field example of changes in predictions from operating line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Chapter 14. SUCKER-ROD PUMPING

D. Momeni, G.V. Chilingarian, W.B. Hatcher and Axelson
531
531
General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 532
Subsurface pumps . . . .................................. 539
Evaluation and selection of pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Selection of pump bore size . . 539
Selection of pump setting depth 551
Selection of pump types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
(1) Casing pump, 552 - (2) Tubing pump, 554 - (3) Rod pump with travelling barrel,
555 - (4) Rod pump with stationary barrel and bottom hold-down, 556 - (5) Rod pump
with stationary barrel and top hold-down, 559 - (6) Rod pump with stationary barrel and
top and bottom hold-down, 559
Theoretical analysis in sucker-rod design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Design of the sucker-rod string .... 561
Example 14-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 568
Solution, 569
Rod motion analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Example14-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Solution, 570
Effective plunger stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Pump-size determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Example 14-3 . . .......... 575
Solution, 575
Polished rod loads calculation 576
Counterbalance design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Torque calculation . . . 580
Prime mover horsepo 581
Example14-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Solution, 582
API recommended design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Dynamometer cards (dynagraphs) . . . . . . .... 593
Visual diagnosis of operating conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Pumping efficiency determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Problem well testing . . . 611
Energyoptimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Surface efficiency . . 619
Subsurface efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Pump-off controls and timers . . . . ............... 621
Selectionofmaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
(1) Pitting and concentr
corrosion, 622 - (4) Galvanic corrosion, 623 - (5) Sulfide stress cracking, 623 - (6)
Corrosion fatigue, 623 - (7) Material strength, 623 - Inhibitors, 625
XXII
Installation and operation , , , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

Sample problems and questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Appendix 14.1 - Useful formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Appendix 14.11 - Pumping unit design calculations , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Chapter 15. HYDRAULIC SUBSURFACE PUMPS

P. Wilson and G.V. Chlingarian
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Subsurface pumps-piston type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Example problem 15-1 656
Pump selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Example, 665
Example problem 15-2 667
Given, 667 - Find, 667 - Solution, 668
Example problem 15-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Given, 669 - Find, 669 - Find, 669 - Solution, 669
Classproblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Tubing arrangements . 670
Wellheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Control manifolds 680
681
Power fluid cleaning system 681
683
683
684
685
687
693
693
Example problem 15-4 ........................................ 708
Given, 708 - Assume, 709 - Find, 709 - Solution, 710
Class problems . . . . . . . . . . .............. 719
Bottomhole pressure calculations . . . ..... 720
Sample problem and questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Chapter 16. ELECTRIC SUBMERGIBLE PUMPS

W.J. Powers, C. Dunbar and G.V. Chilingarian
737
737
Applications ................................... 738
...................................... 738
740
...................... 740
743
743
.............................................. 743
Power cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ 748
Motor flat cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
XXIII
Switchboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Transformer 752
Wellhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 152
Junction box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Accessory options ..................................... 153
Pressure-sensin - Variable speed drive, 754
Selection data and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Mechanical data . . .......................... 756
Production data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
.......................... 760
Electric power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
760
Handling, installation and operation . . .
...... 175
..................................... 116
Fluidpump-off . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801

SUBJECTINDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, I1
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction (and an Appendix by D.D. Coleman)

by G.V. CHILINGARIAN and J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr.
Chapter 2. Flow rate measurement

by T.R. SIFFERMAN
Chapter 3. The manufacture, chemistry and classification of oilwell cements and additives
by J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr., G.V. CHILINGARIAN and S. KUMAR
Chapter 4. Fracturing
by J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr., G.V. CHILINGARIAN and S . KUMAR
Chapter 5. Acidizing oilwells

by J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr. and G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Chapter 6 . Gravel packing

by W.B. HATCHER, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and J.R. SOLUM
XXIV
Chapter 7. Steam enhanced oil recovery

by J.P. FANARITIS AND G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Chapter 8. Corrosion in drilling and producing operations

by T.A. BERTNESS, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and M. AL-BASSAM
Chapter 9. Water quality for subsurface injection

by C.C. WRIGHT and G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Chapter 10. Offshore technology

by S. KUMAR and G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Chapter 11. Pollution control

by K.M. SASSEEN, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and J.P. BRADY
Chapter 12. Underground storage of gas and oil

by A. ALI AZUN, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and S. KUMAR
Appendix A. Technology of testing petroleum products and sample experiments

by G.V. CHILINGARIAN, J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr. and C.M. BEESON
Appendix B. Conversion of units

by J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr. and G.V. CHILINGARIAN
Reference Index
Subject Index
1
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
K.M. SASSEEN, GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN, AND JOHN 0. ROBERTSON

JR.
INTRODUCTION
During the mid 1800’s, there was a thriving salt producing industry in the U.S.A.
(West Virginia and Pennsylvania), based on the evaporation of natural brines to
recover salt. Crude oil was a troublesome contaminant that would often accompany
the produced brine. It was skimmed off in the evaporation pools and discarded.
Many enterprising salt producers, however, bottled the oil and sold it at “medicine
shows”. A picture of a fierce Indian often appeared on the label, attesting to the
universal curative properties of this “rock oil from the bowels of the earth”.
A sample of the oil was sent to Yale University for analysis and distillation
revealed the presence of some valuable properties. Based on this information, a
syndicate was formed in Pennsylvania to promote the drilling of an oil well. The
Drake well was drilled and completed in 1859 by a group of salt water well drillers
from West Virginia, and marked the beginning of the American petroleum industry.
Thus, the roles of contaminant and product have been reversed in the case of salt
water and oil, which have been associated from the beginning. Since then the oil
industry has progressed steadily until today (1985) the U.S.A. alone consumes
around 16 million barrels of oil per day.
All phases of petroleum technology have kept pace with this expansion through
the never-ending search for better and more efficient methods. Production tech-
niques have advanced from the very crude wooden troughs and pipes used in the
early development of the industry to the modern complex gathering systems, staged
separation, and treating plants. Transportation has evolved from the wooden barrels
filled at the wellhead to a system of pipelines and tank trucks connecting all parts of
the country.
In this book, the writers are concerned with a phase of production classified as
“surface operations in petroleum production”. This classification includes all
equipment and operations from the wellhead to the refinery (Fig. 1-1).
GATHERING SYSTEM
The gathering system (see Fig. 1-1) consists primarily of pipes, valves, and fittings
necessary to connect the wellhead to the separation equipment. The gathering
system may contain one or more lines with branches to each well, or it may consist
of separate lines from each well, which are connected to a group header or test
N
4. STEAM INJECTION
SrVlY GENERATOR
w m WNDOIOOR
I---
FLY- SCRUBBING
FLYASH HANDLING
CW
OIL
i
I
AWT SKID UNIT
r
@ GATHERING
.-
SYSTEM
I
VAPOR RECOVERY
TRUCKING
CLEAN OIL - - MANUAL
TO PIPELINE
SHIPPING
-GAUGING
4
--
PUMP
r r -
STORAGE TANKS
I REJECT
@ PIPELINE I1 LACT UNIT
-@
Fig. 1-1. Schematic flow diagram of surface production equipment. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company, Santa Fe Springs,
California.)
3
header system, as distance and distribution dictates. Accessory items might include:
(1) gross-production meters; (2) automatic well test units with programmers and
computer readouts communicated to remote office locations or production
headquarters; (3) corrosion inhibitor and chemical injection equipment; (4) auto-
matic routing valves; and (5) production limiting devices. In some cases, gas is
removed from the casinghead into a field gas-gathering system. Some of these
operate under vacuum to 28 in. of Hg. Orifice meters may be installed at each well,
or one meter may be used to measure the entire gas production from a lease.
Development of oilwell steam injection procedures has added to the complexity
of some field gathering systems; however, new development facilities, although more
complex, often tend to simplify the overall design for good continuity and oper-
ation. Oilwell steam injection facilities have been installed in a number of low-grav-
ity oilfields to stimulate oil production. Steam stimulation, in several installations,
increased the net oil production of an existing well up to ten times the production
prior to steaming operations and created new well drilling activity in many existing
fields. Among other details that determine the feasibility of steam operations are
considerations which involve the subsequent steam stimulation of the well after the
initial two or three steaming phases, in terms of a production decline to a level
approaching the production prior to steaming, or a stable increased production due
to the continued steam stimulation.
A steam injection system primarily consists of: (1) a steam generator; (2) a water
conditioning system for feedwater to the steam generator; (3) a main steam header
to various oil production-steam injection manifolds that are locate! in the central
part of the wells to be steamed; (4) a series of lines to each individual well; (5) a
common test line from the above-mentioned manifold; (6) a purge line from the
manifold; and (7) a group oil line from the manifold back to the dehydration
facility. The line to each well from the oil production-steam injection manifold is
often a dual purpose line (in lieu of a single steam line and a single oil line) used for
steaming the well for a certain period of time. In this case, the oil production returns
through the same line to the manifold, where the production is then routed to the
group header. The manifold may contain twenty or more wells, each of which can
be designed with automatic diverter valves in order to: (1) direct the flow of an
individual well to the well test line; (2) route the flow to an automatic well test
(AWT) unit, completely panel programmed; (3) return the flow to the maingroup
header; and (4) after a purge period, program the next well for testing, etc. In the
case of oil-burning type steam generators, ancillary equipment might include
scrubber systems for the removal of fly ash and sulfur dioxide from the generator
combustion gas, to control air pollution and maintain standards set by the local
environmental agencies.
TREATING SECTION
The treating section (see Fig. 1-1)consists of some method of dehydration, such
as using washtanks, heater treaters, or electrical dehydrators. The principal purpose
4
of the treating section is to remove water, sand, and other contaminants from the
oil. In most cases, the waste water must be cleaned to meet the requirements of the
local water quality board. Often the water is further processed for waterflood
applications or for reuse as steam generator feedwater in some locations where the
water has proper chemical composition and properties.
Oil enters the treating section from the separators, where it has been essentially
degassed, and flows to the dehydration equipment. Dehydration may be accom-
plished by one or a combination of several methods ranging from simple tank
settling to complex methods.
In general, dehydration equipment can be divided into three classes: gravity,
electrical, and chemical, or a combination thereof.
Gravity dehydration
Washtanks, heater treaters, centrifuges, etc., are included in the gravity class. As
implied, the principal force involved in the separation of oil and water is gravity
(separation in accordance with Stokes’ law). Centrifuges add mechanical force to aid
gravity settling; however, due to high cost and low capacity, for the most part, this
equipment is no longer a viable consideration for processing.
Washtanks
A washtank (Fig. 1-2) is a large tank equipped with a spreader, oil draw-off, level
control, and low-pressure separator. Oil enters the low-pressure gas separator (gas
boot), situated on top of the tank, and is conducted (higher elevation head) to the
bottom of the tank by means of a large-diameter balance column attached to a
spreader near the bottom of the tank. The operating principle of the spreader design
is to allow the oil-water flow to break up into smaller oil globules through the small
vertical louvered sections of the spreader skirt and thereby cause coalescence of the
minute particles, up into the oil pad with retention time being a factor. Inasmuch as
heat lowers the specific gravity and viscosity of the crude oil, it plays an important
part in the operation of a washtank. A level control (weir balance operation or
electronic sensor) maintains the oil-water interface at a desired height, usually in
the midsection of the tank. Because the spreader is located below the interface, the
input oil is forced to rise vertically through a water bath before entering the oil
layer. Water settles out of the oil under the force of gravity and clean oil is skimmed
from the surface of the oil layer.
Uniform distribution of oil is of primary importance in a washtank. Excessive
channeling rapidly reduces the overall capacity and operation of this type of
dehydrator. Heat is often required to reduce the viscosity of the oil to a value that
will promote gravity settling. In some cases, heat applied internally creates convec-
tion currents in the water bath that may seriously interfere with proper operation of
a washtank. Application of heat to the oil stream prior to entrance to the washtank
will correct this condition. Injection of emulsion-breaking chemicals at the wellhead
or into the oil stream at the treating section aids in the resolution of emulsions. The
5
II 0 W = OIL WATER TRERYOPANE-'
80 PSI AIR 6 =OAS

S =BASIC SEDIMENT
ELECTRIC W =WATER
PROGRAMMER
C.O= CLEAN OIL
ST= STEAM
C =CONDENSATE
Fig. 1-2.Automated wash tank. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company, Santa Fe
Springs, California.)
detrimental effects of channeling and convection currents led to the development of

a new configuration of spreaders and baffles for the washtank. In this design, the
spreader takes the form of a horizontal slotted pipe instead of a circular pan. The oil
is allowed to rise in a small sector of the tank area confined by a vertical baffle
extending from the bottom to above the oil level. After rising vertically through the
water bath, the oil enters the oil layer which flows uniformly in a horizontal circular
path to an oil skimmer. The skimmer is located on the opposite side of the vertical
baffle from the spreader. Segmented baffles maintain a uniform flow in the circular
path. Heat is applied externally to the oil stream by a heat exchanger or inline
heater. The oil-water interface is maintained at the desired level by the same means
as those used in a conventional washtank, i.e., a weir box or electronic controller.
Capacities of washtanks may be based on three to four barrels of clean oil per
square foot of cross-sectional area per day, when the viscosity of the crude has been
reduced to 100 SSU * or less. A difference in density must exist between the oil and
water for proper washtank operation. Washtanks are not considered as sophisticated
process equipment items, but they are (and will remain) viable dehydration units for
many production facilities, where the API gravity is in the middle-low range. They
are low in the initial installation cost per barrel of oil throughput; and once they are
set and adjusted for the design parameters, they operate practically maintenance-free.
* Saybolt Universal seconds.

6
Heater treaters
A heater treater is a pressure vessel operating on the same basic principle as the
washtank. Heater treaters may be vertical or horizontal and are often direct-fired,
although indirect-heated types are available.
The gravity separation principle is essentially the same as that in the washtank,
the main difference being that the heater treater operates under pressure. Distribu-
tion, convection currents, viscosity, and density difference affect the heater treater
operation in the same manner as they do the operation of a washtank.
Similar to the washtank, a heater treater removes impurities from the produced
crude oil. The most prevalent impurity is the produced water, which usually
contains dissolved salts. Other impurities are sand, silt, metallic oxides, hydrogen
sulphide, and various minerals. All of these constituents may deposit in the storage
tanks, pipelines and, finally, in the refinery process equipment. Resulting corrosion,
erosion, and plugging is detrimental to the efficiency of operation of various
equipment. Because of this, the pipeline-refinery BSW (basic sediment and water)
acceptability limit on crude oil shipments is 3%. The gas also must be separated
from the crude oil.
All treaters utilize gravity to separate the lighter from the heavier components:
gas is the lightest, followed by oil and then water, with solids being generally the
heaviest components. Time and gravity are the two main factors involved in the
separation of various components. The closer the specific weights of the components
are, the longer it will take for gravity separation to occur. In addition, oil coats and
saturates the other components changing their specific weights. Coating with oil
affects the weight of small water droplets more than that of the larger ones. Another
major deterrent to gravity separation is high viscosity of the crude oil. The thicker
the oil, the longer the duration of separation process.
Whereas gravity separation is the basic method used to remove the impurities
from the crude oil, it is generally necessary to apply additional treating processes to
speed up the separation including: (1) chemicals to break emulsions, (2) heaters to
reduce the viscosity of the oil, and (3) coalescing processes to enlarge the water
droplets. Treaters incorporate some or all these means to speed up the separation
process.
A treater utilizes the gravity separation process, which is speeded up by enlarging
the water droplets and/or reducing the viscosity of the oil, often using chemicals
that can help break emulsions. All of these techniques must be applied in a
systematic manner that will conserve energy, minimize costs, and accomplish the
task as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Operation of a typical heavy-duty thermal treater (Fig. 1-3) is based on the best
principle of gravity separation by maintaining a horizontal flow pattern throughout
the entire processing scheme. The constant force of flow resisting the settlement of
water droplets is minimized, as opposed to treaters with vertical flow patterns.
Efficient uniform heating is assured by the stream-flow distribution of the fluid
around the heating elements. The stream-flow (channeled flow) heating pattern
results in a maximum heating efficiency and attains positive equilibrium at the
Fig. 1-3. Superior horizontal downflow emulsion heater treater. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction. Division of Rheern Manufacturing Co.. Los
Angeles, California.)
4
8
oil-gas and water-oil interfaces. With the stream-flow pattern, free water is
separated and bypassed around the heating elements. The crude oil emulsion is
heated sequentially, with the entrained gas and water being removed at the earliest
possible moment in the heating process. This insures a minimum energy loss from
the heating constituents above that necessary to achieve separation.
The crude oil emulsion is heated directly by the heating elements being immersed
in the oil phase. Heating in the oil constant phase reduces scaling and coking of the
heating element, Free and entrained gas, which is released by the heating process, is
removed ahead of the coalescing and settling section, thus preventing the agit’ation
that would be created by its separation in the settling area. All of the water is
collected at the bottom of the treater and discharged from a single control valve at
the back of the treater. This reduces the number of control valves. In addition, the
water experiencing a greater residence time is discharged cleaner.
The gas-free crude oil flows from the heating section into a coalescing section
that contains louvered plates to achieve coalescence and insure uniform distribution
throughout the settling section. The louvered plates impart a slight pressure drop
that causes the oil to distribute across the full cross-section of the vessel. The baffles
are designed to force a change of direction that impacts the water onto the plate.
The cutting edges of the louvers break the oil film present around the water
droplets, allowing the water to escape and coalesce into larger droplets that can
settle more quickly. The horizontal flow reduces the resistance to separation and
settlement. All this results in the delivery of the maximum volume of clean oil with
the minimum expenditure for energy and chemicals.
The thermal-electric treater (Fig. 1-4)combines the best principles of thermal
treating with electrostatic and chemical treating. Flow pattern in the thermal-electric
treater is an adaptation of the stream-flow (channeled flow) pattern discussed
above. Gas removal is accomplished at the warmest part of the treater to prevent
gas breakout in the coalescing section. Free water bypasses the heating element and
is not heated, thereby minimizing fuel consumption. Small water droplets are
coalesced in passing through a high-energy electrically charged field. Precisely
engineered distribution and collection headers assure uniform flow through the
electrical field. The thermal-electric treater is equipped with a single-point quick
adjusting electrical grid spacing apparatus for precise electrical current regulation.
The adjustment can be made while the unit is in operation as simply as closing a
gate valve.
The initial gas removal occurs at the top of the vessel as the emulsion enters the
vessel. As the emulsion flows through the first compartment, free water is bypassed
around the heating section and is not heated more than necessary to accomplish its
separation.
Efficient, uniform heating is assured by stream-flow distribution of the fluid
around the firetubes. The uniform stream-flow (channeled flow) heating pattern
provides maximum heating efficiency and equilibrium at the fluid-gas interface.
Gas evolved during the heating is removed at the warmest part of the system
preventing its breakout later in the process. The closely controlled sequential
GAS EQUALIZER
GAS CONDUIT
OUTLET DISTRIBUTOR
REAMFLOW BAFFLES
SURGE SECTEN
N DISTRIBUTOR
Fig. 1-4. Thermal electric treater. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction. Division of Rheem Manufacturing Co., L~~ ~ ~California.)
~ ~ l \D ~ ~
10
heating assures heating only to the point that is required to attain the desired
amount of separation.
The gas-free oil first flows through a surge section and then into the electrical
coalescing section. Presence of a system of distribution spreaders results in uniform
flow through both the length and width of the vessel. An overhead, clean oil
collection header system gives rise to a uniform outflow of clean oil. This comple-
ments the bottom distributor system to provide minimum velocities and an even
distribution throughout the coalescing section. The tendency for fluids to channel is
virtually eliminated, and good distribution assures effective coalescing and maxi-
mum capacity.
Coalescing of the small water drops dispersed in the oil is accomplished by the
high-voltage alternating electrical field. As the emulsion rises through the field, the
water droplets acquire an electrical charge. As a result, they rapidly move about
repelling, attracting and colliding with one another. The action is energetic and
ADJUSTABLE
WATER SIPHON\
1
SAFETY REULF
r"" our
Fig. 1-5. Superior vertical emulsion heater treater. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction,
Division of Rheem Manufacturing Co.. Los Angeles, California.)
effective because all the water droplets acquire a charge, regardless of size. The
droplets collide with sufficient energy to overcome the emulsifying forces, combin-
ing into larger drops. This growth in mass allows fast gravity settling of the larger
drops into the water phase.
Vertical emulsion heater treaters have been successfully employed with the
higher-gravity crude oils ( > 30" API) in some areas (Fig. 1-5).
Electrical dehydrators
The operation of electrical dehydrators is based on the well-known principle of

Cottrell. The oil-water emulsion is heated to reduce viscosity and is then exposed to
a high-voltage alternating electric current field. Inasmuch as the water particles are
charged, the alternating electric field increases the random motion or displacement,
thus aiding the coalescence of the small water particles. Gravity separation occurs
when the small water particles coalesce into large drops. Chemicals may be added to
aid in emulsion resolution. Cleaning costs are usually greater with this type of
equipment than they are with the gravity settling type. (See Fig. 1-4.)
Chemical dehydration
Chemical treatment usually is used in combination with one of the gravity

settling class of equipment. In the case of stable emulsion, conditions at the
interfacial film can be altered to produce equilibrium with applied stress. If the
equilibrium is upset by any change in conditions or stresses that occur at the
boundary, the film will collapse and the emulsion will become unstable. In principle,
chemical treatment through the addition of surface-active agents, alters the chemical
composition at the interfacial film to such an extent, that the emulsion becomes
unstable. Heat produces stress on the film that further renders the emulsion
unstable.
STORAGE TANKS
Storage tanks are usually of bolted construction up to the 10,000-barrel size.

Welded steel tanks are used extensively in the larger sizes. In some fields, small
welded steel tanks in bolted tank sizes up to 500 bbl are used. API Specifications
12B and 6 5 0 cover bolted and welded steel tanks, respectively, whereas API 12G
describes welded aluminum tanks. Bolted tanks have the advantage of being easily
transported and relocated. Bolted steel tank components can also be factory
sandblasted and precoated with various epoxy coatings to assure quality control.
ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT
Accessory equipment includes the equipment that is not basically necessary to

convey the oil from the wellhead to the pipeline or other means of transportation.
12
Vapor recovery, water treatment, and automatic custody transfer are included in
this group.
Vapor recovery
Tank vapors were allowed to vent to the atmosphere in the past. With the
introduction of gasoline plants and the ever-increasing demand for liquefied petro-
leum gas (LPG) and natural gasoline, these vapors became an important source of
revenue. Initial pay-out periods of a few months are not uncommon (see Chapter 6 ) .
A recovery system consists of a network of piping to collect tank vapors, a
control system to maintain constant pressure on the tanks, and a compressor to
increase the pressure of the vapors from atmospheric to the gas-gathering line
pressure (Fig. 1-6). Large-diameter, thin-wall pipe is used to collect the vapors
because very large volumes at low pressures are involved. In most cases, the total
pressure differential cannot exceed 0.5 in. of water. The pressure control system uses
two very sensitive regulators, one to remove excess vapors from the tanks and one to
admit natural gas for repressuring during demand periods. A pressure control
system of this type can maintain the tank pressures within 0.1 in. of water. A slight
positive pressure is maintained in the tanks to prevent the admission of air.
The compression section can consist of a blower or compressor, depending upon
the gasline pressure. In some cases, the gasline is under vacuum, eliminating the
compression section entirely. The blower or compressor can operate continuously,
using an unloader controller to load or unload the compressor on demand condi-
VAPOR HEADER
TO SHIPPING
PUMP
&*
A
H
;j
TO GAS SYSTEM
GAS PRESSURE AIR COOLED STACK

SCRVBBER TRAP COHPRESSOQ
VAPOR RECOVERY COMPRESSOR SKID
Fig. 1-6.Vapor recovery flow sheet. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company, Santa
Fe Springs, California.)
13
tions. A meter is often included to measure the volume of vapors discharged into the
gasline.
The writers recommend thorough investigation of vapor recovery possibilities on
all tank farms. Many small tank batteries have yielded important revenues after
installation of vapor recovery systems, because the storage tanks constitute the final
stage of gas-oil separation with a high liquid content in the gas. State air-quality
boards in the U.S.A. and other countries have issued many regulations regarding the
requirements for vapor recovery installations on tank farms.
Wastewater treatment
Disposal of wastewater is a very important problem. In order to prevent

contamination of domestic water supplies, wastewater cannot be discharged into
unlined sumps or streams in many places. Discharge of wastewater into sewers or
into the ocean without proper treatment is prohibited by state and local authorities
in the U.S.A. and in many other countries. Treatment consists of reducing the oil
and sediment content of the wastewater to the established limits. In some cases,
chemical treatment is required for control of basic oxygen demand (BOD), micro-
organisms, and certain gases. The flotation cell systems are most successful when it
is required to clean wastewater to a higher degree than the usual gravity settling
basins permit, especially for waterflood systems where the effluent from the flota-
tion cell is processed through filters prior to water injection (Figs. 1-7 and 1-8).
In waterflooding, the treatment of wastewater is very critical and complex. The
water not only must be thoroughly cleaned of oil and sediment, but also must be
chemically stabilized to prevent scale formation. Precautions must be exercised to
prevent any type of deposition in the injection well.
I R E C O M I I I O 6 f
w m w m n WILLWIT
Fig. 1-7. Fully pressurized flotation cell: wastewater system (P and I flow diagram). (Courtesy of HTI
Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company, Santa Fe Springs, California.)
14
Fig. 1-8. Dual flotation cell: wastewater system. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries
Company, Santa Fe Springs. California.).
In the flotation cell system, air or gas injection is utilized upstream of the main
process pump, The air or gas together with a chemical, if required, is thoroughly
mixed inside the pump. The fluid discharged from the pump enters the retention
tank where bubbles are collapsed under 2-3 atm of pressure and are driven into true
solution. As the water enters the flotation cell at this point, the air comes out of
solution due to the pressure decrease to, i.e., atmospheric. Thus, small sludge and oil
particles become floatable and move to the top where the rotating skimming arm
sweeps the oil sludge into a compartment for removal. The same drive shaft also
rotates a bottom grit scraper arm for the separate removal of settled solids from the
grit collecting box.
Clean water effluent is either directed to the outlet system or recycled back to a
surge tank, on low incoming flow, as the main process pump runs continuously.
Lease automatic custody transfer (LACT)
Automatic custody transfer simply means automatic gauging, sampling, and

shipping of oil from the lease tank farm to the pipeline (Fig. 1-9). Two methods are
in current use: the meter type and the volumetric dump type. Other basic equipment,
such as automatic cut determination device, temperature recorder, and sampling
device are essentially standard for both types. In both methods, oil from storage is
pumped through the water content (water cut) determination device where the oil is
either routed on through the system or bypassed back to the dehydration equipment,
15
TOPVILW
h
l l 0 L VIEW
I -PUMP 5 -METER
1-STRAINER 6-SAMPLER
3-DIVERT VALVE 7 -PROVER MANIFOLD
4 - A I R ELIWINAfOR 8 -BACK PRESSURE REGULITOR
Fig. 1-9. LACT unit. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company, Santa’Fe Springs,
California.)
depending on the water content of the oil. The oil flows to a deaerator and then
through the meter where the volume is determined. A temperature compensation
device corrects the meter with an electrically driven sampler. The electrically driven
sampler can be actuated by a pulse from the meter. Float switches on the storage
tank start and stop the unit as required.
The volumetric dump type unit operates in the same manner as the meter unit,
except that two calibrated tanks are alternately filled and dumped, each dump
registering on a counter. Both types lend themselves readily to telemetering results
to control centers. Data, such as temperature, pressure, water cut, and volumetric
rate of flow, are easily transmitted and recorded at remote locations.
Installation of LACT, where applicable, results in a saving in labor cost and a
uniform scheduling for pipeline operation. This type of product handling is replac-
ing the old manual gauging, sampling, and shipping methods.
Remote-reading tank level gauges should be included in this section. Gauges are
available to determine, record, and transmit, for remote reading, the level in any
selected tank of a battery.
SEPARATORS
Oil and gas separators are used in most petroleum production operations. The
primary function of these separators is to produce gas-free liquid and liquid-free
gas.
Basically there are three types of separators: vertical, horizontal, and spherical.
Each type has proven features particular to various field applications. It is often
recommended to use the horizontal separator where the gas/oil ratio is high; the
16
vertical separator where the gas/oil ratio is low; and the spherical separator for an
intermediate range of the gas/oil ratios. Integrated with the natural forces utilized
to induce mechanical separation, the interface area between the liquid and gas is
considered an important factor for oil and gas separation. For extremely high
gas/oil ratios, therefore, the horizontal separator provides the maximum interface
area. Some designs of vertical and spherical separators include a secondary interface
chamber in the lower oil reservoir of the separator. The interior of a separator is
divided into three compartments: (1) the primary separator chamber in the middle
(2) the secondary separation chamber at the top, and (3) the oil reservoir at the
bottom.
The standard oil and gas separator accessory components are as follows: (1) a
back-pressure gas regulator, (2) an oil-level control valve (diaphragm-operated or
mechanical float linkage dump type), (3) a pressure gauge assembly, (4) a gauge
glass assembly, ( 5 ) a float flange assembly, and (6) a safety relief valve. It is often
advisable.to include a flanged safety disc head with a pressure setting higher than
the relief valve to protect against high overpressuring.
In addition to the various types of stationary separators for field processing,
there are portable test separators (complete with gas and oil meter runs) for
preliminary tests at the wellsite. Composite volumetric metering type separators are
also available.
The criterion for the design of oil and gas separators and separation systems is
the economical separation of the gaseous and liquid phases of crude oil and
distillate, contingent on the characteristics and conditions of any particular oilfield.
The factors which affect oil and gas separation and stage separation are wellhead or
first-stage pressure, temperature, wellstream composition, gas/oil ratio, and gravity,
all of which are relative and present variable conditions of operation. Stage
separation processing is utilized to separate high-pressure wellstream gas-oil mix-
tures into gas and liquid phases by two or more equilibrium flashes at consecutively
lower pressures. The washtank or stocktank is considered as one stage in the
separation process. Staging is necessary to increase washtank or stocktank recovery
and to remove the bulk of vapors formed when the pressure is decreased. This
precludes the entry and evolution of large quantities of vapor into the tank, which
would cause a “rolling” action and be detrimental to the efficiency of operation,
especially in a washtank.
Operating conditions are established to separate the gas from the wellstream at
the optimum pressure and temperature in order to induce efficient mechanical
separation within the separator and thereby produce a more stabilized flow of crude
oil to the washtank or treater. Separators are designed to utilize natural forces and
conditions in order to facilitate the mechanical separation of oil and gas. These
include: (1) centrifugal force-a mixed stream of oil and gas is subjected to a
whirling motion and the heavier oil is thereby forced to the outside and away from
the lighter gas; (2) high velocity-the amount of centrifugal force depends upon the
velocity of the whirling stream; (3) gas expansion-decreases the gas density and
thus induces the heavier oil particles to fall out; and (4) impingement
17
+
GAS OUTLET
IN IT IA L SE PARATlO N
FLUID SECONDARY
INLET
/QUIESCENT ZONE
LIQUID OUTLET
VORTEX BREAKER
Fig. 1-10, Vertical oil and gas separator. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction, Division of
Rheem Manufacturing Co., Los Angeles, California.)
contact-scrubbing and removal of oil mist from the gas flow near the gas outlet,
utiIizing surface contact and directional change in flow.
In order to accomplish good mechanical separation, the separator should perform
INITIAL SEPARATION
SECONDARY SEPARATION
MIST EXTRACTION
I
I /
WAVE
/ U
BREAKER
W R T E X BREAKER
LIQUID ACCUMULATION
Fig. 1-11. Horizontal oil and gas separator. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction, Division of
18
MIST EXTRACT I ON,

*
INLET
INITIAL SEPARATION
SECONDARY
SEPARATION
LIQUID OUTLET
QUIESCENT ZONE
VORTEX BREAKER
C - - G I \ S OUTLET
Fig. 1-12. Spherical oil and gas separator. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction, Division of
the following four basic functions, utilizing the above-mentioned phenomena (Figs.
1-10, 1-11, and 1-12).
(1) Initial separation for diverting the bulk of the free liquid immediately, by
specially designed tangential inlets in vertical and spherical vessels, and deflection
plates in horizontal vessels.
(2) Secondary separation for removing the small liquid droplets. The principles
involved are reduction in velocity and gravity settling. The vessel diameter is
generally established by this phase of the separation process. Separators incorporate
scientifically designed internal components to impart laminar flow and to insure
utilization of the full cross-sectional area. The science of particle dynamics must be
thoroughly understood and properly utilized in the design.
(3) Mist extraction for removing the mist-like liquid particles that are tightly
entrained in the gas stream. Generally, impingement-type devices are utilized in this
section of the oil and gas separator. The principles of surface contact, adhesion, and
agglomeration are applied in the design of mist eliminators.
(4) Collection and disposition of the liquids in a manner that will not expose the
liquids to re-entrainment. In order to accomplish this, a large quiescent zone is
provided, which is removed from the high-velocity gas flow. Baffles are placed in
such a manner that a “surf spray” effect on the liquid surface is prevented.
Gas from separators is metered and transferred to sales gasline systems or
process plants. It csn also be further processed for field gas injection systems.
GAS PROCESSING AND CONDITIONING
The two basic reasons for processing or conditioning natural gas are: (1) removal
of impurities that could cause problems in transportation, distribution, and final
19
TABLE 1-1
Removal processes for hydrogen sulfide
Name Reaction
Girbotol a *
2RNH2 + H2S (RNH3)ZS
Phenolate a +
NaOC6H, H,S + NaHS + C 6 H , 0 H
Phosphate a K 3 P 0 4 +H,S+KHS+K,HPO,
Sodium carbonate (vacuum) Na,CO, + H,S * NaHCO, +NaHS
Seaboard Na,CO, + H,S --L NaHCO, +NaHS
Lime Ca(OH), + H , S + CaS+2H20
Iron oxide FeO + H, S 4 FeS + H,O
Caustic soda
(pH = 9.5) 2NaOH+H,S+Na2S+2H,0
Caustic soda
(pH = 7.0) N a O H + H , S + NaHS+H,O
IronitemSponge" Fe,04+4H,S-. 3 F e S + 4 H 2 0 + S
FeS + S + FeS, environment
a Regenerated by steaming. Regenerated by vacuum steaming. Regenerated by air blowing.
use; and/or (2) the modification of the characteristics of a natural gas to achieve
the most efficient utilization.
The most common impurities are carbon dioxide (CO,), hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
and water (H,O). The latter is present as a liquid and a vapor. First, the liquid water
can generally be removed in a separator or scrubber which is an integral part of the
gas processing system. The content of water vapor is then reduced by bringing the
gas into contact with a solid or liquid desiccant.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can be removed by many methods (Table 1-1). In
chemical adsorption processes, the H,S reacts chemically (combines) with a liquid
absorbent. Regeneration of the absorbent is accomplished by: (1) the addition of
heat to reverse the chemical reaction, or (2) oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to
elemental sulfur by air. The removal of CO, also can be accomplished by chemical
absorption.
Water vapor can be removed from natural gas by the glycol absorption dehydra-
tion process (GAD) (Fig. 1-13). Gas to be dehydrated enters the absorber (A) near
the bottom and rises through a series of bubble trays where it is contacted with
glycol. The glycol absorbs the water vapor from the gas and dehydrated gas is
discharged from the absorber. As the glycol travels downward through the absorber,
its water content increases. The water-rich glycol is discharged from the bottom of
the absorber through heat exchangers (B) to the regenerator fractionation-distilla-
tion column (C). The water-rich glycol is heated in the reboiler (D), causing the
water to be released in a vapor form. The reconcentrated glycol flows to the glycol
storage tank (E) where it exchanges heat with the water-rich glycol in the heat
exchanger. The reconcentrated glycol flows through an additional glycol-to-glycol
20
FLOW DIAGRAM : GAD-GLYCOL ABSORPTION DEHYDRATION

(GAS DEHYDRATION UNIT)
Fig. 1-13. The glycol absorption-dehydrationprocess. (Courtesy of Superior Tank and Construction,
Division of Rheem Manufacturing Co., Los Angeles, California.)
Fig. 1-14. Automated treating facilities. (Courtesy of HTI Superior, Inc., a Berry Industries Company,
Santa Fe Springs, California.)
heat exchanger (F) to the glycol pump (G). Then it is pumped through a gas to
glycol heat exchanger (H) and into the absorber.
The efficient application of heat exchange and conservative heat flux rates assure
exceptional fuel economy and high overall performances.
A summarized, overall view of the surface production equipment is presented in
Fig. 1-14.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Exchanger problem
Crude oil is heated in exchangers by the counter-current flow of fuel oil:
Measured at 60°F, the exchangers handle 15,500 gal/hr of the crude and 8350
gal/hr of the fuel oil. The gravity and UOP characterization factor of the crude
are 40" API and 11.3, whereas those for the fuel oil are 25" API and 11.3,
respectively. The fuel oil is cooled from 675" to 225"F, and the crude enters the
exchangers at 100°F.
Compute the heat lost by the fuel oil in Btu/hr. Estimate the outlet temperature
of the crude oil, assuming all of the heat lost by the fuel oil is picked up by crude
oil.
T, = 675 O F * T2 = 2 2 5 "F
0, = 8 3 5 0 gal / h
Kw=11.3
25O A P I
G=? 4 T3 = 100 'F

6'2 = 15.500 gol/h
Kw = 11.3
40OAPI
Scheme 1-1.
Solution:
Heat lost by the fuel oil in Btu/hr = gal/hr x lb/gal X Btu/"F X AT X C = 8360 X
7.529 x 0.650 x (675 - 225) X 0.975 = 17.95 X lo6 Btu/hr. Specific heat, cp: in
Btu/"F, and correction factor, C , for UOP characterization factor can be obtained
from charts provided by Nelson (1949), for example Fig. 1-15.
Assuming T4 = 350"F, the heat gained by the crude oil in Btu/hr is equal to:
15,500 x 6.870 x 0.625 x (350 - 100) X 0.975 = 13.7 x lo6 Btu/hr. Thus, the outlet
temperature T4 must be greater than 350°F.
Assuming T4 = 400"F, the heat gained by the crude oil is equal to: 15,500 X 6.870
x 0.570 x (400 - 100) x 0.975 = 17.7 x lo6 Btu/hr.
Assuming T4 = 450"F, the heat gained by the crude oil is equal to: 15,500 X 6.870
x 0.580 x (450 - 100) X 0.975 = 21.0 X lo6 Btu/hr. From Fig. 1-16, the correct
outlet temperature T4 is equal to 403°F.
See p. 47, Chapter 2, for definition of characterization factor.

22
1.0
2 0.9
k
3 00
I-
2
W
07
L
0 0.6
k
0.5
fn
0.4
a3
0 200 400 600 000 1000

TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 1-15. Specific heats of Mid-Continent liquid oils with a correction ctor for other bases of oils.
(After Nelson, 1949, fig. 16, p. 136; courtesy of McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N . Y . )
350
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
HEAT GAINED, Btu/hr x

Fig. 1-16. Solution for exchanger problem.
GROSS
PRODUCTION
60 PSIG STEAM
CONDENSATE
WATER
Fig. 1-17. Diagram for washtank problem.

Washtank problem
It is required to design a heating system for an oilfield production process

dehydration washtank (Fig. 1-17).
Field data:
(1) 1800 bbl/day of 12" API oil and 500 bbl/day of water at 110°F inlet
temperature.
(2) Tank shell insulated with 2 in. fiberglass; 2250 sq ft shell surface; 28 Btu/sq
ft/hr radiation loss; 60°F air temperature.
(3) Each internal heating pane has 42 sq ft of surface; overall coefficient of heat
transfer is 35.
(4) 60-psig steam is available for heating.
( 5 ) The required washtank dehydration operating temperature is 200°F.
Required:
(a) Calculate the washtank heat load.
(b) Find the logarithmic mean temperature difference (see Nelson, 1949, p. 478).
(c) Find the number of heat panes required for the heat load.
(d) Calculate the condensate return load, lb/hr.
(e) How much gas (1000 Btu/cu ft) will be required for the heating system if the
steam boiler efficiency is 70%.
( f ) In lieu of gas, how much fuel oil (145,000 Btu/gal) would be utilized if the
efficiency is 62%.
APPENDIX 1.1-SOME FUNDAMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS CONCEPTS AND SAMPLE

PROBLEMS
Fundamental equation of fluid statics
The fundamental equation of fluid statics states that pressure increases with
depth, the increment per unit length being equal to the weight per unit volume
(Binder, 1962, p. 13):
d p = - p g dz (1.I-1)
where d p is increment in pressure; dz is increment in depth (L is a vertical distance

measured positively in the direction of decreasing pressure); p is density (mass per
unit volume); and g is gravitational acceleration. The minus sign indicates that
pressure decreases with increasing z. The above relationship can be clearly under-
stood on examining Fig. 1.1-1, which shows vertical forces on the infinitesimal
element in the body of a static fluid. In this figure, dA represents an infinitesimal
cross-sectional area, p is the pressure on the top surface of the element and
24
BODY OF A FLUID
Fig. 1.1-1. Schematic diagram of vertical forces on an infinitesimal element in body- of any fluid.
(Modified after Binder, 1962, fig. 2-2, p. 13.)
(p + d p ) is the pressure on the bottom surface. Inasmuch as the pressure is due to

the fluid weight, the weight of the element ( p g d z d A) is balanced by the force due
to pressure difference ( d p dA):
d p d A = -pg d z dA (1.I-2)
or :
d p = -pg dz
In integral form, the above equation can be expressed as follows (see Fig. 1.1-1):
[‘%= - i 2 d z = -(z2.-zl) (1.I-3)
If p is assumed to be constant, eq. 1.1-3 becomes:

(1.1-4)
or :
Ap = yh (1.I-5)
where h is the difference in depth between two points, which is commonly referred
to as the “pressure head”; and y ( = p g ) is the specific weight. On expressing y in
lb/cu ft and h in ft, pressure difference Ap is found in lb/sq ft.
25
Buoyancy
When a body is completely or partly immersed in a static fluid, there is an

upward vertical buoyant force on this body equal in magnitude to the weight of
displaced fluid. This force is a resultant of all forces acting on the body by the fluid.
The pressure is greater on the parts of the body more deeply immersed. The
pressures at different points on the immersed body are independent of the body
material. For example, if the same fluid is substituted for the immersed body, this
fluid will remain at rest. This means that the buoyant, upward force on the
substituted fluid is equal to its weight.
If the immersed body is in static equilibrium, the buoyant force and the weight of
the body are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, passing through the
center of gravity of the body. For a comprehensive treatment of fluid statics, the
reader is referred to an excellent book on fluid mechanics by Binder (1962).
General energy equation
The work transferred

The heat added to unit The total gain in en-
to (done upon) unit
weight of the flowing ergy by unit weight of
the fluid between en-
trance and exit.
trance (1) and exit ( 2 ) .
q+---P I U , p2u2 + -W = u 2 - u1 + v2’- v2 z2 - Zl (1.1-6)

778 778 778 2g(778) + 778
where p = pressure in psfa; u = specific volume in ft3/lb; V = velocity in ft/sec;

2 = potential head in ft; q = heat transferred to fluid; p 1 u 1 / 7 7 8= external work in
pushing 1 Ib of fluid across the entrance; W = work in ft-lb per lb fluid flowing;
u2 - u1 = gain in internal energy; [( V? - V : ) / 2 g ( 7 7 8 ) ] = gain in kinetic energy;
and ( Z , - Z , ) / 7 7 8 = gain in potential energy. Point 1 = entrance; point 2 = exit; 1
Btu = 778 ft-lb; u2 - u1 = c,(T, - T,); c, = specific heat at constant volume.
Inasmuch as enthalpy = h = u + ( p u ) / 7 7 8 , eq. 1.1-6 becomes:
W
q + -= h , - h , +
v;- v; +-z,-7782, (1.I-7)
778 2g(778)
where h , - h , = cp(T,- Tl); cp = specific heat at constant pressure.

For a number of cases the process is adiabatic and change in internal energy is
negligible. Thus:
PlU,
---+-=
P2U2 w v2’- v: +-Z 2 - Z , (1.I-8)
778 778 778 2g(778) 778
26
and each term in the latter equation is in Btu/lb fluid flowing. On multiplying
through by 778:
(1.I-9)
where y = specific weight in lb/ft3 ( l / v ) ; p/y = pressure head in ft; V2/2g =

velocity head in ft; and 2 = potential head in ft.
For frictionless compressible fluid with no work done:
vz’+ Z, = 2
fi + - v: + Z, = const.
P +- (1.I-10)
Y2 2g Y1 2g
which is the well-known Bernoulli’s equation.
Derivation of formula for flow through orifice meter
A schematic diagram of incompressible fluid flow through an orifice meter is
presented in Fig. 1.1-2. For an ideal flow with no friction losses the following
relation will hold true:
Fig. 1.1-2. Schematic diagram of an orifice meter.
v:/2g + Pl/Y + z,= V2Wg +P,/Y + z, (1.1-11)

where V = velocity in ft/sec; p = pressure in psfa; y = specific weight in lb/cu ft;
and Z = potential head above any datum plane in ft.
Inasmuch as volumetric rate of flow (in cu ft/sec) Q = V I A ,= V 2 A 2 :
V, = V,A,/Al (1.I-12)
Substituting eq. 1.1-12 in eq. 1.1-11 and solving for V2:
V2= [ 2g( Pl/Y - P2/Y + Zl - z2>

1 - (A2/-41)2 1 1’2
(1.1-13)
27
For an actual flow one has to introduce correction factor for velocity (C,) and
correction factor for area (Cc).The latter is termed coefficient of contraction and is
equal to A , / A . Thus:
Q = C,C,V,A (1.1-14)
The term discharge coefficient (C or C,) often is substituted for C,Cc. Another term
flow coefficient ( K ) is defined as:
K = C / [1- ( A , / A , ) , ] 1/2 (1.1-15)
Thus:
actual Q = K A [ 2 g ( p I / y - p 2 / y + Z, - Z, )] 1/2 (1.I-16)
If A h is manometer deflection in in. of Hg, then:

Ah
P I / Y -k zl - P 2 / Y - z2 = 12(sP grHg - sP grf)/sP grf (1.1-17)
where sp gr, = specific gravity of fluid flowing.

Flow equation for the Venturi meter (Fig. 1.1-3) can be derived similarly;
however, C, = 1 in this case,
INLET
1 THROAT
Fig. 1.1-3. Schematic diagram of a venturi meter.
Compressible flow formula
For a compressible flow, one can derive the following equation starting with the
general energy equation (also see Binder, 1962):
(1.148)
28
where G = weight rate of flow in lb/sec, and k = (specific heat at constant

pressure)/(specific heat at constant volume) = c,/c,,. As shown in Nelson (1958, p.
211), constant k can be obtained for various hydrocarbons.
Example problem 1. Maximum reliable flow
Two reservoirs shown below are connected by a 4-in. 10,000-ft long pipe having
friction factor of 0.02. Determine: (1) pump horsepower required to maintain a flow
rate of 0.33 cu ft/sec of water ( y = 62.4 lb/cu ft); and (2) the maximum distance x
for dependable (reliable) flow.
DATUM PLANE
Fig. 1.1-4.Diagram for example problem 1
Solution:
(1) One can use Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 3:
Pl/Y + v / 2 g + z 1 + E , = P 3 / Y + G2/2g + z3 + A,, + A,, + h,,

where E, = energy output of the pump, ft-lb/lb of fluid flowing; h,, = head loss due
to friction =f(l/d)(V,2/2g), ft-lb/lb; h,, = head loss due to entrance = 0.5V;/2g
in the case of sharp entrance, ft-lb/lb; h,, = head loss due to the exit = dissipated
kinetic energy ( = V,2/2g); Vp = velocity in the pipe, ft/sec; d = inside diameter of
the pipe, ft; I = length of the pipe, ft; y = specific weight of the flowing fluid,
lb/ft3; g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2; and z = elevation above some datum
plane, ft.
Inasmuch as velocities at the surface of two reservoirs ( V , and V 3 ) can be
considered negligible and pressures p1 and p 2 are atmospheric (0 gage), the above
equation reduces to:
E, = ( z 3 - z,) + h,, + h,, + h , = ( z 3 - Z, ) + V,2/2g( f l / d + 0.5 + 1)

29
Inasmuch as:
V, = Q / A = 0.33 cu ft/sec/(~(4/12)~/4) = 3.78 ft/sec, E , = (325 - 175) +
3.782/64.4[(0.02)(10000)/(4/12) + 0.5 + l.O)] = 285 ft-lb/lb.
Thus, horsepower of the pump is equal to:
H P = QyE,/550 = (0.33)(62.4)(285)/550 = 10.6, where 550 ft-lb/sec = 1 H P .
(2) For maximum and yet reliable flow of water (i.e., no cavitation), the pressure
at the inlet side of the pump ( p 2 ) should be 2/3 of the barometric head of water.
With safety factor incorporated, it is equal to - 21 f t of water (= p 2 / y ) . Thus, using
Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2:
+ +
p I / y + V:/2g + z , = p 2 / y V,2/2g z 2 + hi, + A,,, one can solve for unknown
distance x , inasmuch as terms p I / y and V:/2g can be neglected. Thus: 175 = -21
+
+ (3.78)2/64.4 + 100 0.02[(~)/(4/12)] (3.782/64.4) + 0.5(3.78)2/64.4 and solving
for x : x = 7180 ft.
Example problem 2. Compressible flow (nozzle)
A convergent-divergent nozzle is connected to a tank with air, having pressure of

100 psia and temperature of 100’F. The tip diameter (point 3) is equal to two
inches, and air discharges to atmosphere ( p i = 14.7 psi and Ti = 60’F). Determine
throat diameter (point 2) necessary to maintain maximum flow rate through this
nozzle. Adiabatic constant k for air is equal to 1.4. (See Fig. 1.1-5.)
Fig. 1.1-5. Diagram for example problem 2.
Solution:
For maximum flow rate, the velocity in the throat must be sonic, because
maximum velocity attainable in a convergent nozzle is sonic. Inasmuch as p ; / p l ( =
14.7/100 = 0.147) is less than ( p2/pl)criticd (= {2/(k + l)}k’k-l) = {2/(1.4 +
1)}1,4’1,4-1= 0.528), velocity V, in the divergent passage will be supersonic.
30
T o attain sonic velocity in the throat (point 2), pressure p 2 must be critical:
+
p , = p 1 ( 2 / k l ) k / k -= l 100 x 0.528 = 52.8 psia.
The specific weight of air in the tank, yl, is equal to: y1 = p l / R T l = 100 X
144/53.3 X 560 = 0.483 lb/ft3, where gas constant for air, R , is equal to 53.3 and Tl
is the absolute temperature in O R ( = OF + 460).
Inasmuch as y2/y1 = ( p , / ~ ~ ) 'y2/ ~ = ,(0.528)1/',4X 0.483 = 0.3 lb/cu ft. In order
to attain sonic velocity in the throat, temperature in the throat must be critical:
T, = T 1 ( 2 / k+ 1) = 560(2/2.4) = 466"R.
Thus, velocity V, is equal to V,: V2= V , = c2 = (kgRT,)'/, = (1.4 X 32.2 X 53.3 X
466)1/2= 1060 ft/sec.
Temperature at point 3 can be determined from the following equation *: T, =
T , ( p , / p l ) k - l / k= 560(0.147)04/1.4
= 320"R, and y3 is equal to: yj = p , / R T , = 14.7
X 144/53.3 x 320 = 0.12 lb/ft3.
Velocity at point 3 can be determined on using the following equation:
K2 = 64.4 x (100 x 144/0.483)(1.4/0.4)[1 - ( 0 . 1 4 7 ) ~ . ~ / ' . ~ ]
Solving for V,:

V, = 1700 ft/sec, i.e., supersonic speed.
Inasmuch as for adiabatic flow the weight rate of flow in the throat ( W 2 )is equal to
the weight rate of flow at the exit (W,):
W, = A,V,y, = W, = A,V3y,
(77d;/4 x 144)(1060)(0.3)= ( ~ 2 , / 4x 144)(1700)(0.12), one can solve for throat di-

ameter d,: d, = 1.161 inches.
Example problem 3: Compressor problem
Air at standard conditions is handled at a rate of 1000 lb/hr by a compressor.

Cross-sectional area of inlet is 0.6 f t 2 and that of outlet is 0.11 ft2. Air is
compressed to 100 psia and 180"F, and the heat taken from air is 50,000 Btu/hr;
cp = 0.239. If the change in elevation is negligible, what is the work done on the air?
31
Solution:
Weight rate of flow:
G = A V y lb/sec
where A = cross-sectional area in ft2; V = velocity in ft/sec; and y = specific weight

in lb/ft3.
G = A,T/,Y, = A2V2Y2
V---G - 1000/3600 = 6.06 ft/sec

- AIY, (0.60) x (0.07651)
where 0.07651 is the specific weight of standard sea-level air (59'F and 14.7 psia).
= a
P2
=
1oo(144)
(53.3) X (640)
= 0.421 lb/ft3
V 2 = - -G
- 1000/3600 = 5.97 ft/sec
A2y2 (0.11) X (0.421)
W Vz'- V:
q+ - =h, - h, +
778 2gJ
h2 - h, = 0.239(180 - 59) = 29 Btu/lb
-- (5.97)2 - (6.06)2
-50+29+
778 (64.4) X (778)
W = 61,600 ft-lb/lb
If the answer is desired in HP then one has to use the following equation:
( W ft-lb/lb) X ( G Ib/sec)
HP =
(550 ft-lb/sec)/HP
32
APPENDIX 1.11-HYDROCARBONS: COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL AND PETROLEUM

PRODUCTS
Introduction
The word “petroleum” comes from the Greek work petra meaning rock and the
Latin work oleum meaning oil; thus it literally means rock oil or oil coming from
rock.
Crude petroleum is composed chiefly of hydrocarbons (compounds containing
only carbon and hydrogen, Fig. 1.11-1) together with small amounts of compounds
containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. Hundreds of analyses of samples of crude
petroleum from all over the world indicate the range in elemental composition
presented in Table 1.11-1.
Inasmuch as the hydrocarbons form the bulk of the chemical compounds in
petroleum, some simple facts concerning their structure must be understood in order
to intelligently interpret what takes place when these materials are broken down (as
in the cracking operations), as well as to interpret the physical tests made on the
products manufactured from petroleum. For various reasons one must rely chiefly
on the physical properties to describe or identify the materials made from petro-
leum.
Hydrocarbons are grouped into families according to the manner in which the
carbon and hydrogen are held together in the compound. The principal groups of
hydrocarbons considered here are straight and branched chain saturated (paraffinic),
unsaturated (olefins and diolefins), aromatic, and naphthenic.
Saturated hydrocarbons
Chemistry makes frequent use of the terms “saturated” and “unsaturated’.

Saturated means full, cannot take up any more, such as a sponge full of water
cannot hold any more water. The prefix “un” means not; so unsaturated means not
full, consequently, capable of taking up some more. Carbon has the property of
holding four other univalent atoms. When an atom of carbon has combined with
TABLE 1.11-1
Elemental composition of crude peiroleum
Element %
Carbon 83-87
Hydrogen 11-14
Sulfur 0.05-2
Nitrogen 0.1-2
Oxygen none-2
33
HYOROCARBONS ARE MOLECULES C O N S I S T I N G OF HYDROGEN AN0 CARBON. THE CARBON ATOn

HAS FOUR BONDS THAT CAN U N I T E W I T H E I T H E R ONE OR H M I E CARBON ATOnS MI W I T H
ATOnS OF ANOTHER ELEMENT. A HYDROGEN A T W I HAS ONLY ONE BOND AND CAN NEVER
UNITE W I T H MORE THAN ONE OTHER ATOn. .
Fig. 1.11-1. What are hydrocarbons?
four atoms of hydrogen it cannot combine with any more, hence the compound
would be called a saturated hydrocarbon. This compound is methane, a gas, which
is always present in gas coming from oil wells and has a chemical formula of CH,.
If, on the other hand, only two of three atoms of hydrogen are combined with one
carbon atom the products are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
The general formula for saturated (paraffin) hydrocarbons is CnHzn+*. The
carbon atoms are joined by single linkages only, being arranged in a straight chain.
H-C-H
I H-C-C-C-C-H
i 7 7 7 i ' l i
H- C-C-C-C-C-C-C- H
I H
I
H
I
H
I
H
I 1 H1 H1 H1 H1 HI HI
H
H
Methane Butane Heptane
S a t u r a t e d hydrocarbons ( s t r a i g h t chain)
Formula 1.11-1.
Simple saturated hydrocarbons with which the petroleum industry is concerned

are listed in Table 1.11-11.
There are paraffins in which the carbon atoms are not all arranged in a straight
line. These are called branched chain or isoparaffins. (See Formula 1.11-2.)
34
TABLE 1.11-11
Saturated hydrocarbons
Name Formula Boiling Specific

point, OF gravity at 68’F *
Methane CH.4 - 258.9 0.415-164
Ethane C2H6 - 127.8 0.546-RR
Propane C3HR - 43.8 0.585 - 4 5
Butane 31.1 0.601’
Pentane ca12 97.0 0.627
Hexane Cd-44 155.7 0.659
Heptane 209.1 0.684
Octane C8HIR 258.1 0.703
* Unless superscript is presented (temperature of liquid in “C). Temperature of water to which density is
referred is 39.2”F.
H H
I I
H-5-H H-C-H
H-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-C-H
I
H I I I H , IH
H
I
H-C-H H-C-H
I I
H
H
Isobutane lsooctane
Formula 1.11-2,
The principal hydrocarbons found in natural gas are shown in Fig. 7-3, p. 180.
The paraffins are present in aviation fuel to a greater extent than in all other
compounds put together (usually at least 60% by volume). The name “paraffin” is
derived from a Latin word meaning inactive or inert. The paraffin compounds show
the least tendency to unite with other compounds or to attack and dissolve metals,
rubber, and other parts of the fuel system. In addition, they have the highest
amount of heat energy per pound when compared to the other hydrocarbon
compounds. This is due to their capacity to hold the greatest possible amount of
hydrogen.
The performance numbers are also affected by the arrangement of carbon atoms.
If the carbon atoms are arranged in a straight chain, as in normal heptane,
performance numbers are low, whereas if arranged in a “branched” chain as in
isooctane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane),the performance numbers are greatly improved.
The paraffins as a class are more resistant to preignition than any other group of
compounds used in aviation fuels, and usually have extremely low freezing points.
35
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Olefin unsaturated hydrocarbons are represented graphically by a double line

between one pair of adjacent carbon atoms. This is to indicate the fact that they are
able to take up or combine with some more hydrogen or other elements. The general
formula for olefins is C,,Hz,: (See Formula 1.11-3.)
H H
I I
c=c C=C-C-H
I HI
H
I
H
I
H
Ethene Propene
Formula 1.11-3.
It is doubtful whether olefin hydrocarbons occur in crude oil, but a high

percentage is found in products which are made during cracking operations.
The olefins are the least inert of the compounds in aviation gasoline and combine
with air or with themselves to form varnish-like or rubber-like materials. The olefins
are largely excluded from aviation fuels (less than 5%) also because of their
relatively poor performance numbers at lean mixtures. In addition, olefins have
somewhat greater solvent power than the chain paraffins, and have the lowest
resistance to preignition.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain two pairs of double-linked carbon
atoms in a straight chain are called diolefins. One of the well-known diolefins is
butadiene which is playing so great a part in the synthetic rubber industry.
Butadiene
Formula 1.114
Simple unsaturated hydrocarbons with which the petroleum industry is con-

cerned are listed in Table 1.11-111.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are unstable and are readily attacked and acted upon
by strong acids. This is easily understood because in the case of the unsaturated
hydrocarbons there is a vacant space on the carbon atom ready to grab up some
substance in order to fulfill its property of having four univalent atoms around it.
Naphthene hydrocarbons
Cyclic paraffins are saturated compounds having a closed ring structure instead
of a straight chain. Their formulas correspond to C,H,,. Cyclopentane and
cyclohexane shown below are typical examples (see Formula 1.11-5).
36
H \/
H H H
I "\/ \/H
H"H
C-
HI
H
C
ti '
H' \ p
:;1
H
' H H'
Cyclopentone Cyclohexa ne
Formula 1.11-5.
TABLE 1.11-111
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Name Formula Boiling point, Specific gravity

"F
Ethene CIH4 - 154.5 0.00126 at 0°C
Propene c3H6 - 53.3 -
Butene(1-) C,H* 20.8 0.5946 at 68°F
Isobutene C4H8 20.1 -
Pentene(1-) C5HlO 86.4 0.6411 at 68°F
The naphthene hydrocarbons shown to exist in gasoline are cyclopentane and

cyclohexane and their substitution compounds. Simple naphthene hydrocarbons are
listed in Table 1.11-IV.
The naphthenes can be present to the extent of 30%of the total volume of fuels.
Because of their lower hydrogen content, they have less energy per unit weight than
the paraffins. The performance numbers of the cyclic paraffins are better at rich
mixtures than at lean mixtures, and vary from good to bad.
The solvent power of cyclic paraffins is greater than that of chain paraffins.
TABLE 1.11-IV
Naphthene hydrocarbons

O F at 68'F
Cyclopropane C3H6 - 26.9 0.720-79 *
Cyclobutane C4H8 55.4 0.69' *
Cyclopentane C5H10 120.7 0.745
Cyclohexane C,H,2 177.4 0.780
Cycloheptane C,H,4 245.1 0.8099
* In 'C.
37
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic compounds are hydrocarbons which contain a benzene ring nucleus in

their structure. The general formula for this type of chemical compounds is
CnH2,,-6.This group of compounds has a characteristic aroma or smell. They react
readily with concentrated sulfuric acid, a property which differentiates them from
the paraffin and naphthene hydrocarbons.
The percentage of carbon to hydrogen is greater in aromatic compounds than in
the other hydrocarbons discussed previously. Here the carbon percentage is ap-
proximately 92 and hydrogen 8, by weight. They are characterized also by relatively
high specific gravity, thus having a greater weight in pounds per gallon than
saturated, unsaturated, and naphthenic hydrocarbons of a similar boiling point.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are found in various crude oils and many are produced as a
result of “cracking” crude oil.
Although it is not possible to have them present to as great an extent as the cyclic
paraffins, the aromatics are the second most important group of compounds in
aviation fuels. Inasmuch as they contain considerably less energy. per unit weight
than chain paraffins, the amount permitted in aviation gasoline does not exceed
about 20% by volume. The aromatics are particularly desirable because of their
performance numbers at rich mixtures.
The aromatics are almost as inert as the chain paraffins in respect to combining
with other compounds, and they have high stability. They have powerful solvent
tendencies, however, and either dissolve or cause swelling of rubber and rubber-like
substances. The preignition resistance of the aromatics as a class is also distinctly
inferior to that of the paraffins.
Examples of the structural arrangement of carbon and hydrogen in aromatic
compounds are shown below:
H-C-H
I
H
I
H-C /‘\C-H
1I I
\ rH
H-C
C
I I
H
Benzene Toluene
Formula 1.11-6.
Several members of the aromatic (benzene series) hydrocarbon family are listed
in Table 1.11-V.
38
TABLE 1.11-V
Aromatic hydrocarbons

“F at 68°F
Benzene ‘bHb 176.2 0.879
Toluene C,H” 231.3 0.8669
Ethylbenzene CXHIO 277.0 0.8672
Ortho xylene CXH1, 291.4 0.8802
o-Methyl ethylbenzene CP,, 323.6 0.873
Classification of petroleums
Many methods of classification of crude oils have been devised. Systems based
on a superficial inspection involving some physical property, such as specific
gravity, are easily applied and specific gravity is actually used to a large extent in
expressing the quality of crude oils.
A more rational basis of classification is found in some expression of the
composition of the oils. In American practice, crude oils long have been roughly
Fig. 1.11-2. Chemical composition of some crude oils plotted on a triangular diagram. (After Nelson,
1949, p. 87, fig. 7.)
39
AROMATIC HC+
NSO COMPOUNDS
AROMATIC
INTERMEDIATE 01
PARAFFINIC OILS
OILS
80 60 50 40
N+I SO-ALKANES 2o CYCLO-ALKANES
(PARAFFINS) (NAPHTHENES)
Fig. 1.11-3. Ternary diagram showing the composition of six classes of crude oils from 541 oil fields.
(After Tissot and Welte, 1978, p. 373.)
classified as (a) paraffin base, (b) naphthenic or asphaltic base, and (c) if they
contain both paraffin and asphalt, mixed base (Fig. 1.11-2). This system was derived
on the basis of differences in the nature of the lubricating oil portion of the crude
after a nondestructive distillation was made. In other words, the crude oil is
carefully distilled and the portion boiling in the lubricating oil range is examined. If
this portion is waxy and has the physical properties of paraffins, the crude oil is
termed paraffin base. On the other hand, if the lubricating oil portion contains little
or no wax and does contain asphaltic material, the crude oil is termed asphaltic.
Crude oils, lubricating oil fraction of which contains both paraffins and asphalt, are
termed mixed base.
Using this basis for the classification of petroleum, it has been found that crude
oil occumng in various sections of the United States can also be classified. The
Pennsylvania type of crude oil is paraffinic. This type of crude oil is found in the
eastern states such as Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, Michigan, and Ohio.
Midcontinent type of crude oil is mixed base and is found in Kansas, Oklahoma,
all of Texas except the Gulf coastal area, northern Louisiana, and Arkansas. It
includes also eastern Colorado and parts of New Mexico and Arizona.
The Gulf Coast type of crude is asphaltic and naphthenic in nature and is found
in the area lying in southern Louisiana and southern Texas.
Tissot and Welte (1978) classification of crude oils is presented in Fig. 1.11-3.
Some rules of nomenclature
The most important rules of nomenclature can be summarized as follows:

(1) The stem name of an alkane corresponds to the longest carbon-to-carbon
chain present.
(2) The carbon atoms in the longest chain are numbered to indicate the location
of attached groups. In order to permit the smallest numbers to be used in the name,
the numbering should start from the end closest to the attached group.
40
(3) Prefixes are used to specify the attached group; numbers are used to denote
carbons to which groups are attached.
(4) The generic name for open-chain hydrocarbons with one double bond is
alkene. The specific name is derived from the name of corresponding alkane by
changing -ane to -ene. If two double bonds are present, the generic name becomes
alkadiene (-diene ending).
( 5 ) The stem name of 60th alkene and alkadiene corresponds to the longest
carbon-to-carbon chain containing the double bond.
Examples
H-F-H
I
a . 2-Methylpentane
Formula 1.11-7.
b. 2,5 - Dimethylheptane
Formula 1.11-8.
H
1
C
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
I l l I I
H H H H H
c. 2 -Ethyl - 1 -pent ene
Formula 1.11-9.
H-C=C-C=C-H
d. 1,3-Butadiene
Formula 1.11-10.
41
REFERENCES
Binder, R.C., 1962. Fluid Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, N.J., 4th ed., 453 pp.
Chilingar, G.V., 1956. The TechnologV of Testing Petroleum Products. USAF F'ubl., 2nd ed., 76 pp.
Chilingar, G.V., 1960. Cenozoic-type and Paleozoic-type oils, by A.A. Kartsev, A Review. Compass
Sigma Gamma Epsilon, 37(4): 331-336.
Chilingar, G.V. and Beeson, C.M., 1969. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New
York, N.Y., 397 pp.
Frick, T.C. (Editor), 1962. Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol. 1. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
Nelson, W.L., 1949. Petroleum Refinery Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 3rd ed., 830 pp.
Nelson, W.L., 1958. Petroleum Refinery Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 4th ed., 960 pp.
Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., 1978. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence. A New Approach to Oil and Gas
Exploration. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 538 pp.
This
43
Chapter 2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM GASES AND

LIQUIDS
FRANK J. LOCKHART and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
Surface operations in petroleum production involve hydrocarbon gases and

liquids with a smaller content of nonhydrocarbon compounds. Although, solid
phases are sometimes present, they are avoided whenever possible.
Natural gas and natural gasoline are primarily mixtures of the lighter hydro-
carbons with varying amounts of nonhydrocarbons such as water, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen sulfide. The heavier mixtures such as crude oil consist of a myriad of
TABLE 2-1
Some physical constants of light hydrocarbons and other components of petroleum fluids (Abstracted
from Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1981)
Compound Formula Molecular Boiling Vapor Critical Critical Liquid

weight point at pressure temperature pressure density
1 atm at 100°F (OF) (psia) at 60°F
(OF) (psis) ( g m )
Methane CH4 16.0 -258.7 - - 116.7 667.8 -
Ethane C2H, 30.1 -127.4 - 90.1 707.8 0.356
Propane C,H, 44.1 -43.7 188.0 206.0 616.3 0.508
Isobutane C4Hlo 58.1 10.7 72.4 275.0 529.1 0.563
+Butane C4H,, 58.1 31.1 51.5 206.6 550.7 0.584
Isopentane CSHl2 72.2 82.1 20.4 369.0 490.4 0.624
n-Pentane CSHI2 72.2 96.9 15.6 385.6 488.6 0.631
n-Hexane C6H,, 86.2 155.7 5.0 453.6 436.9 0.664
n-Heptane C,H,, 100.2 209.2 1.62 512.7 396.8 0.680
n-Octane C,H,, 114.2 258.2 0.54 564.1 360.6 0.707
n-Nonane C,H, 128.3 303.5 0.18 610.5 331.8 0.722
n-Decane CIoH22 142.3 345.5 0.06 651.6 304.4 0.734
Nitrogen N2 28.0 -320.4 - - 232.7 493.0 -
Oxygen 0 2 32.0 -297.3 - - 181.2 736.9 -
Air N2+02 29.0 -317.8 - - 221.4 546.9 -
Carbon dioxide CO, 44.0 -109.3 - 87.9 1071.0 0.818
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.1 -76.6 387.1 212.6 1036.0 0.787
Water H2 0 18.0 212.0 0.95 705.5 3208.0 1.OOO
44
higher boiling hydrocarbons, too many in number for individual identification, and
various compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen.
Certain physical characteristics of these hydrocarbon mixtures are needed in
order to design new equipment and to understand and predict the performance of
existing equipment. Many of these physical properties are given in the standard
references such as Nelson (1958), American Petroleum Institute (1966), and Natural
Gas Processors Suppliers Association (1981). Some physical constants of the lighter
hydrocarbons and other components of petroleum gases and liquids are given in
Table 2-1. Properties of special importance, i.e., density, viscosity, and vapor-liquid
equilibrium ratios, are discussed in this chapter.
DENSITY OF GASES
The ideal gas relationship presented below is convenient and usually acceptable
when dealing with gases at low pressures, say less than 300 psia:
pu =NRT (assuming 1 lb of gas) (2-1)
and
y = l/u = p / N R T = Mp/RT (2-2)
where p = pressure, psia; u = specific volume, ft3/lb; N = number of pound moles;

R = gas constant, 10.73 (psia X ft3/lb-mol X OR); T = absolute temperature,’R (=
OF +460); y = specific weight, lb/ft3; and M = molecular weight.
As the pressure is increased, eqs. 2-1 and 2-2 become gradually less accurate.
Errors of about 2% at atmospheric pressure become as great as 500% at higher
pressures. The simplest method of compensating for such errors is the introduction
of a multiplying factor on the right hand side of eq. 2-1, and in the denominator of
eq. 2-2. This dimensionless factor, Z , is called the “compressibility factor” and was
determined empirically. It is probably accurate to within about 5 % for most gases.
Thus, eqs. 2-1 and 2-2 will become:
pu = Z N R T (2-3)
and
MP
Y=ZRT (2-4)
The compressibility factor is determined by the composition, temperature, and

45
PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE

9 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8.
PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE PR

Fig. 2-1. Compressibility factor for natural gases. (From Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association,
1981, fig. 16-3, p. 16-8.After Brown et al., 1941 in: Natural Gasoline Supply Men’s Association, 1957.)
46
pressure of the gas. For a single compound, Z is a function of reduced temperature,

T,, and reduced pressure, p,, as shown in Fig. 2-1.
and
where T = temperature of gas, absolute units (OF + 460); T, = critical temperature

of the compound, absolute units (OF + 460), from Table 2-1; p = pressure of gas,
+
absolute units (psig 14.7); and pc = critical pressure of the compound, absolute
units (psig + 14.7), from Table 2-1. Any units of temperature or pressure may be
used, provided that the same absolute units are used for T and T,, and for p and p,.
For mixtures of gases, Fig. 2-1 can also be used upon calculating the “pseudo-
reduced” temperature and pressure:
n
pPr= ~ / p P c/
~ = CYi Pci
1
The pseudo-critical temperature (pressure) of a gas mixture is calculated as the

molecular average critical temperature (pressure) of the components.
Example 2-1
Calculate the density of a gas mixture containing 90% methane, 8% ethane, and
2% propane at 55’F and 1100 psig.
Note that gas compositions are usually given in volume percents, which are equal
to mole percents.
Composition Mole Molecular yM r, YTC Pc YPC

fraction weight (OR) (PW
Y M
CH, 0.90 16 343 668
C2H6 0.08 30 550 708
C3H8 0.02 44 666 616
- - -
1.oo 17.7 366 670
41
+ 460)/366 = 1.41
Using eq. 2-7: Tpr= ( 5 5
Using eq. 2-8: ppr= (1100 + 14.7)/670 = 1.66
From Fig. 2-1 : Z = 0.81
Using eq. 2-4: y MP

= -=
(17*7)(1100 + 14'7) = 4.41 lb/ft3
ZRT (0.81)(10.73)(55 + 460)
DENSITY OF LIQUIDS
The approximate density of petroleum liquids at elevated temperatures and

pressures can be obtained from Fig. 2-2. This figure relates the specific gravity
(equal numerically to the density in g/ml) to temperature and pressure as a function
of any two of the following three parameters: "API, Watson K, characterization
factor, and mean average boiling point. In general, the first two parameters are
known rather than the last one:
"API = l4IS - 131.5

SG (60°F)
or
and
K, = characterization factor =
3K (2-10)
SG (60°F)
The characterization factor K, is a factor which classifies crude oils and petroleum
liquids roughly as paraffin-predominant (K,= 12.0-12.5), naphthene-predominant
(K,= 11-12), and aromatic-predominant (K,= 10-11). T, = average boiling point,
O R.
Example 2-2
What is the density (g/ml) of a petroleum liquid at 500°F and 1000 psia, if the
oil gravity is 40 "API and K, = 11.0?
Using eq. 2-9, 40 "API corresponds to a density of 0.825 g/ml at 60°F.
In Fig. 2-2, the dashed line shows the density to be 0.608 g/ml at 500°F and
1000 psia.
~Poo: 1.05
900-
I.00
EXAMPLE - A T 500 F @
800- A 40 API OIL.K,*110, @
UPS A SP OR OF 0.SOB AT 1.000 PSlA 6
mo -
600 -
IA.
W
K
a @/I
z
K
m;',
\
-
W
a
I
w \
c \
\
\
400- \
\
\
300-
1
\
2
\
\
em- \
\
100-
0-
Fig. 2-2. Specific gravity of petroleum liquids. (After Ritter et al., 1958, fig. 4, p. 230; courtesy of
Petroleum Refiner.)
49
Extending the dashed line of the example to the 500 psia line, the density is 0.590
g/ml at 500°F and 500 psia.
VISCOSITY OF GASES
The viscosity of petroleum gases at low pressures (say below a reduced pressure
of 0.6) may be obtained from Fig. 2-3. The pressure limitation is in most cases about
400 psia.
The effect of pressure may be obtained from Fig. 2-4.
TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 2-3. Relationship between viscosity and temperature. (After Bicher and Katz, 1944; American
Petroleum Institute, 1966, fig. llB3.1, p. 11-73.)
REDUCED PRESSURE, p,
Fig. 2-4. Effect of pressure on viscosity of petroleum gases. (Modified after Carr et al.. 1955; American
Petroleum Institute, 1966, fig. llB4.1, p. 11-75.) p1 = viscosity at 55'F and 14.7 psia.
50
Example 2-3
What is the viscosity of the petroleum gas given in Example 2-l?

From Example 2-1, the average molecular weight = 17.7, the pseudo-reduced
temperature = 1.41, and pseudo-reduced pressure = 1.66.
From Fig. 2-3, the viscosity at 14.7 psia and 55°F is equal to 0.0104 cP.
From Fig. 2-4, p / p I = 1.21. Thus, the viscosity at 55°F and 1100 psig =
(1.21)(0.0104)= 0.0126 cP.
VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS
There are no accepted correlations of the viscosity of petroleum liquids as a

function of temperature. It is usual procedure to plot the viscosity versus tempera-
ture on ASTM viscosity paper (four charts, low and high ranges, for universal and
kinematic viscosities are available from the American Society for Testing Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa.).
In order to use this method it is necessary to know the viscosity at two
temperatures in order to define the straight line. Extrapolation beyond these two
experimental points is not recommended: at lower temperatures, there is danger of
getting into the solid region, whereas at higher temperatures there is danger of
getting into a region of cracking or thermal decomposition.
TEMPERATURE, *F
Fig. 2-5. Effect of temperature on viscosity of some crude oils.

51
Alternate methods which are probably less accurate include the use of the
semi-logarithmic equation:
log 7 = a ( l / T ) + k, (2-11)
where 7 = kinematic viscosity in centistokes; T = absolute temperature, (OF + 460);

and a, k , = constants.
This method was revived by Amin and Maddox (1980). Also, the logarithmic
relationship can be used:
log 7 = b log t +k, (2-12)
where t = temperature,"F, and 6 , k , = constants.

Equations 2-11 and 2-12 often do not yield straight lines. The use of eq. 2-12 is
shown in Fig. 2-5 from data on crude oils given by Nelson (1946a,b, 1954, 1958).
Although Fig. 2-5 indicates a rough relation between viscosity and specific gravity
(or OAPI), this is definitely not sufficient to eliminate the need for experimental data
to define the relationship. Most viscosity data, including those in Fig. 2-5, were
determined at atmospheric pressure.
8 8
CWARACTERlZATlOW
PRESSURE, PBlA
FACTOR. Yw
Fig. 2-6. Effect of pressure on the viscosity of petroleum liquids at relatively low reduced temperatures.
(After Lockhart and Lenoir, 1961, fig 1, p. 209; courtesy of Petroleum Refiner.)
52
The effect of higher pressures may be significant, especially for petroleum liquids
having high viscosity (see Fig. 2-6).
Example 2-4
A petroleum liquid having density of 0.80 g/ml and viscosity of 400 centistokes
(cs) at 60°F is subjected to a pressure of 2600 psia. What is its viscosity at this
higher pressure?
p14.7= (400)(0.80)= 320 CP
From Fig. 2-6, there is negligible effect of K , and p2600/pF114,7

= 1.65.
p at 2600 psia = (320)(1.65) = 528 cP.
VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM RATIOS
Petroleum production usually involves handling of vapor and-liquid phases. It is

usually assumed that the vapor is in equilibrium with the coexisting liquid phase,
although this does not have to be correct in all cases. The concept of equilibrium,
however, makes calculations much easier. By definition:
yi = K i x i (2-13)
where yi = mole fraction of compound “i ” in the liquid, and K i = vapor-liquid

equilibrium ratio of compound “i ”. For hydrocarbon mixtures at low pressures and
reasonable temperatures, the vapor and liquid behaviors approach ideality:
K i =p i / P (2-14)
where p i = vapor pressure of component b b i ” at the system temperature, and

P = total pressure of the system, in the same units as used for pi.
Although eq. 2-14 should not be used for most temperatures and pressures
encountered in petroleum production, it can be very useful as a limiting asymptote
in checking K i P values for accuracy or consistency.
Over wide ranges of temperatures, pressures, and compositions of numerous
compounds, it has been found experimentally that Ki is a function of the com-
pounds and their concentrations in addition to the temperature and pressure. For
most petroleum problems, however, it is usually sufficiently accurate to assume that
K i is a function of only temperature and pressure. DePriester (1953) developed two
nomographs which are of general use in the industry (Figs. 2-7 and 2-8).
The limiting conditions of the two-phase region are the bubble point (100%
liquid) and the dew point (100% vapor). Calculations for these two limits are
illustrated below.
(n
w
ISOPENTANE
N-HEPTANE
N -PENTAN€
N - OCTANE
ISOBUTANE
N - BUTANE
N-HEXANE
N-NONANE
METHANE
~
. . . ,I .... 1
1
DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENTS
0-
IN LIGHT HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS

rnz
GENERALIZED CORRELATION
LOW TEMPERATURE RANGE
K= YX
6
Fig. 2-7. Generalized correlation for equilibrium ratio K in low- temperature range. (After DePriester,
2
E
2
e
'cf
1953, fig. 31. p. 41.)

54
I .
DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENTS
IN LIGHT HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS
GENERALIZED CORRELATION
HIGH TEMPERATURE RANGE
K= y/x
Fig. 2-8. Generalized correlation for equilibrium ratio K in high-temperature range. (After DePriester,
1953, fig. 32, p. 49.)
55
Example 2-5
What is the bubble point temperature of the following mixture at 250 psia?
The mixture composition equals the liquid composition at the bubble point (eq.
2-13).
This is an iterative-type calculation. Assume a temperature, obtain K values
from Figs. 2-7 and 2-8, use eq. 2-13 to calculate C K i x i .When the latter is equal to
1.00 exactly, the individual K i x i is equal to yi for each component.
Compound x, 250 psia

100°F 120°F
K, K,x, K, K,x,
Methane 0.03 10.2 11.2
Ethane 0.12 2.35 2.80
Propane 0.25 0.82 1.02
Isobutane 0.60 0.275 0.35
- - -
1 .00 0.958 1.137
Linear interpolation suggests trying a temperature of 105'F, at which the K values

are 10.7, 2.52, 0.90, and 0.295, respectively. At 105'F the CKixi = 1.025. Therefore,
the bubble point is between 100'F and 105"F, and will be about 103°F. Any closer
check is not warranted. It is noted that if C K i x i < 1.0, the mixture is below its
bubble point at that temperature and pressure. If X i x i > 1.0, the mixture is above
its bubble point. The above example shows that the light component plays a
predominant role in determining the bubble point.
Example 2-6
What is the dew point temperature of the mixture in Example 2-5 at 250 psia?
The composition of the mixture equals the vapor composition at the dew point
(eq. 2-13).
Compound Y, 250 psia
200°F 180'F
Ki .Vi /Ki Ki .Vi /Ki
Methane 0.03 13.5 13.0
Ethane 0.12 4.4 4.0
Propane 0.25 1.95 1.70
Isobutane 0.60 0.80 0.70
- - -
1 .00 0.9077 1.037
Linear interpolation suggests trying a temperature of 186"F, at which the K values

are 13.2, 4.05, 1.80, and 0.71, respectively. At 186°F and 250 psia, C y i / K i = 1.016.
56
Therefore, the dew point is between 186°F and 200°F and is about 187°F. Any
closer check is not warranted. It is noted that if C y , / K , < 1.0, the mixture is above
its dew point at that temperature and pressure. When C y , / K , = 1.0 exactly, the
individual y i / K , is equal to x i for each component. This example shows that the
heavy component of the vapor plays a predominant role in determining the dew
point.
Calculations where the feed mixture is in a two-phase region in-between the
bubble point and the dew point are discussed in Chapter 3 titled "Separation of Oil
and Gas".
INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG VARIOUS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OILS
Interrelationship among volumetric average boiling point, gravity, molecular

weights and critical temperature is presented in Fig. 2-9. For example, the volumet-
ric average boiling point of a distillate material, having an ASTM slope of gasoline
and gas oil and API gravity of 31.5", is 533°F (dashed line in Fig. 2-9; see Nelson,
1949, p. 146). The molecular weight is equal to 195 and critical temperature is 845°F
(Fig. 2-9, dashed line; see,Nelson, 1949, pp. 145 and 146). As a second example, if a
mixed-base stock has a characterization factor of 11.9 and API gravity of 35"
atmospheric molal average boiling point = 580°F (1O4O0R), molecular weight = 250,
and critical temperature = 900°F (1360"R) (from Fig. 2-9; see Nelson, 1949, pp. 143
and 146). Thus, if any two properties are known, the other properties can be
determined.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
(1) What is the viscosity of a blend of (a) 65% of oil having viscosity of 550 SSU
at 130°F and (b) 35% of oil with a viscosity of 250 SSU at 130"F?
(2) A 70-OAPI gasoline has a volumetric average boiling point of 300°F. What is
its viscosity at 60 psia and 400"F?
(3) Determine the total heat of vapor at 450°F and 600 psia. The API gravity is
equal to 80" and characterization factor K is 10.5. Given: ASTM slope = 3"/1%.
(4) A mixture of hydrocarbons has a characterization number of 11.0 and a
molecular weight of 200. Determine the latent heat of vaporization at atmospheric
pressure and also at 450°F. The ASTM distillation slope is equal to 6"/1%.
(5) What is the specific weight in lb/ft3 of a 33-OAPI mixture of hydrocarbons at
60°F and at 300°F?
(6) One hundred ft3 of ethane at 60°F and atmospheric pressure are compressed
to a pressure of 750 psig and temperature of 89°F. What volume would ethane
occupy at these conditions?
(7) Ten pounds of 60-"API gasoline at 50°F are heated, vaporized, and super-
heated to 600°F at an absolute pressure of 300 psia. How much heat is required?
I
553
CRUDE OILS
E. 6
W
REDUCEDCRUDES
GAS OIL AND WBES
a 4
LIGHT LUBES
9m 2
CASO AND GAS OIL
I DISTILLATES
AVIATION GASO-KERO
$ 0
a 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 000 SOLVENTS
Fig. 2-9. Interrelationship among molecular weight, pseudocritical temperature, characterization factor,
gravity (OAPI), average volumetric boiling point, molal average boiling point, and slope of ASTM boiling
curve (degrees/$). (After Hougen and Watson, 1954; courtesy of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
Given: critical pressure = 350 psia; average molecular weight = 140; critical
temperature = 600°F;and molal average boiling point = 300°F.
(8) Is mold average boiling point higher or lower than the volumetric average
boiling point? Why? (In solving problems, see Nelson, 1949, 1958.).
58
REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute, 1966. Technical Dafa Book Pefroleum Refining. A.P.I., New York, N.Y.
Amin, M.B. and Maddox, R.N., 1980. Estimate viscosity vs. temperature. Hydrocarbon Process., 59:
131-135.
Bicher, L.B. and Katz, D.L., 1944. Viscosity of natural gases. Trans. AZME, 155: 246-252.
Carr, N.L., Parent, J.D. and Peck, R.E., 1955. Viscosity of gases and gas mixtures at high pressures.
Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser., 51 (16): 91.
DePriester, C.L., 1953. Light hydrocarbon vapor-liquid distribution coefficients. Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp.
Ser., 49(7): 1-43.
Hougen, O.A. and Watson, K.M., 1954. Chemical Process Principles. Vol 1. Wiley, 2nd Ed., New York,
N.Y., 436 pp.
Lockhart, F.J. and Lenoir, J.M., 1961. Liquid viscosities at high pressures. Per. Refiner, 40(3): 209-210.
Natural Gasoline Supply Men’s Association, 1957. Engineering Dara Book. Natural Gasoline Association
of America, Tulsa, Okla., 7th Ed., 174 pp.
Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1981. Engineering Data Book. N.G.P.S.A., Tulsa, Okla.
Nelson, W.L., 1946a. Viscosity of crude oils. Oil Gas J.,Jan.5: 70.
Nelson, W.L., 1946b. Viscosity at pipe line temperature. Oil Gas J.,Jan. 12: 87.
Nelson, W.L., 1949. Petroleum Refinery Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 3rd Ed., 830 pp.
Nelson, W.L., 1954. How to handle viscous crude oils. Oil Gas J.,Nov. 15: 269.
Nelson, W.L., 1958. Petroleum Refinev Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 4th Ed., 960 pp.
Ritter, R.B., Lenoir, J.M. and Schweppe, J.L., 1958. Find specific gravities by nomograph. Per. Refiner,
37(11): 225-232.
59
Chapter 3
SEPARATION OF OIL AND GAS
F.J. LOCKHART, GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN and SANJAY KUMAR
INTRODUCTION
The name “gas and oil separator” is one of a variety of terms used for pressure
vessels which separate multiphase well fluids into gaseous and liquid streams. Other
names found in the literature include: stage separator, knockout drum, trap,
vapor-liquid separator, flash drum, flash chamber, dry drum, scrubber, and settler.
Separators are used in many locations other than at wellheads, such as natural
gasoline plants, compressor suctions and discharges, liquid traps in gas transmission
lines, dehydration plants, and gas sweetening plants.
Such drums are designed to separate a gas from a liquid and, in some cases, to
separate three phases, i.e., a gas, a liquid hydrocarbon, and a liquid aqueous phase.
At times the removal of slugs of liquid from a gas is of such importance that the
separator may be sized for its liquid holding capacity. In general oilfield practices,
separators are used to separate oil, gas and water and to remove material such as
entrained solid impurities from the crude oil produced from the wells. A simplified
diagram of a spherical three-phase (oil-gas-water) separator is presented in Fig. 3-1.
GAS
OUTLET
CENTRIFUGAL-TYPE
t COALESCING-TYPE MIST
Fig. 3-1. A simplified diagram of a spherical three-phase (oil-gas-water) separator. (Modified after
Smith, 1962, p. 11-18, fig. 11-20),
60
A properly designed wellstream separator must perform the following functions

(Ikoku, 1980):
(1) Accomplish a primary-phase separation of the liquid from the gaseous
hydrocarbons.
(2) Refine the primary separation by removing most of the (a) entrained liquid
mist from the gas and (b) entrained gas from the liquid.
(3) Discharge the separated gas and liquid streams and ensure that no reentrain-
ment of one into the other takes place.
Equilibrium flash calculations
In some cases of separator design, the amounts of vapor and liquid and their
significant physical properties are known. There are a number of design problems in
surface operations, however, where this information is not known and must be
calculated. It is essential to know the amount and composition of the total feed to
the separator in such cases. Then, assigning a temperature and pressure to the
separator, the amounts and compositions of the vapor and liquid streams leaving
the separator can be calculated, assuming that equilibrium is attained between these
exit streams.
The basic concept involves formation of a mixture of vapor and liquid that is
kept in intimate contact for a long enough time to enable the entire vapor phase to
attain equilibrium with the entire liquid phase. The equilibrium is attained in the
piping and equipment just upstream of the separator. The separator itself serves
only as a wide spot in the line to help in separating the phases.
For the so-called “isothermal” flash, the temperature at the discharge of the
mixing zone and within the separator is specified along with the pressure initially,
and is attained by proper design and operation of a heat exchanger. If there is no
heat exchanger, then an “adiabatic” flash calculation is made, wherein the total feed
enthalpy must equal the total product enthalpy at the lower separator pressure.
Here the separator temperature is unknown, so there is a double trial-and-error, one
nested within the other. Usually the separator pressure is set and a temperature is
assumed. The calculation is made exactly as for the isothermal flash. Then the
enthalpies of the exit streams are calculated and their sum compared with that of
the inlet mixture. At the correct temperature, the exit enthalpies are equal to the
inlet enthalpy.
Basic equilibrium relations for complex mixtures
In complex mixtures, feed F entering the flash separator consists of F,, F,,
F,, ..., F, moles of different components. At a given temperature and a fixed
+
pressure, V moles of gas are produced (V, + V, + V, + ... K). A liquid residue L
consists of L,, L,, L,, ... , L, moles of the several components present in F. Thus,
See Appendix 3.1.

61
the.mole fraction of each component may be expressed as F,/F, V , / V , L , / L , etc.

In addition, F = L + V and F, =.L, + V,. On applying Henry's law:
K/ Kn ( L n / L ) (3-1)
where V , / V = y and L , / L = x ; thus:
V,=KnLn(V/L) (3-2)
Substituting (F, - V,) for L,:

V,=Kn(F,- V,)(V/L) (3-3)
Solving for V,:
V, = F n / [ ( L / K n v ) + 11 (3-4)
Thus:
V = Fl/[ ( L / K , V ) + 11 + F 2 / [ L / K , V ) + 11 + ...
and
TYPES OF SEPARATORS
Inasmuch as most separators are designed for the removal of liquid drops from
the gas by the action of gravity, most of the discussion here deals with this general
type of separation. Another basic type of separator, however, uses the action of
centrifugal force to remove liquid drops from gas. These centrifugal separators use
multiple cyclones in parallel. Cyclones are relatively small and of standard size
which can be mass produced. These separators function best when the gas flows at
constant rate and pressure. At lower rates, the separation suffers, and at higher
rates, the pressure drop becomes excessive.
Gravity separators may be classified according to the shape of the vessel:
(I) Cylindrical
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal (single-tube or double-tube types)
(2) Spherical
Each one of these shapes has its own advantages, and there is no overwhelming
favorite among them. The vertical separator occupies less ground area and is
claimed to have the ability to handle large quantities of sand and to be easier to
TABLE 3-1
Comparison of different separator types
Vertical Horizontal Spherical

Advantages (1) Easier to clean and can handle large (1) Can handle much higher GOR well- (1) Very inexpensive
quantities of sand streams because the design permits
much higher gas velocities
(2) Saves space (occupies lesser ground (2) Cheaper than the vertical separator (2) Good for low or intermediate GORs
area)
Provides better surge control Easier and cheaper to ship and assem- (3) Very compact and easy to ship and
ble install
Liquid level control is not critical Requires less piping €or field connec- (4) Better clean-out
tions
Less tendency for reevaporization of Reduces turbulence and reduces
liquid into the gas phase due to the foaming (thus, it can handle foaming
relatively greater vertical distance be- crudes)
tween liquid level and the gas outlet
Several separators may be stacked,
minimizing space requirements
Disadvantages (1) It takes a longer-diameter separator Greater space requirements generally (1) Very limited liquid settling section
for a given gas capacity as compared and rather difficult to use for three-
to a horizontal separator phase separation
More expensive to fabricate Liquid level control more critical (2) Liquid level control is very critical
Difficult and more expensive to ship Surge space is somewhat limited (3) Very limited surge space
(transport)
Much harder to clean (hence a bad
choice in any sand-producing area)
Ideal use Low to intermediate GORs and where High GOR crudes, foaming chdes, or for Intermediate or low GOR; preferably
relatively large slugs of liquid are ex- liquid-liquid separation. Good for a di- two-phase separation.
pected verse range of situations.
63
clean. The horizontal separator can handle foaming crude oils better and is claimed
to be more economical for handling large gas volumes, The spherical separator is
easier to install and is more compact and adaptable for portable use (see Table 3-1).
INTERNAL PARTS OF A SEPARATOR
A gas-liquid separator may consist simply of an empty vessel, which causes the
fluid velocity in the entering pipe to be reduced by enlarging the cross-sectional area
of flow. Usually, however, the separator includes internal parts to promote sep-
aration of the phases.
In both cases the separator may be visualized as consisting of:
(1) Primary separation section (entrance) for separating the bulk of the liquid
from the gas. It is desirable to remove the liquid slugs and large droplets of liquid
quickly from the gas stream, and to remove gas from the liquid. Decreasing the
kinetic energy (i.e., the velocity) of the fluids is often accomplished with the use of a
tangential inlet to impart a centrifugal motion to the entering fluids.
ov
I I n l e t f o r two-phase feed
OV Outlet f o r leaving vapor
OL Outlet f o r leaving l i q u i d
(1) Primary separation s e c t i o n
(2) Secondary separation s e c t i o n
(3) Liquid separation s e c t i o n
(4) Mist extractor
(5) Vortex breaker
I
OL
(a)
Fig. 3-2. Internal parts of a gravity separator. a. Vertical separator. b. Horizontal separator.
64
(2) Secondary separation section for removing smaller particles of liquid by

gravity settling depends to a large extent on the decreased gas velocity and reducing
the turbulence of the gas.
(3) Liquid separation section (or the liquid accumulation section) for removing
gas bubbles which may be occluded with the liquid, and for sufficient storage of the
liquid to handle slugs of liquid anticipated in routine operation. This section thus
provides the surge capacity.
(4) Mist extraction section for removing from the gas the entrained drops of
liquid, which did not separate in the secondary separation section. Mist eliminators
may be used to decrease the amount of entrained liquid in the gas and/or to reduce
the diameter of the vessel.
There are two basic types of mist eliminators commonly used: the vane type and
mesh pads. The vane type is mounted in such a manner that the gas flows
horizontally through a multiple number of closely-spaced vertical baffles. Entrained
liquid particles impinge on the baffle surfaces and are forced into liquid drainage
pockets which are out of the gas flow path. Separated liquid drains down out of the
vanes by gravity. This type of mist eliminator operates at small pressure drops (e.g.,
less than 0.2-in. water) and is efficient in removing droplets of around 40 p m in size
and larger. The large open areas make the vane type advantageous in systems where
solid particles may be present.
Fig. 3-3. Basic types of mist eliminators. I. Vane type (courtesy of Peerless Manufacturing Co., Dallas,
Tex.): A = mist extractor installation in top of column with trays (top outlet): B = side outlet configura-
tion in vertical column; C = plan view of installation A , showing vane bank arrangement; D = horizontal
vessel configuration showing angled position of separator elements; and E = photograph of mist
extractor bundle. 11. Mesh pads - Fleximesh@mist eliminator (Copyrighted 1984 by Koch Engineering
Company, Inc.)
65
When vapor and entrained liquid droplets pass through

Available FLEX I MESH*
o FLEXIMESH mist eliminator the vapor moves freely through
the mesh pad but the liquid droplets due to their greater
Mist Eliminator Styles
inertia cannot make the necessarysharp turns A Sa
result they are thrown into contact with the wire surfaces Density SurloceArec
ond bileflyheld there As more droplets enter the pad and FIIIFT' I MZIM3 %Voids
collect on the wires they grow in size run down the wire to 115 I 377 97 6
the bottom surface of the mesh reporotor and fail from the 110 I 360 97 7
unit Overhead vapor is now free of entrained liquid 163 I 535 94 0
86 I 282 98 2
140 I 459 98 4
117 65 I 213 98 5
70 112 65 I 213 98 6
50 80 48 I 157 990
20 0 320 450 1476 96 0
27 0 432 610 I 2000 94 6
40 64 125 I 410 97 0
40 64 150 / 492 97 0
Fig. 3-3 continued.

66
The mesh pads provide a large surface area of many knitted and crimped wires
for collection and coalescence of liquid mist. With the pads usually installed in a
horizontal position, the vapor flows upward and the liquid downward. Such mist
eliminators are capable of removing very fine droplets (e.g., 4-6 pm) and have good
removal efficiency over a wide range of throughput. Pressure drops can be less than
1-in. water. Caution is given to the possibility of plugging caused by the deposition
of solid materials such as silt, sand, and paraffins.
( 5 ) Vortex breaker to prevent the liquid from sucking any gas into the liquid exit
pipe. Typically, the liquid exit pipe is centered at the bottom of the vessel. A simple
vortex breaker can consist of a solid circular plate larger than the exit pipe,
supported by three legs about 4-6 in. above the bottom of the vessel.
(6) Adequate control devices such as the liquid dump (discharge) valves, gas
pressure valves, and safety relief valves.
Figure 3-2 shows schematically the internal parts of (a) a vertical gravity
separator and (b) a horizontal gravity separator. Additional internal parts may be
present in some separators: for example, an inlet baffle plate to help reduce the
kinetic energy of the entering stream and a “boot” attached to the bottom of the
horizontal vessel where an aqueous liquid phase can be withdrawn. Figure 3-3 shows
the two basic types of mist extractors. The gas phase flows horizontally through the
vane type and vertically through the mesh pad.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SEPARATION
There are several factors which affect the performance of a vapor-liquid sep-
arator. For a feed of given composition, the temperature and pressure are signifi-
cant. With increasing temperature and/or decreasing pressure, the flow volume of
vapor increases and the volume of liquid decreases. In addition, there is a decrease
in the densities of both vapor and liquid phases. Other physical properties also
change with changing temperature and pressure, but the density is the more
significant physical property involved.
Some systems may contain small amounts of surfactants, which cause formation
of foam (in vapor-liquid systems) and emulsions (in liquid-liquid systems). Forma-
tion of foam and emulsion adversely affects the performance of separators, espe-
cially when they are stable. Inasmuch as the presence of surfactants is usually not
known in advance, separators are usually designed on the assumption that they are
not present.
Most separators are designed for the removal of liquid droplets from gas by the
action of gravity. This separation depends on the physical properties of gas and
liquid, and the diameter of the particles. Excellent discussions of the scientific
concepts are available, but they only identify the general form of the mathematical
relationships. Most laboratory studies were concentrated on the settling of (1) solid
particles rather than liquid, (2) a single particle rather than a swarm of particles, and
(3) particles having a particular diameter rather than a mixture of sizes.
61
In designing separators, the size distribution of the droplets is not known. Even if
it was given, however, it is not known how to select a proper “average” diameter to
attain the desired separation.
Thus, the most important factors influencing the design of a separator are: (1)
flow rate of the gas, (2) flow rate of the liquid, (3) density of the gas, and (4) density
of the liquid.
SEPARATOR DESIGN
Gas capacity
Gas capacity of a gas-oil separator is usually calculated from the semi-theoretical

relationship proposed by Souders and Brown (1934):
or
and
A = Q/60 u (3-9)
where: u = superficial gas velocity based on the cross-sectional area of gas flow,
ft/sec; G = superficial gas mass velocity, based on the cross-sectional area of gas
flow, lb/ft2hr; Q = g a s flow rate, actual cubic feet per minute at the flowing
temperature and pressure, ACFM (Actual Cubic Feet per Minute); A = cross-
sectional area of gas flow, ft2; yG = specific weight of gas, lb/ft3; yL = specific
weight of liquid, Ib/ft3; K = an empirical factor representing past experience found
to give satisfactory operations, with typical values of 0.25 for vertical separators and
0.50 for horizontal separators.
Liquid capacity
Liquid capacity of a separator is dependent upon the retention time (the holding
time) of the liquid within the vessel. Liquid holding time is provided to: (1) remove
slugs of liquid from the flowing stream in order to protect downstream vapor-han-
dling equipment; (2) keep downstream liquid-handling equipment operating satis-
factorily should there be a temporary feed stoppage or overload; and (3) separate
the occluded gas particles from the liquid phase. This last justification can become
quite important when the liquid is very viscous. Answers to the following questions
suggest the rules for holding time for each specific case:
68
(1) In the case of removing slugs of liquid from vapor: (a) What is the estimated
maximum liquid rate or the size of slug? (b) How much time would be required to
attain the liquid removal rate?
(2) For a temporary feed stoppage: (a) What would be the effect on downstream
equipment if the drum loses liquid? (b) How much time would it take for the
operator to correct for the loss?
(3) For a temporary feed overload: (a) What would be the effect on the
downstream vapor-handling equipment if the drum overflows? (b) How much time
would it take for the operator to correct for the temporary overload?
Past experience suggests the following holding times for liquids:
(1) Gas-oil separators-2-4 minutes.
(2) Gas-oil-water separators-with oil viscosity of less than 100 cP, 3-10 min,
and for oil viscosity of greater than 100 cP, 10-20 min.
These are typical values which may be changed for specific cases.
Vessel design
The following must be considered in designing separator vessels:

(1) The volumes of the dished heads are negligible as compared with the volume
of the cylinder.
(2) Unless specifically stated, the length/diameter ratio ( L / D ) is considered to
be acceptable when it is between about 3/1 and 8/1. There is not a great change in
costs over this range and other factors such as foundations, plant layout, and
symmetry are significant.
(3) For a vertical separator, the gas flows through the entire cross-section of the
upper part of the vessel. The feed enters the separator just above the vapor-liquid
interface, which should be at least 2 ft from the bottom and at least 4 f t from the
top of the vessel. The interface does not have to be at the center of the vessel.
(4) For a horizontal separator, the interface does not have to be at the centerline
of the vessel. In some cases, a smaller-diameter vessel may be obtained by making
the interface location off-center and a design variable. The feed enters at the end of
the separator just above the vapor-liquid interface, which should be at least 10 in.
from the bottom and at least 16 in. from the top of the vessel.
Table 3-11 (see also Fig. 3-4) gives some geometric properties of circles which
have been derived empirically. The exact relations are more difficult to use. The
empirical values in Table 3-11 are of sufficient accuracy and may be used directly.
Example 3-I
Calculate the diameter and height of a vertical separator for the following
conditions:
Gas rate = 300 ACFM
Gas density = 3.90 lb/ft3
Liquid rate = 22 GPM
Liquid density = 40.0 lb/ft3
69
TABLE 3-11
Some geometric properties of circles a
~
Given A / A , to calculate h / D (see Fig. 3-4)

Between A / A , of 0 and 0.20 (maximum error = 3.2%):
h / D = 2 . 4 8 1 ( A / A T ) - 1 2 . 2 9 (A/A,)2+31.133 (A/AT)3
Between A / A , of 0.20 and 0.80 (maximum error = 1.8%):
h/D = 0.8123 ( A/A,) +0.0924
Between A / A , of 0.80 and 1.0 (maximum error = 0.8%):
( 1 - h / D ) =2.481 ( 1 - A/A,)-12.29 (1- A / A ~ ) ~ + 3 1 . 1 3(31 - A / A T ) ~
Given h / D to calculate A / A ,
Between h / D of 0 and 0.25 (maximum error =1.35%):
A/A,=0.21 (h/D)+3.52 (h/D)2-4.93 ( h / D ) 3
Between h / D = 0.25 and 0.75 (maximum error = 1.7%):
A / A , =1.231 ( h / D ) = 0.1138
Between h / D of 0.75 and 1.0 (maximum error = 0.1%):
( l - A / A T ) =0.21 ( l - h / D ) + 3 . 5 2 ( l - h / D ) 2 - 4 . 9 3 (1-h/D)3
a Exact relations may be found in Perry and Chilton (1973).
L L
Fig. 3-4. Diagram for Table 3-11,
i
Liquid residence time = 4.0 min
Liquid level in the separator is expressed as a fraction of the vessel length between
limits of 0.20 and 0.70. (This is not considered to be a rigid specification.)
Using eq. 3-7: u = 0.25[(40.0 - 3.90)/3.90)]0.5= 0.76 ft/sec
Vapor rate = ACF G ( T)(
min )= T)( 300 (
= 5.00 ACF/sec &)
70
5 .oo
Vapor area = -
o.76 - 6.58 ft2
Vessel diameter = [4(6.58)/~]'.~= 2.89 ft = 34.7 in.
Using a 36-in. diameter vessel, the liquid height required for a 4-min residence
time would be:
r 1
Vessel h r/D L/D

length, ft
8 0.21 2.67
10 0.17 3.33
The designer will probably select a diameter of 3.0 ft for the vessel and one of the
above two lengths.
Example 3-2
Repeat Example 3-1 for a horizontal separator. Using eq. 3-7: u =
o.50( 40.0 - 3.90)O.'
= 1.52 ft/sec
3.90
Vapor rate = 300/60 = 5.00 ft3/sec
Vapor area = 5.00/1.52 = 3.29 ft2
(1) Initially the vapor-liquid interface is considered to be the centerline of the
vessel. This may be adjusted later.
Vessel area = (2)(3.29) = 6.58 a:t
Vessel diameter = ( .I
I
)
4 X 6.58
= 2.89 ft or 34.7 in.
Thus, a 36411. diameter-vessel can be used.
Length of vessel needed for 4 min residence time would be:
Ths indicates that the liquid holdup requirement is not as significant as the
vapor handling requirement.
(2) Reduce the vessel diameter by lowering the vapor-liquid interface so as to
maintain the same required vapor area of 3.29 ft2.
On assuming a diameter of 30 in.:
A, = 77/4(%)' = 4.909 ft2
A / A , = 3.29/4.909 = 0.67
71
From Table 3-11, h/D = 0.8123 (0.67) + 0.0924 = 0.6366; h = (0.6366)(2.50) =

1.59 ft = 19.08 in.
Vessel length to get 4 min retention time=
I(-)(1 -) 1 = 7.26
0.33 4.909
ft
Thus, a vessel 2.5 ft in diameter and 8 ft long would meet the specifications.
SEPARATOR DESIGN USING ACTUAL MANUFACTURERS FIELD TEST DATA
Inasmuch as the Souders-Brown equation is basically empirical in nature, a better

design can usually be made using the actual manufacturers’ field test data (see
Appendix 3.11 and Ikoku, 1980). These correlations account for the additional gas
capacity that can be obtained by increasing the height of a vertical separator or the
length of a horizontal separator. The Souders-Brown equation does not account for
any height-length differences. The correlation charts apply to one-quarter liquid
full, one-third-full, and half-full situations. The gas capacity can be increased by
decreasing the liquid-filled fraction, e.g., from one-half full to one-third full. Usually
the design standard is the one half-full liquid condition.
The liquid capacity Q (in bbl/day) can be determined as follows:
1440(V,)
Q= (3-10)
where Vp = liquid settling volume in bbl and t = retention time in min.

The liquid settling volumes for different separator types and sizes are presented
in the Appendix 3.11.
STAGE SEPARATION
Usually, the single-stage separation is not desirable. By separating the gaseous

and liquid hydrocarbons into vapor and liquid phases in two or more equilibrium
flashes at consecutively lower pressures, a more stable stocktank liquid can be
obtained. In addition, liquid recovery is enhanced.
Stage separation can be defined as a “process in which produced crude is
separated into liquid and vapor phases by two or more equilibrium-flash vaporiza-
tions at successively lower pressures”. Equilibrium or flash vaporization differs from
differential vaporization in that the vapor is not removed as it is formed, but is kept
in intimate physical contact with the remaining liquid until heating is completed.
The storage tank is usually considered as one stage of separation.
Differential liberation of gas is the ideal liquid separation system to maximize the
liquid recovery. In this process, the pressure is decreased in infinitesimally small
steps and the gas liberated at each stage is removed. Inasmuch as this would need an
infinite number of separators connected in series, it is obviously uneconomical.
72
-WELL-
FLUID
FIRST
STAOE
LI' SLCOMD
STA0E
TWO - STAGE
I +' 2nd
THREE - STAGE
J FOUR - STAGE
Fig. 3-5. Schematic diagrams of two-stage, three-stage, and four-stage separations.
In actual field practice, three stages are usually optimal. Economic study involves
determination of fixed and operating costs for each additional separator and
comparing them to the incremental oil production that results from the addition of
t h s stage to the separation system. Inasmuch as the production varies with time
during the lifetime of a producing field, the optimum also changes. Thus, a detailed
economic analysis is usually not very useful or justifiable in most cases.
Examples of two-stage, three-stage, and four-stage separations are presented in
Fig. 3-5. The two-stage separation is most applicable for low-gravity oils, low
gas/oil ratios, and low flowing pressures. On the other hand, the three-stage
separation is most applicable for intermediate-gravity oils, intermediate to high
gas/oil ratios, and intermediate wellhead flowing pressures. Finally, the four-stage,
separation is most applicable for high-gravity oils, high gas/oil ratios, and high
flowing pressures. Four-stage separation is also used where high-pressure gas is
needed for market or for pressure maintenance.
73
The simplified analysis of a stage separation system involves the determination of

the operating pressure of each one of the separators connected in series by the
following relationship (Campbell, 1976):
(3-11)
where R = pressure ratio; p 1 = pressure in stage 1 (high-pressure end), psia; p, =

stocktank pressure, psia; and n = number of stages minus 1. This implies assump-
tion of equal pressure ratios between the stages, which has been found to be the
optimum operating condition for maximizing liquid recovery.
The pressure at any stage in between can then be determined using the following
equation:
Pr- 1
Pr’ R (3-12)
where pr = pressure at stage r , psia; and R = pressure ratio.
Determination of optimum pressure for first stage when second stage is atmospheric
To determine the optimum pressure for the first stage when the second stage is
atmospheric, the following procedure can be used.
(1) Vary the pressure on the high-stage separator.
(2) Follow the gas/oil ratios on both stages until they are stabilized.
(3) Determine the gasoline content of the gas from each stage, by a method such
as gas chromatography.
(4) Plot the gas/oil ratio of each separator, and the cumulative for both
separators, versus the pressure of the high-stage separator (Fig. 3-6.a).
( 5 ) Plot the gasoline content of the gas from each separator versus the pressure
of the high-stage separator (Fig. 3-6.b). The gasoline content for each separator may
decrease with increasing pressure of the high stage. For the low stage, this is due to
the increase in gas evolved overshadowing the increase in the gasoline vaporized. On
the other hand, for the high stage, it is due to the decrease in gasoline vaporized,
with increasing pressure.
(6) From the graphs of Fig. 3-6.a and 3-6.b, compute and plot the gallons of
gasoline lost per barrel of crude oil versus the pressure of the high-stage separator
(Fig. 3-6.c). The optimum pressure is at the minimum of the latter curve, providing
the primary objective of the separation is to remove as much gasoline as possible
from the gas.
Determination of optimum pressures for three-stage separation (Whinery-Campbell

technique)
The pressure of the highest stage may be fixed by the requirements of a

high-pressure sales line or pressure maintenance. In this case, therefore, the forego-
14
Y
0
IL
a
.----
Curnulotire
PRESSURE OF HIGH.STAGE SEPARATOR. PSI
Fig. 3-6. Schematic diagram of variation, with increasing pressure of high-stage separator, in a. gas/oil
ratio; b. gasoline content of separator gas; and c. total gasoline lost (to the gas phase) in two-stage
separation.
ing type of evaluation can be used to choose the optimum pressure for the second
stage, while the first stage is operating at the desired value. If the pressure of the
highest stage is not fixed by such requirements, it may be treated as another variable
in the evaluation.
Whinery and Campbell (1958, p. 53) developed a method for determining the
optimum second-stage pressure in three-stage separation. Their method is simple,
accurate (mean error of * 5 % ) , and eliminates the need for flash vaporization
calculations. An empirical analysis yielded two equations:
p 2 = A ( p,)o.686+ c, (3-13)
where C, = ( A - 0.057)/0.0233 for wellstreams having a gravity greater than one,

referred to air, and:
p 2 = A ( p,)o.765+ c2 (3-14)
75
Fig. 3-7. Relationship between constant A and pseudo-specific gravity of feed ( T = 80OF). (After
Whinery and Campbell, 1958, p. 54, fig. 2; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.)
where C, = ( A + 0.028)/0.012 for wellstreams having a gravity less than one,

referred to air. In the above equations, p 2 = second-stage pressure in psia, p 1 =
first-stage pressure in psia, and A = dimensionless constant which is a function of
stocktank pressure ( p , ) and the system composition. Whinery and Campbell found
that composition could be expressed in terms of the wellstream gravity and the
+
percentages of methane, ethane, and propane ( C , + C , C,, all in mole%), as
shown in Figs. 3-7 and 3-8. Constants A , C,, and C, can be obtained from these
graphs (Figs. 3-7 and 3-8).
Variation of p 2 with p 1 for a fixed system composition was presented by
Whinery and Campbell (1958, p. 53) and is shown here in Fig. 3-9. The maximum of
each curve shows the value of p 2 at which the stocktank recovery (gal)/(MMcf') *
residue gas is a maximum.
It should be remembered, however, that the Whinery-Campbell technique is an
excellent tool for the field engineer where time is of prime importance, but is not a
replacement for a computer.
* M-1000 and MM =1000OOO; Mcf -1000 standard cu ft; standard legal temperature in most
cases = 60'F.
16
.
C, DIMENSIONLESS SHIFTING CONSTANl
Fig. 3-8. Relationship between shifting constant C and constant A . (After Whinery and Campbell, 1958,
p. 54, fig. 3; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.)
139
,
138.
SECOND STAGE PRESSURE, PSlA
Fig. 3-9. Relationship between second-stage pressure (psia) and stocktank recovery in gal/MMcf of
residue gas. (After Whinery and Campbell, 1958, p. 53, fig. 1; analysis 6, T = SOOF; courtesy of the S.P.E.
of A.I.M.E.)
71
If it is not desirable to use the experimental methods outlined above, the problem
may be solved by calculations with equilibrium ratios. Such calculations, however,
are tedious unless a computer is available.
METHODS OF SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
In computing the compositions of the liquid and the vapor when neither
composition is known, but the equilibrium constants are given, the following
procedure can be used.
(1) Assume a value for V / L (or L / V ) to get (V/L)ass,l.
(2) Preferably using eqs. 3-5 and 3-6, compute the number of moles of each
component in the liquid and the number of moles of each component in the vapor.
(3) Add each group to get the calculated V .
(4) Divide the calculated V by the calculated L to get the ( V/L)calc,l.
(5) If the ( V/L)cdc,lis equal to ( V/L)ass,l, the assumption was correct within the
desired accuracy.
( 6 ) If ( V/L)calc,l is not equal to ( V/L)ass,l, assume another value for V / L where
(V/L)ass,2= (V/L)cdc,l + [(V/L)ca,c.l - (V/L)ass.lI; that is, make (V/L)ass,2 as far
beyond (V/L)caIc.l, as (J‘/LlCdc.1 is beyond (V/L)ass.l*
(7) One could also plot [( V / L ) a s s-, ( V / L ) c d c ,versus
] ( V/L)ass,;but the above
rule has worked out better in the experience of the writers in this type of problems,
because the relationship is far from being linear.
In computing the temperature and composition of vapor when the composition
of liquid is known, the procedure described below can be followed.
(1) Assume a temperature and record equilibrium ratios.
(2) Compute y1 = K1xl, y2 = K 2 x 2 , . . , and Cy.
(3) Assume another temperature which will make E y approach 1. The higher the
temperature, the greater is the value of K . For a fixed x , therefore, y will increase
with increasing temperature.
(4) Plot Cy versus temperature, and establish the point of intersection at Cy = 1.
Isothermal flash for two phases
The assumption of steady-state flow through the separator gives the mass
balances for each individual component as follows:
r;] = y + L, (3-15)
where I;] = moles of component “ 1 ” in the feed, = moles of component “i” in the
vapor, and Li= moles of component “ i ” in the liquid. On an over-all basis:
r;;=v,+L, (3-16)
The second assumption of equilibrium between vapor and liquid in the mixture
gives:
Y, = K , x , (3-17)
where y, = mole fraction of component “ i ” in the vapor, x i= mole fraction of

component “i” in the liquid, and K i = vapor-liquid equilibrium ratio of component
“ i ” . Equation 3-17 may be represented as follows:
Substituting eq. 3-15 into eq. 3-18 and rearranging gives the following relationship:
(3-19)
If the substitution is made for v,rearrangement gives:

(3-20)
Equation 3-18 or 3-19 or any of the possible rearrangements of eqs. 3-15 and 3-18
may be used in a conventional iterative method. A value of L, is assumed, is
obtained from eq. 3-16 and the individual L, is determined using eq. 3-20. The
assumed L, is correct if the calculated xy=lL, agrees with it within closely defined
limits. After satisfactory agreement, each is calculated from eq. 3-15, and mole
fractions for vapor and liquid can be determined.
Although the solution to eq. 3-19 or 3-20 is straightforward, complications may
arise for some problems due to slow convergence strategy for manual as well as
computer calculations to attain required accuracy in a reasonable time interval. Two
strategies for achieving this are described here: (1) the Lockhart-McHenry (1958)
method, which is currently used by many engineers, and (2) the Lockhart method
(pers. comm., 1983) presented here for the first time.
LOCKHART-MCHENRY METHOD OF FLASH-EQUILIBRIUM CALCULATIONS
Lockhart and McHenry (1958) proposed a method which reduces the usual time
and luck required for making flash-equilibrium calculations for multicomponent
mixtures. It reduces a multicomponent mixture to a hypothetical binary system.
When using the conventional method of calculation, the convergence may be slow
(calculated V / F versus assumed V / F ) , which makes it difficult to bracket the
TABLE 3-111
Lockhart-McHenry method, sample problem 3 (from Lockhart and McHenry, 1958; with permission of Hyakxarbon Processing, by Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, Tex.)
Component Fn Kn FnK n 4/Kn F,/(Kn+l)

at V / F = 0 at V / F = I at V / F = 0.5
Methane 163.9 3.80 622.5 43.1 34.2
Ethane 369.5 1.76 651.0 210.0 134.0
- __ - __
u Light 533.4 1273.5 253.1 168.2
Propane 450.0 0.79 355.3 570.0 251.5
Isobutane 74.1 0.44 32.6 168.4 51.5
nButane 239.9 0.35 84.0 686.0 177.7
Isopentane 56.6 0.195 11.1 290.2 47.4
n Pentane 59.3 0.160 9.5 370.7 51.1
Hexanes 71.4 0.075 5.4 951.0 66.4
- ~ - -
u Heavy 951.3 497.9 3036.3 645.6
- - - __
Total B 1484.7 1771.4 3289.4 813.8
V/F= 0 V / F =1 V / F = 0.5
K: + 2.39 (eq.3.23) 2.11 (eq.3-24) 2.17 (eq.3-25)
K1; + 0.523 (eq.3-23) 0.314 (eq.3-24) 0.475 (eq.3-25)
1118 , 778 1016
-
- 685 ~
- 858 -
- 814
V* -+ 433 (eq.3-22) - 80 (eq.3-22) 202 (eq.3-22)
V * / F -+ 0.292 -0.0539 0.136
80
correct answer. On the other hand, on using the Lockhart-McHenry method, the
convergence to the correct answer is very sharp: it is equivalent to the intersection
of two lines at an angle of never less than 45".
For a binary mixture of components A and B (the more volatile and less volatile,
respectively), V can be solved by the following equation:
Lockhart and McHenry also offered the following equations for the multicompo-
nent mixtures:
v* = Fl/( 1 - K,*)- F h / ( K? - 1) (3-22)
for
ASSUMED V/F
Fig. 3-10. Calculated V * / F versus assumed V / F . The convergence to the correct answer is very sharp,
and is equivalent to the intersection of two lines at an angle of never less than 45'. (After Lockhart and
McHenry, 1958, fig. 3; with permission of Hydrocurbon Processing, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.)
81
The multicomponent feed F is resolved into moles of “light” component F, and

moles of “heavy” component Fh (components with K , of 1 or less are classified as
heavy and those with K,, of 1 or more as light). KT = equilibrium ratio for the light
component in the hypothetical binary mixture; K z = equilibrium ratio for the heavy
component; V* = moles of vapor calculated by eq. 3-22 for the flash-equilibrium of
the hypothetical binary mixture; and u = subtotals of the light component and the
heavy component.
KT = and Kg are evaluated on using eqs. 3-23 to 3-27, involving the subtotals
for the light and heavy components.
Example 3-3
As shown in Table 3-111 (Lockhart and McHenry, 1958), calculations are made at
assumed V / F values of 0, 1, and 0.5, where 0 and 1 correspond to the bubble point
and dew point calculations.
In Fig. 3-10, the intersection of the V* curve and 45O-line is shown. This
approximate answer is usually correct to within *0.02 in V / F . Usually, the true
answer can be determined in one more trial and never in more than two trials. The
Lockhart-McHenry method also lends itself very well to computer programming.
THE LOCKHART METHOD
In the Lockhart method, the first calculation is made at an assumed value of

L , / F = 0.5 in eq. 3-20, which becomes:
(3-28)
The C,: L, as compared with the assumed L, gives the direction of the correct L,.
For example, if at an assumed value of L , / F of 0.5 the calculated Zym1 L , / F < 0.50,
then the correct value of L , / F will be less than the calculated value of Z:- L , / F . If
the’calculated c m 1 L , / Fequals 0.5 exactly, then this is the correct value of L,/F.
On the other hand, if the calculated Z:-l L , / F exceeds 0.5, the correct value of L , / F
will be greater than the calculated value of Z ,: L , / F .
The second calculation should always be made to insure that there are two phases
at the temperature and pressure of the flash equilibrium. If the CymlL , / F < 0.5, then
the second calculation should be made at an assumed value of L , / F = 0, which is
the dew-point calculation:
(3-29)
i-1
For some liquid to be present, this ratio (eq.3-29) must be greater than unity.
82
TABLE 3-IV
Calculation of average E for the mixture
Condition Equation no. Average

At L, = V , 3-28
At L , / F = 0 3-29
(Dew-point)
At L , / F = 1.0 3-30
(Bubble-point)
ZI;
At any value of V, 3-19
At any value of L, 3-20
If the Ci“,,L,/F > 0.5, then the second calculation must be made at an assumed
value of L,/F = 1.0, which is the bubble-point calculation:
(3-30)
1-1
In order for some vapor to be present, this ratio (eq. 3-30) must be greater than
unity.
The third calculation at intermediate values of t ; / F (or L , / F ) may be made
using either eq. 3-19 or 3-20, as desired.
The proposed convergence technique uses the conventional calculations, but has
one additional step at the end of each iteration to calculate the “average” K for the
entire feed mixture. At the correct values of L , and t;, the average f equals unity.
In a legitimate flash calculation, K > 1.0 at the bubble-point and K < 1.0 at the
dew-point. The average K is calculated by using equations given in Table 3-IV.
For manual calculations, it is fast and easy to plot a graph of versus the
assumed L , (or t;). Sketching-in the curve through these points determines the next
assumption to be made. The curve is revised if necessary, after each new point is
calculated until satisfactory closure is attained.
When using computers, it is convenient to have a convergence scheme and
iterative technique built into the program. The hyperbolic convergence routine
proposed by Hohmann and Lockhart (1972) is recommended.
83
Example 3-4
Calculate the lb-moles of vapor and liquid for the following conditions:
Compound Moles E K.= v/x
Methane 5 19.0
Ethane 5 4.0
Propane 20 1.5
Isobutane 35 0.70
nButane 35 0.55
-
100
At L, = V;, eq. 3-28 gives C:= L, = 52.42 moles.

Therefore, correct L, > 52.42 moles and K = 0.908. One can check now whether
or not vapor is present. Bubble-point calculation (eq. 3-30) gives X:,”,,F;K,= 189.
Thus, vapor is present; K = 1.89. Correct value of L, lies between 52.42 and 100
moles.
Try L, = 75.0 moles in eq. 3-20, which gives C:,,L, = 74.11 moles and K = 1.048.
Correct value of L,lies between 52.42 and 74.11 moles.
,
,-: L, = 68.95 moles and K= 1.002.
Try L, = 69.0 moles in eq. 3-20, which gives X
Correct value of L,lies between 52.42 and 68.95 moles.
,
Try L, = 68.0 moles in eq. 3-20, which gives Cy- Li = 68.08 moles and K = 0.996.
Correct value of L, lies between 68.08 and 68.95 moles.
This may be repeated until the desired closure is attained. The composition and
amount of vapor is obtained from eq. 3-15.
THREE-PHASE FLASH EQUILIBRIUM
Three-phase systems (a vapor phase, a liquid hydrocarbon phase, and a liquid

aqueous phase) are frequently encountered in petroleum operations. Formerly, it
was assumed that the water vapor reduced the hydrocarbon partial pressure in the
vapor according to Dalton’s law (Nelson, 1958). This assumption implied that the
solubility of water in liquid hydrocarbons and solubility of liquid hydrocarbons in
water are negligible. This approximation worked satisfactorily at low pressures
and/or medium or high temperatures, but became increasingly less accurate at
higher pressures and lower temperatures.
Three-phase flash calculation techniques have been presented by Osborne (1964),
Deam and Maddox (1969), Erbar (1973), and Peng and Robinson (1976). Two sets
of equilibrium data are required: a set describing equilibrium between the vapor
phase and each liquid phase. Equilibrium relationships between vapor and liquid
hydrocarbon phases are available, whereas those between vapor and liquid aqueous
phases are mostly present in company files and, hopefully, will be published.
Furthermore, most of the published data deals with pure water, whereas the actual
aqueous phases contain various amounts of different salts.
84
(1) Draw a sectional view showing the interior construction of a typical oil-gas
separator.
( 2 ) In two-stage separation, what effect does the increasing of pressure of
high-stage separator have on the gasoline content obtained from (a) a low-stage
separator, and (b) a high-stage separator. Explain.
(3) Outline steps in determining the optimum pressure of the high-stage sep-
ara tor in two-stage separation.
(4) Describe the physical principles involved in the design and operation of
float-controlled separators.
(5) Define stage separation.
(6) A lube oil is treated with liquid propane in the proportions of 8.00 moles of
propane to 2.00 moles of oil. The mixture is flashed at 90 psig and 120°F. Under
these conditions the equilibrium ratio ( K = y / x ) for propane is ? (find it) and for
the lube is 0.00. For 400.0 moles of the original mixture, calculate the numbers of
moles and mole% of lube oil and propane in the equilibrium liquid phase.
(7) (a) A liquid was subjected to an equilibrium-flash vaporization at 90 psia. At
equilibrium, the analysis of the vapors on a mole% basis was as follows: propane
(C,), 30; isobutane (iC4), 35; n-butane (nC,), 25; isopentane (iC5), 10. Estimate the
temperature and the composition of the equilibrium liquid.
(b) Estimate the maximum temperature at which the equilibrium vapors could be
condensed practically completely at 90 psia.
(8) The liquid (mixture of heptane and octane) is heated in a closed container at
212°F. The composition of the vapor produced is 70%by volume of heptane and
30% by volume of octane. The vapor pressures at 212°F are 18.42 psia for the
heptane and 8.32 psia for the octane. The molecular weights are 100.2 for the
heptane and 114.2 for the octane. The specific gravities of liquids at 212°F are 0.684
for the heptane and 0.704 for the octane. Compute the composition of liquid in
volume per cent. [xl = (1 - K 2 ) / ( K 1- K 2 ) . ]
(9) In determining the optimum pressure for the first stage of gas-oil separation
when the second stage is atmospheric, certain graphs may be drawn. With the
pressure of the high-stage separator as the horizontal axis, give illustrative curves of:
(a) gas/oil ratio for low-stage and high-stage; also cumulative;
(b) gasoline content of separator gas for low-stage and high-stage; and
(c) total gasoline lost in two-stage separation.
(10) For a wellstream having the following composition, determine the optimum
second-stage pressure for a three-stage separation, if p1 = 600 psia.
Component Mole Fraction Mol. Wt.
0.30 16.01
0.30 30.07
0.10 44.09
0.15 58.12
0.05 72.15
0.05 86.17
0.05 115.22
85
(Reference: Whinery and Campbell, 1958, p. 54.)

(11) A 12-ft high vertical separator, with a 24-in. inside diameter, is operating at
a pressure of 500 psia at 60°F. Compressibility factor = 0.909, oil gravity = 30"API,
gas specific gravity (with respect to air = 1) = 0.65, and separation coefficient =
0.167.
Determine:
(1) gas specific weight in lb/ft3 at operating conditions;
(2) oil capacity in bbl/day (retention time = 1 min); and
(3) gas capacity in MMscf/day.
(Reference: Craft et al., 1962, pp. 453-482.)
APPENDIX 3.1-RAOULT'S, DALTON'S AND HENRY'S LAWS
One can use Raoult's law in calculations involving normal paraffin hydrocarbons
if the pressure is below 60 psi. According to Raoult's law, at any particular constant
temperature, the partial pressure of one component of a mixture is equal to the mole
fraction of that component multiplied by its vapor pressure in the pure state at the
temperature of the liquid:
p! = PfXn (3.1-1)
where p! = partial pressure of a component in the liquid phase, p," = vapor pressure
of the component in the pure state, and x, = mole fraction of a component in the
liquid phase.
If a mixture is below its bubble-point temperature, the total pressure = p i + p i +
p ; + . . . +p,.1
Dalton's law states that the partial pressure of an individual component in a
gaseous mixture is equal to the product of the total pressure, n, and the mole
fraction of that individual component, y,,:
P,' = VY,, (3.1-2)
where p,' = partial pressure of a component in the vapor phase, 7~ = total pressure of
the system, and y, = mole fraction of the component in the vapor phase.
Raoult's law and Dalton's law can be combined, because at equilibrium the
partial pressure of a component in the vapor is equal to the partial vapor pressure of
the component in the liquid or p! = p:; consequently:
y,, = P:xn/n (Henry's law) ( 3 .I-3)
This equation expresses the equilibrium between the vapor and the liquid of an ideal
solution at any temperature and pressure. Example 3.1-1 shows calculations involv-
ing Henry's law.
86
The P;/m ratio is not a constant, however, and is altered by the total pressure
and to some extent by the kind of materials associated with it in the mixture.
Consequently, the y / x ratio must be determined experimentally (equilibrium ratio
K =y / x ) .
Example 3. I-I
A liquid consists of 42.5% butane and 57.5% pentane by volume at 60°F.If the
liquid is heated to 180°F at 100 psia, what will be the composition of the vapor that
is produced? (Assume that Raoult’s law holds.)
Vapor pressure of C4H,, at 180°F is 152 psi; vapor pressure of CSHI2at 180°F
is 56 psi; and sp.gr. at 60°F is 0.585 and 0.631 for C4H,, and C5H12, respectively.
Solution:
Compo- Vol. in Sp.gr. Wt. in Mol. Gram- Mole S Vapor Raoult’s Mole S
nent liquid at 60°F liquid wt. moles in pressure law in
at 60°F (g) in liquid (psi) partial vapor
(cc) liquid pressure
(psia) .
C,H,, 42.5 0.585 24.9 , 58.1 0.428 46.0 152 69.9 69.R
CSH,, 57.5 0.631 36.3 72.1 0.504 54.0 56 30.3 30.2
- -
0.9321oo.o 100.2 100.0
If this problem were solved on the basis of 100 ft3, one would multiply 42.5 and
57.5 by 62.4 lb/ft3; and if on the basis of 100 gal, by 8.33 lb/gal. In each case, one
should continue with the steps shown in the above table.
The reader is also referred to an excellent treatment of the subject by Nelson
(1958,pp. 434-464).
APPENDIX 3-II-ILLUSTRATION, ACCESSORIES, GAS CAPACITIES, SETTLING VOLUMES,
AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR: (1) VERTICAL LOW-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (2) VERTICAL
HIGH-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (3) HORIZONTAL LOW-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (4)
HORIZONTAL HIGH-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; A N D (5) SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
(COURTESY OF HTI-SUPERIOR, INC., A BERRY INDUSTRIES COMPANY).
VERTICAL LOW PRESSURE SEPARATORS
GAS OUTLE
MIST EXTRACTOR
I\
5- STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two-phase (oilgas)
CONTROL
separators.
1 . Low pressure, diaphragm operated dump valve.
1 . Float operated level control
1 . ASME safetv relief valve
lF'1i I 1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 .Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
FlrTE 1 . Drain connection
1 .Outside ladder on 10' high separators and higher
1 . Quieting baffle over settling section
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet
(threaded or slipon)
OUTLET
1 .Tubular gage glass with safety cocks 8 draln valve
OPTIONAL ACCESSORIES
Thermometer
Safety Head
DRA,N Heating Coil
Additional Connections
Skid Mounting
Three Phase Operation
88
VERTICAL LOW PRESSURE SEPARATOR INFORMATION
GAS CAPAC:ITIES
wx20
W'XlS
WXl0
4W'xlS
49x10
36"xlO
WXT.W,
M"Xl0
WXS
24"xT-9
24"xS
SPECIFICATIONS
STANDARD AND ASME CODE CONSTRUCTION
Nominal inlet 8 Oil Standard Valves Settling Gas Oil Shippin(
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Outlet Oil Gas Volume Capacity Capacity Weight
No. Dia.x HI. psi Conn. Conn. Veive Valve bbl MMSCFD bbllday Ib
V.245 24" x 5' 125 2" Thd 2'Thd 2' 2' 0.65 1.9 860 950
V-247 2 4 ' x 7v2, 125 2'Thd 2'Thd 2" 2" 1.01 3.1 1290 1150
V.3010 30" x 1 0 125 3" Thd 3'Thd 2' 2' 2.06 5.7 2700 2000
36" x 5' 125 4'Thd 2'Thd 2" 2" 1.61 4.3 1960 2wM
36" x 71h' 125 4"Thd 3'Thd 2, 2' 2.43 7.1 2940 2350
V-3610 3 6 ' x 10' 125 4" Thd 4" Thd 2' 2' 3.04 8.3 3920 2700
V.4810 48" x 1 0 125 6' Fig 4" Thd 3" 2" 5.67 14.6 8980 3400
V-4815 48" x 15' 125 6" F.g 4" Thd 4" 2" 7.86 17.3 10460 4500
V-M)lO W'X10 125 6' Fig 4" Thd 4" 3" 9.23 23.1 10900 5200
V43015 60" x 15' 125 6 ' Flg 4" Thd 4" 3' 12.65 27.0 16400 6400
80' x 2 0
-125 6" Flg 4" Th,d 4" 3" 15.51 32.9 21800 7600
Normal volume carried in vessel is to center line of fiodt opening.

Gas capacities shown are for maximum working pressure.
89
VERTICAL HIGH PRESSURE SEPARATORS
GAS WTLET -p&fJ-- .SAFETY U' 'ALVE
la. I
PRESSURE
GAGE STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with twc-phase
(oii.gas) separators,
THERMOMETER 1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm
motor valve
1 . Pneumatic level control
1 . ASME safety relief valve
FLOAT PROTECTOR
1 . Pressure gauge with isolating valve
1 .Control gas regulator set with fittings
GAGE GLASS
LIQUID LEVEL
CONTROL 1 . Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
1 . Drain connection
1 . Outside ladder on 1 0 high separators and higher
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet
(threaded or slipon)
1 - Reflex gage glass with steel cocks 8. draln valve
Additional accessories furnished with threephase
(oil-gas-water) separators.
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm
motor valve
1 .Pneumatlc level control
1 . Transparent gage glass with ateel safety cocks
& drain valve
Safety Head
Heating Coil
Skid Mounting
90
CAPACITIES OF VERTICAL HIGH PRESSURE SEPARATORS
I
GAS CAPACITIES
200 300 400 XD 6W 8W 1MD 15W 1ooo

SEPARATOR OPERATING PRESSURE, PSI0
SETTLING VOLUMES
SIZE VOLUME SIZE VOLUME
O.D. x Ht. bbl. O.D. x Ht. bbl.
16' x 5' 0.27 42" x 7%' 3.53
16' x 7H' 0.41 42" h 1 0 4.29
16' x 10 0.51 42" x 15' 5.80
10' x 4' 0.44 48" x Vh' 4.81
20" x 7%' 0.65 48" x 1 0 5.80
20' x 10 0.82 48" x 1 s 7.79
24' x 5' 0.66 54" x 7 H ' 6.33
24" x 7%' 0.97 54" x 1 0 7.80
24" x 10 1.21 54" x 15' 10.12
30' x 5' 1.13 60'x 7'h' 8.08
30" X 1%' 1.64 60' x I 0 9.63
30" x 10 2.02 60" x 15' 12.73
36" x 7%' 2.47 60" x 2 0 15.31
38" x 10 3.02
36" x 1s 4.13
B a d on loo0 psl W.P. Smparcltor

91

SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal Inlet LL Std. Gas Llquld Shlpplng
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capaclty Capacity Weight
No. O.D. x Ht. PSI Conn. Valve MMCFD bbl/day Ib.
VS.1010.2 16~x10' 2" Thd 1" 2.1 750 1150

V52052 2O'XS 230 3" FIa 1" 1.7 590 1000
VS.207.2 ZO"x71h' 3" FIO 1" 2.9 890 1200
, vs.2010-2 2O"XlO 3" Flg 1" 3.4 1180 1400
VS-2452 24"xs 230 3" FIg 1" 2.5 850 1200
VS-247.2 24"x7%' 3" Flg 1" 4.1 1270 1450
VS-2410-2 24"XlO 3" FIg 1" 4.0 1700 1700
VS.305-2 3O"XV 230 4" Flg 1" 3.9 1330 110
VS-307.2 3O"x7v2' 4" Flg 1" 0.5 XXK) 1750
VS-3010-2 30"xlO 4, Flg 1" 7.0 2880 1900
VS-367-2 36"x74/2' 230 4" Flg 1" 9.4 2900 2300
vs-3610.2 W'XlO 4' Flg 1" 11.0 3880 2700
, vs-36152 W'XlS 4" FIg 1" 13.7 58003500
V5427.2 42"x74/2 230 6' Flg 2" 12.7 3900 3100
VS-4210-2 42"xlO
~. 6' FIa 2" 14.0 52M)
_-__ 3860
....
VS.4215-2 42"x15 6" FI; 2, 18.4 7800 4800
VS-487-2 46'X7M' 230 6' Fla 2" 16.7 5150 3700
I vs-4810.2 48"xlO 6' F l i 2" 19.5 8870 4800
VS.4015.2 46'x15 6' F l i 2" 24.5 lo300 esoo
V5547-2 54"x74/2' 230 6' FIa 2" 21.1 esoo4800
-t VS-5410-2
VS-54152
VsBo7.2
vs6010-2
VS60152
VS60202
'451055
VS-107.5
VS-1010-5
54"xlO
54"x15
0O"x7'h'!
00"xlO
00"x15
8O'XZo'
16"x5'
lWx71h'
16'Xlo'
230
500
6' FIQ
6' Flg
6 ' Flg
6 ' FIg
6' FIg
6,Flg
2" Thd
2 ' Thd
2" Thd
2"
2,
2"
2"
2"
2"
1"
1"
1"
24.6
30.7
26.1
30.5
38.1
43.4
1.0
2.7
3.1
8850
13Ooo
10700
16100
21400
380
540
720
5700
7800
8 0 5 0 5 8 0 0
7100
8800
12300
1000
1150
1300
VS-2055 Zo"X5 500 3" FIg 1" 2.8 580 1300
v5207.5 2O'x7M" 3" FIg 1" 4.3 870 1500
VS-20105 2O'XlO 3" FIg 1" 5.0 1150 1700
VS.245-5 24"x5 500 3" Flg 1" 3.7 820 2100
V5247-5 24"x79h' 3" FIg 1" 0.1 1230 2500
VS-2410-5 2r)"XlO 3" FI@ 1" 7.1 1040 2900
vs305-5 W'XS 500 4" FIg 1" 5.7 1280 2700
VS-307-5 30" x 74/21 4" Fla 1" 9.3 lee0 k3M
__..
VS-3010.5 W'X10' 4" FI; 1" 10.9 2520 3800
VS-387-5 W'x7M' 500 4" FIa 1" 13.3 2700 4700
VS-36105 W'XlO 4" FIO 1" 15.5 38005300
VS-30155 W'x15' 4" Flp 1" 19.4 5400 8500
VS-427-5 42"x7%' 500 6" FIg 2" 18.4 3750 5200
V5-42105 42.~10' 6' FIg 2, 21.4 5Ooo 8200
VS-42155 42"x15 6 FIg 2, 28.8 7500 8200
v5487.5 4WX7M' 500 6'FIg 2" 24.3 5 O o o 5 8 0 0
V5481Q5 48"XlO' 6'FIg 2" 28.4 8800 7540
V548155 W'X15' 8" FIg 2' 35.4 ssqo loso0
92

SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal Inlet a Std Gas Liquid Shlppli
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capacity Capaclty Weigh1
NO. O.D. x l i t . psi Conn. Valve MMCFD bbl/day Ib.
VS.54155 54"xlS 6" Fig 2' 44.6 12400 12500

VS-607-5 6O'x7W' 500 6" Flg 2, 38.1 7700 9500
VS-6010.5 60"x 1 0 6' Flg 2' 44.5 10300 11500
vs-60155 60"xlS 6' Flg 2' 55.6 15400 15800'
vs-w20-5 6O"x20 6 ,Flg 2, 63.3 20600 zoo00
VS-1656 W'X5 600 2" Thd 1" 1.8 360 1100
VS-167-6 16"x71/2+ 2 , Thd 1" 3.0 540 1250
VS-1610-6 16"xlO 2'Thd 1" 3.5 720 1400
VS.2056 ZO"x5' 600 3" Flg 1" 2.8 560 1400
VS-207.6 ZO"x71h' 3 , Flg 1" 4.6 840 1600
VS-2010.6 2O"XlO 3 ! Flg 1" 5.4 1120 1800
VS.2456 24"x5 800 3" Flg 1" 3.6 760 2200
VS.247-6 24"x71hh' 3 ' Flg 1" 6.3 1140 2600
VS.2410.6 24"xlO 3 , Flg 1" 7.3 1520 3000
VS.3056 30"x5 600 4" Fig 1" 6.0 1200 2800
vs-307-6 30"X7M' 4" FIa 1" 9.6 1800 3400
VS-3010-6 W'x10 4" F l i 1" 11.5 24W 4000
VS.367.6 36"X7%' 600 4" Flg 1" 14.7 2700 4900
VS-3610-6 36"xlO 4" Flg 1" 17.2 3600 5500
VS-38156 36"x15 4" Flg 1" 21.5 5400 6800
VS-427-6 42"x71/2' 600 6" Flg 2- 20.4 3750 5600
VS-4210-6 42"xlO 6" Flg 2' 23.8 5000 6700
VS.4215-6 42"x15' 6" Flg 2' 30.0 7500 8900
VS.487-6 48"X71/z' 600 6 ' FIg 2" 27.1 5000 8400
VS4810-6 48"xlO 6" Flg 2" 31.7 6600 8200
VS-48156 W'x15 6" Flg 2, 39.6 9900 11800
VS-547-6 5493X71h9 600 6" FIg 2, 34.0 6200 eooo
VS-5410-6 54"xlO 6" FIg 2" 39.6 6300 loo00
VS-5415-6 54"x15' 6" Flg 2, 49.6 12400 13900
VS.807-6 6OSx7H' 600 6" Flg 2' 42.3 7700 10300
VS-6010-6 60"xlO 8" Flg 2" 49.4 10300 12500
VS.60156 W'XlS 6" Flg 2" 61.7 15400 17000
V56020-6 W'x20' 6" Flg 2, 70.3 20600 21500
VS-16510 16'x5' 1000 2" Thd 1" 2.4 340 1100
I VS.167-10 l6"x71hs 2" Thd 1" 3.9 500 1200
VS.1610-10 16"XlO' 2 ' Thd 1" 4.5 670 1500
VS-20510 20"xs 1000 3" Flg 1" 3.7 530 1800
I VS-207.10 20"x71/2 3" FlQ 1" 6.1 790 1900
vs-201 010 20"XlO' 3" Flg 1" 7.1 1050 2200
vs-24510 24"x5' loo0 3" FIg 1" 5.3 760 2500
VS-247-10 24" x7 V2' 3" Flg 1" 8.6 1140 2650
VS.2410-10 24"XlO' 3" Flg 1" 10.4 1520 3300
VS-30510 W'XS loo0 4" FIg 1" 8.2 1180 3200
VS.307-10 W'x7H' 4" Flg 1" 13.8 1760 3650
v53010-10 30"xlO 4" Flg 1" 15.9 2350 4200
V5367.10 W'x7H' loo0 4" Flg 1" 20.7 2680 5400
vs3610-10 38"XlO' 4" Flg 1" 24.1 3570 6400
vs-381510 38"XlS 4" Flg 1" 30.1 5360 8700
93

Nominal Inlet 8 Std. Gas Liquid Shippini
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capacity Capacity Weight
No. O.D. x Ht. psi Conn. Valve MMCFD bblldav Ib.
I VS-307.12 30"x7'/2' 4" Flo 1" 15.3 1760 3950

VS.3010-12 3O"xlO 4" Flg 1" 17.9 2350 4500
VS.367.12 36"x71/2' 1200 4" Flg 1" 23.1 2610 6000
VS.3610-12 36"xlO' 4" Flg 1" 26.9 3470 7300
VS.3615-12 36"xlS 4" Flg 1" 33.6 5220 9900
VS-427.12 42"x71/2' 1200 6 ,Flg 2, 31.0 3510 8300
VS.4210-12 42"xlO' 6" Flg 2" 36.1 4680 9900
VS-4215.12 42"xlS 6" Flg 2" 45.2 7020 13100
VS.467.12 4B"X71/2' 1200 6" Fig 2, 40.5 4650 11OOO
VS-4810.12 48"xlO 6" Flg 2" 47.3 6200 13500
VS-4815.12 46"x15' 6" Fig 2' 59.1 9300 18400
vs.547.12 54"x7'/2' I200 6 ,Flg 2, 51.4 5650 14400
VS.5410-12 54"xlO 6 ' Flg 2' 59.9 7600 17500
VS5415-12 54"xlS 6" Flg 2" 74.9 11700 23500
VS-607-12 60"x71/2' 1200 6" FIa 2" 62.3
._ . 7250 18OOO
VS.6010-12 60"xlO' 6" Fla 2' 72 7 9700 21500
VS.6015-12 60"x15' 6" Fla 2s 90.9 14550 29000
9
2,
VS-6020.1 60"X20 104.0 19400 36000
VS.165.14 16"XS 1440 2" Thd 1" 2.9
-. 320 1500
VS-167.14 16"X7 1/2 ' 2 ' Thd 1" 4.8 460 1800
VS.1610.14 16"XlO' 2" Thd 1" 5.4 640 2100
VS-205.14 20'xS 1440 3 , FIa 1" 4.1 450 2100
I V5207.14 20"x7Vz" 3 ' Fla 1" 6.7 670 2600
VS.2010-14 20"XlO 3" Fla 1" 7.6 900 3100
VS.24514 24"x5' 1440 3" Flg 1" 6.7 740 2800
3" Flg 1" 11.2 1100 3200
94
HORIZONTAL LOW PRESSURE SEPARATORS
STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two.phase (oil.gas) separators.
1 . Low pressure, diaphragm operated dump valve.
1 . Float operated level control
1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 .Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
1 - Quieting baffle
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlef (threaded or slipon)
1 -Tubular gage glass with safety cocks & drain valve
Thermometer
Safety Head
Heating Coil
Skid Mounting
Three Phase Operation
95
H0 R E 0NTAL LOW PR ESSURE SEPARATOR INFORMAT10 N

iu
GAS CAPACITIES
60 x20
60'r15
60 '"10
4W'xlS
48"x10
36x15
36 " 1 0
30x10
30'XT.6'
30' x s
24 X10
24 x 7 . 6
24.35
I ! ! ! ! ! ! l ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! . ' ! ! L ' ! ' ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! W '

I III.IIII 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I 1111111II
1
PO 15 20 30 40 50 60 7 0 8 0 9 0 1W 125 1
1
~ ~~
SEPARATOR OPERATING PRESSURE PSlG
Nominal inlet a Oil Standard Valves Gas Oil Shipping

Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Outlet Oil Gas Capacity Capacity Weight
No. Dia. x Lgth. psi Conn. Conn. Valve Valve MMSCFD Bbllday Ib.
~- - -
H.247 24"x7%' 125 2"Thd 2'Thd 2" 2" 5.3 2900 1200
H-2410 24"xlO' 125 3"Thd 3"Thd 2' 2" 8.0 3850 1800
H-305 3O"x5' 125 3"Thd 3'Thd 2' 2, 7.4 3ooo 1200 '
H-307 3O'x7H' 125 3"Thd 3" Thd 2" 2'' 8.4 4500 1800
H-3010 3O"xlO 125 4"Thd 4" Thd 2" 2' 9.4 Boo0 2100
H-3810 38"xlO 125 4"Thd 4"Thd 2" 2" 13.6 88002800
H-3815 36'x15 125 4" Thd 4" Thd 2' 2' 16.5 13200 3800
H-4810 48"xlO 125 8" Flg 4"Thd 2' 2' 18.5 lsB00 3500 '
H-4615 46'x15 125 6' FIg 4"Thd 3" 3' 22.4 23700 4600
H.8010 6O"xlO 125 6" Fig 4"Thd 3" 3" 38.0 24500 8200
H.6015 lO"x15 125 8" Fig 4"Thd 3" 3" 48.0 36800 8100
H.6020 60"x20' 125 6" Fig 4" Thd 4" 4" 53.3 4oooo loo00
96
HORIZONTAL HIGH PRESSURE SEPARATORS
SAFETY VALVE
THERMOMETER
INLET
RESSURE GAGE
MIST EXTRACTOR
NLET DIVERTER
LIQUID
LEVEL
CONTROL
DUMP VALVE
LIQUID
OUTLET
STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two-phase (oil.gas) separators
1 . High pressure screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve
1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 . Control gas regulator set with fittings
1 . Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
1 Drain connection
1 . Outside ladder on 10' high separators and higher
1 . Quieting baffle
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet (threaded or slipon)
1 Reflex gage glass with steel cocks 8 drain valve
Additional accessories furnished with three-phase (oil-gaswater) separators
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve
1 Transparent gage glass with steel safety cocks & drain valve
Thermometer
Safety Head
Heating Coil
Skid Mounting
StlOlVtlVd3S 3tlflSS3tld H U H WlNOZltlOH A 0 S31113VdV3
L6
98

Nominal Inlet a Std. Gas Liquid Shipping
Model Slre W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capacity Capacity Weight
No. O.D. X Lgth psi Conn. Valve MMCFD' Bbllday Ibs.
HS-1210-2 12%"x10' 2 , Thd 2, 2.1 1000 1000

HS-1852 1WX5' 230 2 , Thd 2' 2.7 840 1000
HS-187-2 lWx7H' 2 , Thd 2" 3.1 1260 1100
HS-1610-2 16'Xlo' 2" Thd 2, 3.5 1880 1200
HS-205-2 2O"x5' 230 3" Thd 2, 4.4 1330 1200
HS-207-2 X)"x7%' 3" Thd 2" 4.9 2000 1300
HS-2010-2 20"Xlo' 3" Thd 2, 5.5 2850 1400
HS-2452 24"x5' 230 4" Thd 2" 6.3 1900 1300
HS-247-2 24"x7*r' 4" Thd 2" 7.0 2850 1450
HS-2410-2 24"xlO 4" Thd 2" 7.9 3800 1550
HS-24152 24"x15' 4" Thd 2" 9.6 5700 1700
HS-3052 W'x5' 230 4,Thd 2 9.8 3ooo 1500
HS-307-2 W'x7H' 4" Thd 2" 11.1 4500 1800
HS-30102 W'X10' C' Thd 2" 12.4 8ooo 2200
HS-30152 W'x15' 4" Thd 2" 15.0 9 o o o 2 8 0 0
HS-367-2 38"x7%' 230 6" FIg 2" 16.1 8m 2400
HS-3810-2 W'X10' 8" FIg 2" 18.1 8700 2800
HS-36152 36"xW 8" Fla 2" 21.8 13ooo 3800
HS362&2 36"X20' 8" Fig 2 1 25.0 17000 4800
HS-427-2 42"x7%' 230 8" Fig 2, 21.7 8800 3300
I HS-42102
HS-4215.2
H.s-4220-2
42"xlO'
42.~15'
42"xX)'
8" Flg
8" Fla
8" FIg
2
2"
2'
24.5
29.5
33.0
11700
17800
23500
3900
5200
8800
HS-487-2 W'x7H' 230 8" Flg 2" 28.5 11500 4200
I HS4810-2
HS-48152
HS-4820-2
48"XlO'
W'x15'
48"W
8" FIQ
8" Fla
8" FIg
2"
2"
2"
33.3
38.9
44.5
15400
23000
32000
5100
7000
eooo
HS-547-2 54"x7M9 230 8" Fla 2" 36.0 14800 5500
I HS-5410-2
HS-54152
HS-542&2
54"XlO
54"xlB
W'X20'
8" FIE
8" FIa
8" Fig
2,
2"
2"
40.5
49.0
56.9
19400
29200
38800
8800
Baoo
11000
HS807-2 BO"x7H' 230 8" Fig 2" 44.8 18Ooo 8800
I HS8010-2
HS80152
HS802G2
60"XlO
W'XlS
60"x20"
8" Fig
8" Flg
8" Fig
2'
2"
2"
50.2
60.7
70.5
24wo
38ooo
48OOO
85M)
11200
14000
' HS125-5 12~x5' 500 2" Thd 1" 2.5 500 800
nsi27.5 12W"x7H' 2" Thd 2, 2.8 750 1000
HS-12165 12rk"xlO 2" Thd 2" 3.2 1000 1100
HS-1655 Wx5' 500 2 fhd 2" 4.0 800 1400
HS-187-5 lV'x7M' 2,Thd 2" 4.5 1200 1500
HS-1810-5 l6'XlO' 2" Thd 2" 5.1 1800 1800
nszw 20"X5 500 3" FIg 2" 8.4 1300 1800
HS-207-5 20"X7H' 3" Flg 2, 7.2 1850 2050
HS-2010-5 20"XlW 3" FIg 2" 8.1 2800 2400
HS-265 24"x5' 500 4" FIg 2" 9.2 1850 2100
HS-247-5 24"xIH' 4" FIg 2" 10.3 2750 2800
ns.2410-5 24"xlO' 4" FIg 2" 11.8 3700 3100
H82415.5 24"r15' 4" Fio 2" 14.0 5 5 M m
99

SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal Inlet 8 Gas Llquld Shipping
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capaclty Capaclty Welght
No. O.D.x Lgth psi Conn. Valve MMCFD' Bbllday Ibs.
I HS-4210.5
HS-4215-5
HS.42205
42"XlO
42"x15'
42"x20
8" FIO
6" FIR
8" FIO
2"
2"
2,
35.1
42.5
49.4
11200
16800
22400
7800
loo00
12200
H5487.5 48Vx7M' 500 8' FIa 2" 41.3 11100 8OOO
I H548105
HS-4815-5
HS48205
48'xlO
48"x15'
48"x20'
8" FIO
8" Fla
8' Flg
2,
2,
2"
48.5
58.2
85.3
14800
22200
%MI
8800
13500
17200
H5547.5 54"X7'/2 500 8" Fla 2, 52.0 14ooo 9700
I HS-5410-5
HS-54155
HS-54205
54"xlO
54"x15'
54"x20'
8" F l i
8" FIR
8" FlO
2"
2"
2'
58.5
70.8
82.3
lssoo
28000
37200
11800
17000
21200
HS507-5 6O"x71h' 500 8' Flg 2" 85.0 17400 12800
HS.6010-5 6O"xlO 8, FIg 2" 73.0 23200 15100
HSS0155 60"x15' 8" FIg 2" 88.0 34800 20100
HS60205 6O"x2O 8" Flg 2- 102.0 48400 25100
HS-1256 12%"x5' 800 2 , Thd 1" 2.8 500 lo00
HS-127-6 12%"x7H' 2" Thd 1" 3.1 750 1100
H51210.8 12%"x10' 2" Thd 1" 3.5 1000 1200
H51856 18"XS 800 2 , Thd 1" 4.5 800 1500
H51675 16"x71h' 2 , Thd 1" 5.1 1200 1600
HS-1810.8 16'xlO' 2" Thd 1" 5.7 1800 1600
H5-205-8 ZO"x5' 600 3" FIg 1" 7.0 1260 1700
HS207-6 20"x7%' 3 ' FIg 1" 7.8 1800 2150
HS2010.8 2O"Xlo' 3" Flg 1" 8.8 2500 2800
H5245.6 24"xS 600 4" FIg 1" 9.5 1700 2350
H5247-8 24"x71h' 4" FIg 1" 10.8 2550 2700
HS2410-6 24"XlO 4" Flg 1" 12.0 3400 3200
H52415.6 24"x15' 4" Flg 1" 14.5 5100 3700
HS-3058 30"x5' 600 4" Flg 1" 14.9 2700 2700
HS307-8 30"X7H" 4" Flg 1" 18.7 4ooo 3700
HS-30108 W'XlO 4" FIo 1" 18.8 5400 4800
H530156 30"x15' 4" FIO 2' 22.7 8100 6800
HS367-6 Wx7H' 600 6' Fin 2" 25.1 eo00 5100
H53610.8 38"XlO' 6" FIg 2" 26.2 8OOO 8200
H53615-6 W'x15' 8" FIg 2, 34.1 12Ooo 8500
HS-36208 36"x20 8" FIg 2" 39.8 leooo lo800
HS-427-6 42"x7H8 600 6" FIg 2" 34.7 8400 6soO
HS4210.8 42"x 10' 6" Flg 2" 39.0 11200 8300
H54215.6 42"x15' 8" FIg 2" 47.2 lee00 loB00
HS-42206 42"xZO' 6" FIG 2" 54.9 22400 12900
100

SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal Inlet 8 Std. Gas Liquid Shipping

Model Size W.P. Gas Outlel Capacity
No. O.D. x Lgth Conn. Valve MMCFD
HS-207.10 20"x71hh' 3" FIO 1" 10.3 1770 2300

HS-2010.10 2O"xlO ' 3" Flg 1" 11.6 2380 2800'
HS.245-10 24"xS lo00 4" FIg 1" 13.3 1700 2200
HS.247.10 24'%71/z' 4" FIg 1" 15.0 2550 3OOO
HS-2410-10 24"xlo' 4" Flg 1" 16.8 3400 3800
HS-2415-10 24"x15' 4" Flg 1" 20.3 5100 5400
HS-305-10 303x5' lo00 4" FIg 1" 20.5 2800 3200
HS.307.10 30"X71h' 4" Flg 1" 23.1 3800 4300
HS-3010-10 30"xlO' 4" FID 1" 26.0 5200 5500
HS-3015.10 3@'~15' 4" Flg 2" 31.4 7900 7800
HS.367-10 36"x71/z * lo00 6" Flg 2' 35.0 8ooo 8100
HS-3610-10 38"xlO' 0 ' Flg 2, 39.4 8ooo 7500
HS4615.10 36"X15' 0 ' FIg 2" 47.4 1 m 10200
HS.3620-10 36k20 6" FIg 2, 55.4 lso00 1 m
HS-427.10 42"X77h' loo0 6" Flg 2" 48.7 8ooo 8200
HS-421010 42"XlO 6" FIg 2, 52.5 10700 es00
HS-4215-10 42"X15' 8" Flg 2' 63.5 leooo 13400
HS.422010 42"~20' 6'' Flg 2" 73.6 21400 18900
HS.467-10 48"x71h' lo00 8" FIg 2, 62.5 10700 logo0
HS.4810-10 48"xlO' 8" Flg 2" 70.3 14300 12700
HS.4815-10 48"xlS 8" Flg 2' 85.0 21400 17500
HS-4820-10 48"~20' 8" Flg 2" 88.8 28800 22100
HS-547-10 54"x7M' lo00 8" FIg 2, 78.2 13400 13400
HS5410-10 54"XlO 8" FIg 2" 88.0 17900 lso00
HS-541510 54"~15 8" Flg 2, 108.4 28800 21200
HS-5420.10 54"xZO 8" Flg 2, 123.6 35800 2&(00
HS-807-10 6O'x7H' lo00 8" Flg 2' 97.8 18800 18700
HS.6010-10 60"XlO 8" FIg 2" 110.0 22400 les00
HS-801510 6O"XlS 8" FIg .2# 113.0 3380026400
HS-6020-10 60"xZO 8' FIg 2" 154.0 44800 32800
101

Nominal Inlet 8 Std. Gas Liquid Shipping
-
NO. 0.0. x Lgth psi Conn Valve MMCFD Bbllday Ibs.
HS-121012 l2W"xlO 2" Thd 1" 5.0 900 1450

HS-165.12 16"x5' 1200 2" Thd 1" 6.3 710 1500
1 HS-167-12 16"x71/2' 2' Thd 1" 7.1 1070 1800
HS-1610.12 16"XlO' 2" Thd 1" 6.0 1430 2150
' HS.20512 2O"x5 1200 3" Flg 1" 9.9 1120 1650
HS.207-12 20"x71/2' 3 ' Flg 1" 11.1 1660 2400
HS.2010-12 2O"xlO 3" Flg 1" 12.5 2250 2900
HS-24512 24"x5' 1200 4" Flg 1" 14.7 1670 2600
HS-247.12 24"x7 7/2 ' 4" Flg 1" 16.5 2500 3100
HS-2410.12 24"X 10' 4" Fig 1" 18.6 3300 3900
HS.2415.12 2 4 " 15'
~ 4" Fig 1" 22.5 5000 5400
HS-30512 3O"x5' 1200 4" Flg 1" 23.2 2600 3600
HS-307-12 3O"x7V' 4" Flg 1" 26.1 4000 4600
HS-3010-12 3O"xlO' 4" Flg 1" 29.4 5300 5700
HS.3015-12 30"X15' 4" Flg 2" 35.5 7900 7600
HS.367.12 36"x7'/2' 1200 6" Flg 2" 40.0 6000 6500
HS.3610-12 36"XlO 6" Flg 2" 44.3 '8000 7900
HS.3615-12 36"X15' 6" Fla 2" 53.6 12000 10600
HS.3620-12 36"x20 6" Fl; 2" 62.3 16000 13300
HS-427.12 42"x7M' 1200 6" Flg 2" 53.0 6000 8700
HS.4210-12 42"XlO 6" Flg 2" 60.0 10700
HS.421512 42"~15' 6" Flg 2" 72.0 16000 14300
HS.4220-12 42"X2O 6 ' Fig 2' 83.7 21400 18000
HS.487-12 48"X7'h' 1200 8" Fig 2" 69.3 10500 11700
HS.481012 48"XlO 8" Flg 2" 79.9 14000 13700
HS-4815.12 48"X15' 8" Fig 2% 94.2 21000 18500
102

Nominal Inlet B Std. Gas Liquid Shipping
NO. O.D. x Lgth psi Conn. Valve MMCFD Bbllday Ibs.
HS.2415.15 24"x15' 4 ,Flg 1" 26.2 5000 5900

HS-305-15 3O"XS 1500 4" Flg 1" 27.1 2600 4100
HS-307.15 3O'x7%' 4" Flg 1" 30.5 3900 5200
HS.3010.15 3O"xiO' 4" Flg 1" 34.3 5200 6300
HS.3015-15 30"x15' 4" Flg 2" 41.5 7900 8500
HS.367.15 36" x7 '/2 1500 6' Flg 2' 43.9 5700 7300
HS.3610.15 36"xlO' 6' Flg 2' 49.4 7600 6800
HS.3615.15 36"x15' 6' Flg 2' 59.7 11400 11800
HS-3620.15 36"x20' 6" Fig 2' 69.4 15200 14800
HS-427.15 42"x71/2' 1500 6" Flg 2" 60.0 7700 9600
HS-4210-15 42"xlO 6" Flg 2" 67.0 10300 11600
H5.42 15.1 5 42'x15' 6" Flg 2" 81.o 15400 15900
HS-4220-15 42"x20' 6" Flg 2" 94.5 20600 20000
HS.487.15 48',x77/2 ' 1500 8" Flg 2" 76.0 10000 13300
HS.4610.15 48"xlO' 8" Flg 2" 86.0 13500 16100
HS.4815.15 46"x15' 8" Flg 2" 106.0 20000 21700
HS4620.15 48"x20 6" Flg 2" 123.5 27000 27500
HS-125.20 12W'x5' 2000 2" Flg 1" 5.0 400 2000
HS.127.20 123/4*'x7'/2 ' 2" Flg 1" 5.7 600 2200
HS-1210-20 123/r"x108 2" Flg 1" 6.4 800 2400
HS.165-20 16"x5 2000 2" Flg 1" 7.4 590 2200
HS-167-20 16" x7 V 2 ' 2" Flg 1" 8.3 880 2600
HS-1610.20 16"x'10' 2" Flg 1" 9.3 1180 3000
HS.205-20 20"x5' 2000 3" Flo 1" 12.6 1000 3000
HS-207.20 20'1x71/z' 3" Flg 1" 14.1 1500 3600
HS.2010.20 20"XlO' 3" Flg 1" 15.9 2000 4300
HS.245.20 24"x5' 2000 4" Flg 1" 19.0 1570 3600
HS.247.20 24"x71/2' 4" Flg 1" 21.4 2260 4700
HS-2410.20 24"x 10' 4" Flg 1" 23.4 3040 5800
HS.2415-20 24"x15' 4" Flg 1" 30.0 4500 8000
103

SPECIFICATIONS
~ ~
Nominal inlet 8 Std. Gas Liquid Shipping

Model size W.P. Gas Outlet Oil Capacity Capacity Weight
No. O.D. x Lgth psi Conn. Valve MMCFD Bbllday Ibs.
HS-305.20 30"xS 2000 4" Fig 1" 31.0 2460 5800
HS.307.20 30'X7'h' 4" Fig 1" 34.8 3720 7400
HS.3010.20 3O"xlO 4" Fig 1" 39.2 4960 8700
HS-3015-20 30'x15' 4" Fig 1" 47.3 7440 11600
HS.367.20 3SS'x7Vz' 2000 6" Flg 1" 44.6 5350 9600
HS.3610-20 36"XlO 6 ' Flg 1" 50.2 7100 12200
HS.3615.20 36"xlS 6 ' Flg 1" 56.4 10700 16400
LHS-3620-20 36'x20 6" Flg 1" 66.3 14200 20800
SETTLING VOLUMES
Settling Volume, bbl.
Slze
O.D. X LQth. M Full W Full 1/4 Full
12%" x 5' 0.38 0.22 0.15

12%" x 7 M V 0.55 0.32 0.21
12%" x 1 0 0.72 0.42 0.28
1s" x 5' 0.61 0.35 0.24
16' x 7%' 0.88 0.50 0.34
16' x 1 0 1.14 0.66 0.44
20" x 5' 0.98 0.55 ,038
20' x 7M' 1.39 0.79 0.54
20' x 10 1.80 1.03 0.70
24" x 5' 1.45 0.83 0.55
24" x 7Vz' 2.04 1.18 0.76
24" x 1 0 2.63 1.52 1.01
24" x 15' 3.61 2.21 1.47
30" x 5' 2.43 1.39 0.91
30, x 7'h' 3.40 1.96 1.29
30' x 10' 4.37 2.52 1.67
3 0 ' x 15' 6.30 3.65 2.42
3 6 ' X 7V2' 4.99 2.67 1.90
36" x 1 0 6.38 3.68 2.45
36" x 15' 9.17 5.30 3.54
36' x 20 11.96 6.92 4.63
42" x 7%' 6.93 3.98 2.61
42" x 1 0 6.83 5.09 3.35
42' x 15' 12.62 7.30 4.63
42' x 20' 16.41 9.51 6.32
48" x 7%' 9.28 5.32 3.51
48" x 1 0 11.77 6.77 4.49
46' x 15' 16.74 9.67 6.43
48" x 20' 21.71 12.57 8.38
54" X 7l/2' 12.02 6.87 4.49
54" x 1 0 15.17 8.71 5.73
54" x 15' 21.49 12.40 6.20
54" x 20' 27.61 16.08 10.68
60, x 7 % 15.05 6.60 5.66
60' x 1 0 18.93 10.86 7.17
60' x 15'
60' x 20'
26.68
34.44
15.38
19.90
- 10.21
13.24
104
SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
HTI Hydrotek's Spherical Separator utilizes a tan- FEATURES

gentiai inlet to increase flow velocity as the wellstream
enters the separator. The fluid is directed against the in- No unused or "Dead" space.
side of the sphere for initial separation in the annular A baffle arrangement separates the liquid and gas sec-
space. Oil is forced against the shell as the gas moves tions to provide a quiet liquid surface for quick gas
to the center. release and proper liquid level control operation.
The gas makes two complete directional reversals Weii planned orientation of fittings and connections
before entering the mist extractor. facilitates fast hook-up.
The liquid drains to the liquid accumulation area. A Separators available for three-phase operation (gas, oil
large ratio of liquid surface area to liquid volume and water) and for handling extremely foamy oil.
assures rapid release of solution gas.
105
STANDARD ACCESSORIES OPTIONAL ACCESSORIES

Standard accessories furnished with two-phase (oil-gas) separators. Thermometer
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve Safety Head
1 - Pneumatic ievei control Heating Coil
1 .ASME safety relief valve Additional Connections
1 . Pressure gauge with isolating valve Skid Mounting
1 . Control gas regulator set with fittings
1 . Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Tangential inlet diverter
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet (threaded or slipon) on 250 P S I . & higher
1 . Reflex gage glass with steel cocks & drain valve (tubular gage glass
on 125 P.S.I. separators)
(Mechanical gas valve same size as oil valve furnished on 125 PSI separators)
Additional accessories furnished with three-phase (oil-gas-water) separators.
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve
1 . Transparent gage glass with steel safety cocks & drain valve
1 . Thermometer with S.S.
106
cn
a
0
3a
e
W
cn
a0
z
W
I
e
cn
&
cn
W
I
k
0
2a
0
cn
W
K
a
(3
3
v)
v)
W
a
n
3
9
107
SPECIFICATIONS
Model Nominal W.P. iniel 8 Std. Liquid Gas Cap. Oil Cap. Approx.
No. Diameter psi Gas Outlet Valve MMCFO bbidday Weight, Lb
88-4212 42' 125 2" 6.2 1900 1000
ss-4812 48" 3' 9.0 2500 1300
ss.5412 54' 4" 12.0 . 4500 1700
55.4225 42" 250 2" 6.4 1900 1100
SS.4625 483 2' 12.0 2500 1400
SS.6025 60, 2" 22.0 5100 3400
55.2450 24" 500 1" 3.6 300 1000
55.3050 30' 1" 6.9 600 1200
SS.3650 36" 1" 10.0 1100 1500
88-4250 42' 2, 12.0 1900 2300
__
SSa850 48' 2' 18.0 2500 3100
558050 60' 2, 31.0 5100 3400
S52480 24' 600 1" 4.0 300 1200
__
ss-3oBo
_... 30'
.. 1" 7.6 600 1300
SS-3660 36' 1" 11.0 1100 1600
SS.4260 42' 2, 14.0 1900 2400
SS-4660 48" 2" 20.0 2500 3200
SS-6060 60, 2' 33.0 5100 3600
SS.24100 24" 1 000 1" 5.1 300 1300
SS-30100 30" 1" 10.0 - 600 1400
5s-36100 36' 1" 15.0 1100 1600
SS-42100 42, 2" 18.0 1900 2600
SS.46100 48" 2" 25.0 2500 3700
SS.66100 60' 2, 45.0 5100 4300
55.24120 24" 1200 1" 5.7 300 1400
85-30120 30" 1" 11.0 600 1500
55.36120 36" 1" 16.0 1100 1900
5542120 421 2" 20.0 1900 2900
SS-48120 48" 2, 28.0 2500 3800
ss.60120 60" 2, 49.0 5100 4700
SS-24144 24, 1440 1" 6.5 300 1500
SS-30144 303 1" 13.0 600 1800
85-36144 36' 1" 19.0 1100 2400
88-42144 423 2' 22.0 1900 3300
88.46144 48" 2" 31.0 2500 4100
ss-80144 60" 2, 54.0 5100 5400
88.24200 24" 2 m 1" 7.4 300 1600
ss.30200 30' 1" 15.0 600 2200
SS-36200 36'. 1" 21.0 1100 2600
ss.42200 42' 2, 26.0 1800 3900
SS24300 24" 3000 1" 6.3 300 2600
S530300 30"' 1" 16.0 600 3200
S536300 36' 1" 23.0 1100 3800
SS.42300 42' 2 q 26.0 ls00 4900
Nominal capacities based on separator V2 tuil of liquid.

All separators, 250 psi and above are ASME code constructed and stamped.
108
REFERENCES
API, 1960. Specification of Oil and Gas Separators. (Tentative API Study 12J). API, Division of
Production, 1st ed., Dallas, Tex., p. 4.
Campbell, J.M., 1976. Gas Conditioning and Processing. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Okla.
York, N.Y., 397 pp.
Craft, B.C., Holden, W.R. and Graves Jr., E.D., 1962.Well Design, Drilling and Production. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 571 pp.
Deam, J.R. and Maddox, R.N., 1969. How to figure three-phase flash. Hydrocarbon Process., July:
163-164.
Erbar, J.H., 1973. Three-phase equilibrium calculations. N.G.P.A. 52nd Annu. Conv., pp. 62-70.
Hohmann, E.C. and Lockhart, F.J., 1972. Remember the hyperbola. Chemrech, Oct.: 614-619.
Ikoku, Chi U., 1980. Natural Gar Engineering, A Systems Approach. PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., 788 pp.
Lockhart, F.J. and McHenry, R.J., 1958.Figure flash equilibrium easier, quicker this way. Pet. Refiner,
37 (3): 209-212.
Nelson, W.L., 1958. Petroleum Refinery Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 4th ed., pp.
440-443.
Osborne, A., 1964. How to calculate three-phase flash equilibrium. Chem. Eng., 21: 97-100.
Peng, D. and Robinson, D.R., 1976. Two- and three-phase equilibrium calculations for systems
containing water. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 5412): 595-599.
Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H. (Editors), 1973.Chemical Engineers’ Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y., 5th ed., pp. 2-6.
Sivalls, C.R., 1977. Fundamentals of Oil and Gas Separation. Proc. Gas Conditioning Conf., Univ.
Oklahoma, 17 pp.
Smith, H.V., 1962.Oil and gas separation. In: T.C. Frick (Editor), Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol.
I, Mathematics and Production Equipment, pp. 1-40.
Souders, M. and Brown, G.G., 1934.Design of fractionating columns, I: Entrainment and capacity. Ind
Eng. Chem., 26: 98-103.
Uren, L.C., 1953. Petroleum Production Engineering: Oil Field Exploitation. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y., pp. 558-565.
Whiney, K.F.and Campbell, J.M., 1958.A method of determining optimum second stage pressure in
three stage separation. J. Pet. Tech., lO(4): 53-54.
Wilkins, R.B., 1949. Stage separation of crude oil. Oil Gas J., 48(26): 62.
Worley, M.S. and Laurence, L.L., 1957. Oil and gas separation is a science. J. Per. Tech., 9(4): 11-16.
109
Chapter 4
OIL FIELD EMULSIONS AND THEIR ELECTRICAL

RESOLUTION
L.C. WATERMAN, R.L. PETTEFER and G.V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
In 1850 there was a thriving industry in West Virginia and Pennsylvania based on
the evaporation of natural brines for the production of salt. An occasional trouble-
some contaminant of the brine was crude oil, which would seep from the earth with
the brine or would accompany brine produced from wells. T h s oil was skimmed off
the surface of the brine pools and discarded. The more enterprising of the salt
producers used gas that was produced from brine wells for firing the evaporating
pots. Small bottles of the oil were sold at “medicine shows”. The garish labels bore
the picture of a fierce Indian and attested to the universal curative qualities of the
“rock oil from the bowels of the earth”. Eventually a bottle of the oil was sent to
Yale University for analysis by distillation. Based on this report, a syndicate
promoted an oil well. Drilling of the Drake Well was accomplished by a group of
salt-water well drillers from West Virginia, U.S.A. Thus, from the beginning of the
petroleum industry, salt water and oil have been associated, though the roles of
contaminant and product have been reversed.
Brines reside in crude oil principally because salt water generally underlies the
crude oil in the geological formation from which it is produced. With careful
completion and production methods, it is possible to produce wells initially with no
salt water. As the producing life of a field is extended, however, increasing
proportions of salt water are produced with the oil. Salt water encroachment
normally starts at the edge of the fields and progresses until the production is
predominantly water rather than oil. The oil field waters whch are produced with
crude oils vary widely in composition and the amount of salts, which they carry in
solution, but their salinity is generally greater than that of sea water. Overall, the
total productions of oil and water from oil wells are approximately equal.
Emulsification of the water and oil, by intimate mixing, may occur in the
formations themselves, or in mechanical equipment such as pumps, chokes, gas
separators, and piping. These emulsions may comprise varying proportions of oil
and water, from 0 to loo%, but pipelines will not purchase the oil until its water
content is reduced to the 0.5-2% range, varying with the specifications prevalent for
the geographical area or dictated by the purchaser. These specifications for the
maximum water contents are dictated not by the amounts which the pipeline
operator would prefer to have, i.e., no water at all, but rather by the difficulties of
110
reducing commercially the water contents in specific crude oils to lower values by
even the best dehydration methods.
The emulsified water exists predominantly in the form of dispersed particles
(water-in-oil type of emulsion), which will vary in size from large drops down to
small ones of about 1 pm (0.00004 in.) in diameter. Character of the water and of
the oil (gravity, surface tension, chemical constituents, etc.) and production methods
will determine the size distribution and stability of emulsion particles.
Chlorides, sulfates, and carbonates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium are
generally present in the water in decreasing order. The mineralogy and petrology of
geologic formations (e.g., clayey sands, limestones, and dolomites) from which the
oil is produced and diagenetic and catagenetic processes influence the composition
and concentration of brines. Concentration of salts in the brine varies widely from
field to field.
As the ratio of water to oil increases to predominantly water, there is a tendency
for inverse emulsions (oil-in-water) to be formed, particularly if the pumping
equipment is worn and wire-drawing of the mixture occurs. The O/W emulsions
have the viscosity of water and may be milky or coffee-colored. Indeed, milk is an
oil-in-water emulsion. Particle size is of the order mentioned above. Treatment of
inverse emulsions is done by chemical methods, but prevention of emulsification by
good mechanical maintenance is often helpful. These emulsions may be stabilized
by organic acid salts of monovalent metals.
THEORY OF EMULSIONS
A discussion of the theory of emulsion formation involves a study at molecular

level of the individual groups and their environment. The formation of a drop and
its interface between oil and water requires energy. It is a rule of nature that all
energetic systems tend to seek the lowest level of free energy. Thus, an elevated
object tends to fall, a pressure tends to relieve itself, and a hot object cools to the
temperature of its environment. The energy of drop formation causes the drops to
be spherical, because this shape represents the least area and free energy for a given
volume. Drop formation by agitation is beautifully demonstrated by Dr. Edgerton’s
famous flash photograph “Coronet” of a drop of milk falling into a saucer of milk
(Fig. 4-1). The energy also tends to cause the drops to coalesce and to settle to bulk
water. Impurities in the system, however, will interfere with coalescence and reduce
the free energy.
In the case of a molecule internal to a liquid system, it is attracted equally in all
directions toward all of its neighboring molecules, which is a characteristic of liquids
(see Fig. 4-2). If the liquid is divided in a horizontal plane and separated into two
parts, the molecules at the new surfaces are attracted by equal forces in the
horizontal plane and to the adjoining molecules beneath in the lower portion and,
similarly, upward for the upper section. The separation of the molecules at the plane
of cleavage was accomplished by a force necessary to overcome the intermolecular
111
Fig. 4-1. “Coronet”, formation of drops.
attraction in the vertical direction. The product of the vertical force times the short
distance through which the forces are significant is the work done in forming the
+.-
surfaces. This is the “free energy” of the system. It is proportional to the area of the
surfaces formed. Numerically, the “free energy” per unit area is equal to the
“surface tension”, which is, at least, a convenient mathematical concept. The work
done in increasing a surface area is that which is necessary to move a molecule to
t -0-I
c f
Molecule at the
interlace
Molecule internal to
the liquid
Fig. 4-2. Forces of attraction between molecules.

112
the unbalanced forces at the surface from the interior of the liquid where the forces
are balanced. The foregoing is true whether the material at the new surface is in
contact with a gas, such as air, or another immiscible liquid, as is the case with oil
and water. In the latter case, “interfacial tension” is the expression used. The
surface tension of water at 20°C is 73 dynes/cm, whereas that of most organic
liquids is about 28 dynes/cm. Interfacial tension between crude oil and water varies
from about 20 dynes/cm to 32 dynes/cm. When oil and water are vigorously
mixed, both types of emulsion are formed, but primarily the minor phase tends to
become dispersed. Both types of emulsion tend to resolve and the surviving type
(O/W or W/O) depends largely on the nature of the stabilizer and the phase ratio.
Further reference to “emufsions” in this chapter implies water-in-oil type emulsions,
which is the predominant type in crude oil production.
The formation of an emulsion involves the creation of enormous areas of
interface with attendant free energy that is supplied by agitation in pumps, friction
in lines, or pressure drop through valves. For example, in half a gallon of oil, a 1%
emulsion consists of about one cubic inch of water. If the water is divided into
drops 0.0001 in. in diameter, there will be about 2 trillion of them. The total area of
interface formed would be 400 ft2, almost equal to the surface of two 9 X 12 ft rugs
on both sides. This area can gather a considerable amount of stabilizer or dust. The
free energy tends to subside and will do so in pure systems of distilled water and a
pure hydrocarbon, such as hexane: the drops coalesce to form free water.
In impure systems, however, another form of energy degradation may precede
and prevent coalescence. Polar molecules (i.e., molecules which have external
electrical fields) or groups of molecules in the oil, that are least similar to the most
prevalent oil molecular species, will be subject to somewhat lower intermolecular
forces. Being less attracted to the internal body of the oil and by virtue of its polar
nature, some material will be adsorbed to the oil-water interface, water itself being
highly polar. Such materials include asphalt, asphaltenes, resins, oxygenated sulfur
and nitrogen compounds, porphyrins, waxes, metallo-organic salts, organic acids,
and sediments. Of these, asphaltenes are most prominent. If present, impurities
from the water side may be adsorbed to the interface. Interfacial adsorption of these
surface-active materials results in a reduction of free energy. Such surface-active
materials are called stabilizers or emulsifying agents. Stabilizers constitute the third
essential component of stable emulsions of oil and water. They give rise to a
physical barrier that prevents water drops from getting close enough for the
intermolecular forces (water-to-water attraction) to be of sufficient strength to bring
about coalescence. Stabilization of the interface begins at the instant a drop is
formed. The process is called “aging”. It may proceed rapidly or extend over a
period of days. Emulsion that has been held in storage may have been “aged”,
thereby increasing the dehydration problem. When concentrated, the extraneous
molecules (similar in kind) have a mutual attraction, which results in an elastic,
sometimes tough and viscous, film around the drop. When molecules are present
that are attracted and enveloped by the water on one end and the oil on the other,
such as is the case with the soaps (e.g., calcium naphthenate), the interface becomes
113
indistinct, the free surface energy may become very low, and the emulsion will be
very resistant to treatment.
DEHYDRATION
Dehydration is concerned with reduction, removal, rupture, or counteraction of

the stabilizing films, coalescence of the droplets, and gravitational separation of the
oil and water phases in a relatively brief residence time, e.g., 20 min. According to
Stokes’ law, velocity of settling of a water drop is proportional to the cross-sectional
area, difference between the gravity of oil and that of water, and the viscosity of the
oil. Thus, the most favorable combination for separation exists when the oil has high
API gravity and low viscosity, and water consists of large, unstabilized drops of
salty water.
By good production practice, the encroachment of water may be delayed,
whereas the degree of emulsification may be mitigated by good equipment mainte-
nance. Consequently, to some extent, produced water may be unemulsified (or “free
water”) and will separate rapidly unassisted. Nonetheless, a large proportion of oil
that is produced must be treated.
The means of treatment are: (1) heat, (2) chemical destabilization, (3) electrical
coalescence, and (4) gravitational settling.
Heat
Heat increases the solvency of the bulk oil for the stabilizer and the rate of
diffusion of the stabilizer into the bulk oil; it decreases the viscosity, thickness, and
cohesion of the film. Heat also reduces viscosity of the oil. Heating the oil to
promote dehydration has been used from the earliest days of oil industry. Like
many tools that have served well in terms of effectiveness, however, its use has
decreased in favor of more efficient means or their combinations. Evaporation
losses from heat result not only in a loss of oil volume, but a reduction in price
because of a decrease in the API gravity. Decrease in the API gravity of one degree
corresponds to a volume loss of about 2.5%. In some instances, even a slight loss of
API gravity may lower the price into the next lower bracket. Furthermore, fuel gas,
that was formerly wasted, is now a valuable product. Thus, the penalty for
inefficient heating is multiplied and treatment by heat is fast becoming obsolete or
an accessory to other methods.
The most effective and efficient source of heat is that of the producing formation.
By treating oil on the flowline as close to the well as other considerations permit,
loss of connate heat is avoided. Furthermore, “aging” of the emulsion and emulsifi-
cation by surface equipment is held to a minimum. Such “flowline treatment”,
therefore, is highly desirable. Frequently no additional heat is required for such
treatment and maximum efficiency is gained at minimum cost.
114
Fig. 4-3. Rupture of emulsion film by chemical destabilizer.
Chemical additives
The emulsion can be further modified by addition of chemical destabilizers.

These surface-active agents adsorb to the water-oil interface, rupturing the skin
and/or displacing the stabilizer back into the oil. Figure 4-3 shows the effect of
additions of destabilizer to an oil-water interfacial film. The motivation derives
from a still further lowering of the interfacial tension of the drop. The added
molecules, however, are of such dimension, in such limited concentration, and of
such arrangement at the interface that the film quality and thickness are drastically
changed. Time and turbulence aid diffusion of the treating chemical through the oil
to the interface; therefore, it is usually added to the oil at the wellhead. The
synthetic interfacial material, having caused the natural skin to recede from part or
all of the interface, comprises a thin film susceptible to rupture by the attractive
intermolecular forces of water-to-water at very close distances. Inasmuch as these
forces vary inversely as the seventh power of the distance between molecules, the
remaining problem is bringing the drops into very close contact quickly and without
such severe turbulence that could cause the drops to redisperse.
William S . Barnickel discovered and pioneered the use of treating chemicals
about sixty-eight years ago. Thousands of his “Tret-0-Lite”* demulsifier com-
pounds have been used wherever oil is produced. Selection of a compound is
ordinarily accomplished by actual test on a sample of emulsion. The mechanism of
the chemical process is not explicable by any simple theory.
* Registered Trademark, Petrolite Corporation.

115
( C )
Fig. 4-4. Effect of electric field on water drops in oil.
Electrical treatment
The application of electric field is a powerful tool for causing dispersed drops to
rapidly collide with one another and for overcoming the resistance of stabilizing
films. The collision and coalescence of drops is accomplished by an induced dipole
attraction between them. After coalescence, separation of the phases is due to
gravity.
The interaction of a field and induced dipoles is illustrated in the drawings and
photomicrographs of Fig. 4-4. Figure 4-4.a shows a suspended uncharged particle,
whereas Fig. 4-4.b exhibits the displacement of charges on a single drop (induced
dipole) by an applied field. Full-line drawing in Fig. 4-4.c represents the effect of an
applied field upon adjacent particles separated by a distance equal to a few radii.
The broken-line drawing and photo are explained later.
In Fig. 4-4.b, a single water drop is shown in an alternating electric field. There is
a displacement of electric charges induced on it. The field and the induced charges
shown in this figure reverse 120 times per second, but the relationship holds at any
116
instant. The electrodes establish the electric field to whch the drop is responsive.
The left end is electrically attracted to the left by the field and the right end is
pulled to the right. The drop is an induced dipole. Inasmuch as the forces are equal
and opposite in direction, the drop remains in place and merely elongates. If the
field is disconnected, the drop resumes its spherical shape and there is no residual
change as a result of the electric field application. While the drop is distorted and
under the influence of the field, however, the highly-polar stabilizing film will be
responsive, and coalescence can more readily occur when the drops come in contact.
The attractive coalescing force, F, between the aligned drops of equal size is
equal to:
6KE2a6
F= - (4-1)
d4
where K is the dielectric constant of the oil, E is the potential gradient, a is the
drop radius, and d is the distance between centers. Accordingly, the force increases
very rapidly as drop size increases and as the distance between particles decreases.
Action is almost instantaneous.
There is a limitation of the size to which the drops may coalesce for a given field
strength and a maximum voltage that may be applied to a given system. This is due
to a tendency for electrically charged drops to disperse. The condition necessary for
stability in undisturbed drops is given by the following relationship:
where E, is the critical dispersing gradient at the surface of the drop, C is a

proportionality constant, T is the interfacial tension, and a is the drop radius. For
any effective coalescing gradient in a given system, there is a corresponding
maximum size beyond which drops discharge small droplets. Broken-line drawing
and photo in Fig. 4-4.c show a large drop dispersing toward a smaller stable drop.
Conductance between drops reduces attraction.
Optimum gradients and electrode configuration have been determined by 70
years of worldwide practical application, since Dr. F.G. Cottrell invented electrical
dehydration. The principles have been extended to other applications of which
electrical desalting of crude oil is the most important.
Desalting is the removal of contaminants (salts and sediments) that reside in
crude oil after normal dehydration has reduced the BSW to pipeline specification.
In the process, salt particles in the residual BSW are dissolved and dispersed by
added fresh water (about 5%), after which brine droplets are electrically coalesced
and separated by gravity. The final contaminant content of the crude oil may be a
few parts per million. Though desalting equipment is a normal part of all refineries,
salt specifications are being imposed on oil moved by pipelines and tankers in many
Fig. 4-5. Pictorial assembly of Petreco” electric dehydrator.
‘I
118
parts of the world. “Petreco”* desalters, first used about 1935, have been applied to
streams of a few hundred barrels per day to up to 300,000 bpd (bbl/D) in a single
unit, meeting specifications as low as about one part per million chloride content.
ELECTRIC DEHYDRATORS
Through the years, design of dehydrators has progressed steadily from the early
models treating a few hundred barrels per day and delivering oil with a few per cent
of BSW up to the current dehydrator models delivering from 1000 to 182,000 bbl/D
containing less than 0.5% BSW.
Design features of dehydrators of all sizes are essentially similar. These features
are shown in Fig. 4-5. Size ranges from 6 ft in diameter by 12 ft long to 14 ft in
diameter by 140 ft long. Normally, operating voltages are 480 V at switchboard and
Fig. 4-6. Equipment (10x21 ft Petreco dehydrator: first floor) for handling production at Lake
Maracaibo. Venezuela.

119
16,500 V at electrode. Optionally, both electrodes may be electrified with opposing

polarity, thereby impressing the sum of the two voltages upon the field. All electrical
equipment is enclosed and protected against overload, and meets all safety require-
ments.
Electric power consumption varies according to the conductivity of the crude oil.
Ordinarily, the least conductive crude oils have high API gravity for whxh the load
is about 0.5 kW for each 1000 bbl/D capacity. For heavy crude oils the load may be
2 kW per 1000 bbl/D capacity.
An important feature of the design is to combine the dual function of electrical
coalescence with optimum settling in a single vessel. The internal piping and
electrode arrangement is directed to this end. Residence time of the crude oil in the
dehydrator is about 20 min.
Cost of dehydrators varies inversely with the size and the API gravity of the
crude oil. Large units treating high-API-gravity crude oils are most economical in
cost.
Electrical dehydrators are adaptable to special situations. Figure 4-6 shows an
installation in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. The operation of a large number of wells
is controlled at these “stations”. The electrical dehydrators operate at a well
temperature ( = 130°F), to conform with the restriction that no fire is permitted.
“Tret-0-Lite” demulsifier, in the amount of about 6 ppm is added to the oil prior to
electrical treatment. The 10 x 12 ft “Petreco” dehydrator reduces the water content
of 12,000 bbl of oil per day from 50%to 0.3%.
Fig. 4-7. Typical “Petreco” electric dehydrator.

120
GAS GAS
OUT [RELIEF INLET
FIRE
TUBE
AA
WATER DRAIN WATER DRAIN
OUT OUT
Fig. 4-8. Diagram of “chemelectric” treater.
Fig. 4-9.Facilities for Gulf Coast, U.S.A., offshore production.

121
Figure 4-7 shows a typical 10 X 41 ft “Petreco” dehydrator installed in the Linda

Field, Indonesia. This dehydrator is treating 35,000 bbl of 17” API crude oil per
day.
AUTOMATED DEHYDRATION
The Petreco “chemelectric”* dehydrator is a combination unit for oil-gas sep-

aration, heating, chemical destabilization, and electrical dehydration of oil as it is
produced from the wells. The “chemelectric” dehydrator is ideally adapted for lease
automation and flowline installation. Thus, the oil is treated with a minimum of
handling and “aging”, which is an ideal arrangement.
Aside from the convenience, a substantial saving in investment, piping, real
estate, pumping, heat, chemicals, vapor losses, and labor has resulted from coordi-
nation of the several treating elements to produce the best end result for the least
cost. The combination of treating elements makes it possible to proportion them for
Fig. 4-10. “ Chemelectric” treater for Colombia, South America, production.

122
Fig. 4-11. LACT operation treaters in Oklahoma, U.S.A.
best operation, such as increasing content of chemicals and reducing heat, or to

increase the throughput capacity by adjustment of both. This unit is especially
useful in dehydrating the very stable emulsions produced by secondary recovery
operations, such as flooding by water, steam, or fire. Figure 4-8shows diagrammati-
cally the operation of a “chemelectric” unit.
Figure 4-9 is an aerial view of an automated installation for handling offshore
production, in the Gulf Coast. Oil is received from offshore in the high-pressure gas
separators at lower left. Then it flows through the two “chemelectric” treaters at
right center and, finally, through meters on platform at center to transfer to storage
tank at upper left.
In Fig. 4-10,a 10 x 25 ft “chemelectric” treater is being installed in Colombia,
South America. The unit will degass and dehydrate 10,000 bbl/D of 20” API crude
oil containing up to 20%water and 3 MMscf of gas per day.
Figure 4-11 shows 6 x 15 ft and 10 x 20 f t “chemelectric” treaters installed on a
LACT lease at County Line, Oklahoma.
The highly simplified enclosed electrical gear of the “chemelectric” treater is
presented in Fig. 4-12. The conduit between the 16,500V transformer and the vessel
contains the high-voltage cable.
123
Fig. 4-12. Electrical equipment on “chemelectric” treater.
It must be remembered that the gravity, viscosity, and asphaltic content of the
crude oil together with the gas pressure and the methods of production will
influence both the equipment cost and the cost of operation. The latter may vary
from a few tenths of a cent per barrel to a few cents per barrel.
Whatever the situation, the combination of heat to modify the oil, chemicals to
modify the emulsion, and electricity to consummate the operation will provide
versatility, reliability, and economy.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
(1) Draw a schematic vertical cross section through an electrical dehydrator.

(2) Describe the two steps involved in dehydration by electrical method.
(3) List different types of electric dehydrators.
(4) Illustrate method of arranging electric dehydrator equipment.
124
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The help extended by D.L. Kraft, G.C.Hardwicke, and F.D. Watson is greatly
appreciated by the authors.
REFERENCES
Blair, C.M., 1960.Interfacial films affecting the stability of petroleum emulsions. Chem. Ind., May 14:
538-544.
Greenlee, R.W., 1960. Factors in the Stability of Petroleum Emulsions. Prepr. Pap. Div. Pet. Chem., Am.
Chem. Soc., Sept. 11-16.
Monson, L.T. and Stenzel, R.W., 1946.The technology of resolving emulsions. In: J. Alexander (Editor),
Colloid Chemistty, Vol. VI. Rheinhold, New York, N.Y., pp. 535-552.
Roberts, C.H.M., 1932.A new theory of emulsions. J. Phys. Chem., 36: 3087-3107.
Shea, G.B., 1937. Practices and Methoah of Preventing and Treating Crude Oil Emulsions. Bur. Mines
Bull., 417: 106 pp.
Swigart, T.E., 1961. Histoty of Petroleum Engineering. Am. Pet. Inst., Div. Prod., Dallas, Tex., pp.
925-931.
Waterman, L.C., 1965. Electrical coalescers, theory and practice. Chem. Eng. Progr., 61(10): 51-57.
125
Chapter 5
CHEMICAL RESOLUTION OF PETROLEUM EMULSIONS
DONALD U. BESSLER and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
More than 80% of the crude produced in the world comes to the surface with
various amounts of free and emulsified water. As oil fields grow older and are
subjected to secondary recovery waterflooding, the amount of water increases. Older
oil fields that have been waterflooded for many years may have 95-98% water
produced along with the crude oil.
Petroleum emulsions of the oil-in-water and water-in-oil type plus any free water
present cause serious problems to the producer, transporter, and refiner of petro-
leum. Reduced transportation costs, increased throughput of pipelines, and reduc-
tion in corrosion, scale formation, and bacterial growth can be achieved by
removing the water in the field. With the increasing government regulations on
effluent water and the cost of crude oil, the use of oil-in-water demulsifiers and
water clarification equipment has become an important aspect of the processing of
crude oil in the field.
Chemical resolution of petroleum emulsions of both types is an established
routine procedure in the production and handling of crude oil throughout the world.
It is effective, easily practiced, and inexpensive, when used with settling tanks,
heater treaters, and chemelectric treaters.
NATURE OF EMULSIONS
Definition of emulsions
An emulsion can be defined as a mixture of two mutually immiscible liquids, one

of which is dispersed as droplets in the other and is stabilized by an emulsifying
agent. The dispersed droplets are known as the internal phase. The liquid surround-
ing the dispersed droplets is the external or continuous phase. The emulsifying agent
separates the dispersed droplets from the continuous phase.
In the oil field, oil and water are encountered as the two phases. They generally
form a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion, although as the water cut increases and
secondary recovery methods are employed, the “reverse” or oil-in-water (O/W)
emulsions are increasing.
126
Basically, there are three components in a water-in-oil emulsion:

(a) Water-the dispersed or internal phase.
(b) Oil- the continuous or external phase.
(c) Emulsifying agent-stabilizes the dispersion.
Besides these three components, certain conditions must also be met before an
emulsion could form. Two conditions necessary to form a stable emulsion are:
(a) The two liquids must be immiscible.
(b) There must be sufficient agitation to disperse the water as droplets in the oil.
Pure water and oil which contains no emulsifying agents will never form an
emulsion no matter how much agitation is applied. Inasmuch as these two liquids
“dislike” each other intensely, if confined in the same container, they will quickly
find a state of existence which gives the least contact or the smallest surface area. A
drop of water in a body of oil will take the shape which gives the least surface area,
i.e., that of a sphere.
Role of the emulsifier
Emulsifiers are surface-active materials found in crude oil or added as in the case
of sulfonate floods. The inclusion of solids tends to stabilize these emulsions to an
even greater degree. These include asphaltenes (a general term applied to a large
variety of chemical compositions containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen), resins,
creosols, phenols, organic acids, metallic salts, silts, clays, and many others. The
emulsifier either tends towards insolubility in either liquid phase or has an attrac-
tion for both phases, but always concentrates at the interface. The molecules of
emulsifier are mutually repulsed.
The three principal actions of the emulsifier are: (1) reducing surface tension, (2)
forming a physical barrier, and (3) suspending water droplets.
Stability of emulsions
The stability of emulsions is dependent on the various factors described below:

(1) Drop size. The size of the dispersed water drops is a measure of stability. The
type and severity of agitation generally deter*nes the drop size. The more shearing
action that is applied to the oil-water mixture, the more the water will be divided
into smaller drops and the more stable the emulsion becomes. Stable emulsions have
been found to contain all sizes of droplets, but the percentage of larger droplets is
very small. (See Figs. 5-1 and 5-2.)
( 2 ) Type of emulsifier. The type of emulsifying agent will drastically affect the
stability of an emulsion. There is a considerable difference in the power of different
agents. Their activity is generally related to two general functions- speed of
migration to the interface, and performance at that site. When the water and oil first
mix, the emulsifying agent may be evenly distributed throughout the oil. At this
time, the emulsion may be relatively unstable. With time, the agent migrates to the
oil-water interface due to its surface-active characteristics. This migration, with
127
time, produces a thicker and tougher film surrounding the droplet, resulting in an
emulsion that is more difficult to break than the fresh one.
( 3 ) Water content. The amount of water present in the regular emulsion and
available at the time agitation takes place is directly related to the emulsion’s
stability. Generally, as the water content increases, the stability of the emulsion
decreases. Water content above 50% tends to encourage the formation of water as
an external phase; thus, on dilution with water, the emulsion may invert and the
water then becomes the continuous phase.
(4) Viscosity. The viscosity of the external or oil phase plays a dual role. In an oil
having a high viscosity (high resistance to flow), a given amount of agitation will not
break up the water phase into droplets as numerous or fine as would be the case
with a lower-viscosity oil. On the other hand, the high-viscosity oil is able to
maintain larger drops of dispersed water in suspension and smaller dispersed
droplets will have an even greater resistance to settling. Thicker crudes also retard
the movement of emulsifier particles to the interface. In general, it can be said that
higher-viscosity (lower-API gravity) crudes form less stable emulsions in terms of
many small water drops, but this is more than offset by the difficulty of resolving
what is formed and promoting water separation.
(5) Solids. Emulsions can be stabilized by the presence of solids. Many of the
same assumptions discussed for the emulsifying agent will apply. In the case of
solids, the size of the water droplet will depend on the emulsifying solid.
( 6 ) Efectrical charge. The existence of electrical charges on the water globules can
cause the globules to be mutually repelling. At the time the globules are dispersed in
the continuous phase, they acquire an electrical charge which is located at the
interfacial boundary of the oil and water. The droplets of the dispersed phase are
surrounded by a film which possesses a charge, usually negative, the effect of which
extends outward into both phases. The repelling action of like charges prevents the
droplets from approaching each other close enough to allow coalescence.
(7) Surface tension. Surface tension of an emulsion system refers to the surface
tension of the continuous phase-dispersed phase boundary surface and is called
interfacial tension. The absorption of substances (emulsifying agents) at this
boundary surface is important in changing the surface tension between the two
phases. Emulsification is brought about by the emulsifying agents, which lower the
interfacial tension between the two phases, so that they will remain dispersed. When
the concentration of absorbed materials is sufficiently high, it may lead to the
formation of a tough membrane, which increases the emulsion stability. At the
interface and between the phases of an emulsion, therefore, two forces are at work:
(a) Interfacial tension, which tends to cause coalescence or dispersion; and
(b) coherence of the film of emulsion of emulsifying agent around the dispersed
phase, which tends to resist coalescence.
If the coherence of an agent is so great that the surface tension cannot overcome
it, the emulsion is stable.
(8) Film strength. The presence of some foreign materials in an emulsion
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Fig. 5-1. Tight emulsion with small dispersed droplets which have considerable resistance to settling (a
tight emulsion is usually a stable emulsion).
Fig. 5-2. Loose emulsion with larger dispersed droplets (a loose emulsion is less stable than tight
emulsion because the large dispersed droplets tend to settle easily).
increases the strength of the film surrounding a drop of water. The smaller droplets
are harder to rupture than the larger ones. The film strength of a drop of water,
therefore, varies not only with drop size, but with impurities. To break the film, it is
necessary to introduce chemical action and/or to apply heat to rupture this film.
(9) Density. Another factor that affects emulsion stability and settling time is the
relative density of the oil and water. As this difference becomes greater, the action
between droplets is increased and more rapid settling is promoted.
(10) Aging. As discussed earlier, the naturally occurring emulsifiers in crude oil
are initially dispersed throughout the oil, and after mixing with water, tend to go to
the interface. It is this action that causes crudes to “age” and become more difficult
to treat with time. Inasmuch as the lower-API gravity crudes are thicker, this action
is slower as is the aging process. Normally, the higher the API gravity, the more
rapid the aging process.
CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION
Crude oils differ in characteristics according to their geological age, chemical

constitution, and associated impurities. Consequently, crude oil emulsions are
stabilized by a variety of materials, depending upon the origin of the crude. It is not
necessary to determine the exact character of the emulsifying agent to resolve the
emulsion by the use of chemical demulsifiers.
The waters associated with crude oils likewise vary widely in characteristics.
Some have densities greater than 1.20, whereas others are essentially non-saline.
129
Fig. 5-3. Treating plant with gas separator, gun barrel, and stock tanks.
Ions present usually include Na+, Ca2+, Mg”, C1-, HCO; , SO:-, and sometimes
Ba2+.
Oil-bearing formations commonly contain in addition to petroleum, varying
proportions of water and natural gas. Inasmuch as crude oil usually contains
sufficient emulsifying agents to stabilize an emulsion, it is only necessary that the
well produces some water as well as oil and that sufficient agitation be available to
accomplish the required mixing. The agitation arising from the turbulent flow of the
oil and the water through the well casing, tubing, and surface equipment is usually
sufficient to give rise to emulsification.
Gas v e n t
Fro w line
LHeofer fue/line
Chemicol Gas Heater Conductor Settling Storoge tank

feeder +ank
Fig. 5-4. Diagram of typical flowline treatment system. Many variations of this basic design are possible;
all elements shown here may not be required in all installations. Heavy line shows flow of chemicalized
liquids. (Courtesy of Dr. Louis T. Monson.)
130
The pipeline and other transportation companies, as common carriers, have

long-established specifications for crude oil which preclude the introduction into
their lines or systems of any lot of oil that contains more than a predetermined
(small) maximum percentage of water and emulsion. The permissible maximum is
determined in part by the ease or difficulty with which the emulsions can be
commercially resolved, but in general it is less than 3% and in most cases it is less
than 1%. High-API gravity crudes often have a 0.1 or 0.2% maximum allowable
water content. Consequently, crude oil is required to be “treated”, usually at or near
the point of production, to resolve any emulsion present and to remove the water
which is separated in the process. (See Figs. 5-3 and 5-4.)
A diagram of a typical flowline treatment system is shown in Fig. 5-4.
REDUCED-TEMPERATURE TREATING
In the past, the energy required to heat crude oil was supplied by products
produced on the lease or of such a low cost that no significant importance was given
to them by many companies. There was also an abundance of crude and the losses
incurred were not considered significant. Reducing the heat required is not novel
and this has been done for many years. The increased cost of fuel, crude oil prices,
and economics of operation have renewed interest in treating the crude oil in the
field at lower temperatures. The amount of heat required to treat a given crude will
depend on gravity, viscosity, pour point, equipment, time, and chemical used.
Heating of crude oil influences the treating process in several ways:
(1) It makes the oil thinner and, therefore, water droplets are able to fall faster.
(2) It increases the difference in the specific weight between water and oil,
causing the water droplets to fall faster.
(3) It melts and solubilizes solids such as paraffin, which may be acting to
stabilize the emulsion, thereby removing them from the interface.
(4) It improves the mobility of demulsifier and water droplets, thus improving
the rate of emulsion breaking.
From this it can be seen that if the treating temperature is reduced, it may be
necessary to increase the time, agitation, and/or chemical concentration.
The use of heat in treating contributes several advantages but at a loss of profits
due to unnecessary costs. Those costs are reflected in: (1) the amount of fuel used
for heating, (2) lower volume of produced oil, (3) lower gravity of produced oil, and
(4) equipment failure.
In the past, fuel for heating was provided by the produced gas, with little or no
value being placed on it. Today, with a market for everything produced, the heater
fuel has a definite value. For example, with certain assumptions listed below, this
value can be calculated.
Assumptions:
Fuel gas value = $2.00/Mcf
150 Btu/bbl oil/OF
131
300 Btu/bbl water/"F

30% water-cut emulsion
50% heating efficiency
1100 Btu gas
60°F temperature rise
Then the cost of fuel gas would be $6.08 per 100 bbl of treated oil. As oil is
heated, vapor pressure increases and light ends evaporate, thus reducing volume and
API gravity. The percentage loss is quite variable and subject to such influences as
crude gravity and composition, temperature change, treater pressure, heat exchange
efficiency, time, and other factors. Field evaluation of three leases producing
broadly differing gravity crudes showed the following: With 60°F temperature rise
and 25 psig treater pressure, volume of saleable oil was reduced by an average of
2.9%. At a value of $31.00/bbl, this results in a loss of $89.90/100 bbl. At
$2.00/Mcf, the value of the increased gas produced at the higher temperature
averaged $8.71/100 bbl. This yields a net loss of $81.19/100 bbl as a result of
volume loss at the hgher temperature.
Loss of light ends results in a decrease in gravity. Inasmuch as much crude is sold
on a sliding scale with the posted price decreasing as the gravity decreases, the profit
loss may be appreciable. A 2.9% volume loss on a 30" API crude oil exhibits a
gravity loss of 1.3" API. At a $0.02 penalty per 1.0" API gravity drop, this amounts
to a profit loss of $2.60/100 bbl.
Increased heat results in increased scaling and more frequent burnout of fire
tubes. While this constitutes a definite operating expense or potential profit loss, it
will fluctuate so broadly that no attempt will be made here to affix a dollar value.
Costs attributable to heat in the above examples total $89.87/100 bbl plus
equipment maintenance costs.
Experience shows that with most oilfield emulsions, some if not all of the added
heat can be replaced by a chemical. The increase in the amount of chemical
necessary to add will fluctuate considerably depending on the crude oil and the
temperature range involved. Relating to the previously used example, a 60" heat
reduction from 140°F to 80°F required three times as much chemical, which was an
increase from two quarts per 100 bbl at 140°F to six quarts per 100 bbl at 80"F, or
an increase of 1.0 gal. At a typical cost of $8.00/gal for chemical, the increased cost
would be $8.00/100 bbl. Compared to the previously calculated heat cost of $89.87,
the net saving by reducing heat would be $81.87/100 bbl.
Reducing heat can be a good way to sell more oil and increase profits. As a
practical approach to reducing heat, it is recommended that this be done 20°F at a
time. This allows for adjustments as needed to prevent possible accumulations of
"bad" oil.
CHEMICAL RESOLUTION PROCESS
The problem of resolving water-in-oil emulsions has been approached in a

number of ways over the years. Today, however, the chemical demulsification
132
process is by far the most widely used in the oil industry. It was pioneered by
William S. Barnickel, a pharmaceutical chemist from St. Louis, Minnesota (U.S.A.),
who discovered that mixing a minute proportion of a properly selected chemical
composition with a petroleum emulsion, under suitable operating conditions, would
cause the water to separate.
The scientific basis for the resolution phenomenon is not yet well defined. This is
not totally unexpected, if one recalls all the possible combinations arising from the
variations in crude oil composition, aqueous phase composition, phase/volume
ratio of the two liquids in any emulsion, and the occasional presence of such other
materials as fine silt and various formation particles. It can easily be shown that
tens of thousands of different emulsion systems could be produced from crude oils
and oil field waters.
Some chemical demulsifiers, such as the early soap reagents, are water-soluble or
water-dispersible, whereas others are oil-soluble or oil-dispersible. Some chemicals
are both water- and oil-dispersible, whereas others are apparently not soluble or
dispersible in any appreciable concentration in either the aqueous or oily media.
They may be anionic, cationic, or nonionic depending on the type of emulsion to be
resolved. Inorganic reagents are rarely used today in W/O “regular” emulsions, but
are still commonly used in O/W “reverse” emulsions.
Before one can determine which class of reagent is most effective in a particular
application, the formation from which the emulsion was produced, conditions of
production, and many other facts must be known. As a consequence, reagent
selection is ordinarily accomplished by actual demulsification tests on a representa-
tive sample of the emulsion.
Because of the variability of petroleum emulsions, the manufacturers supplying
reagents for their resolution commonly make many different commercial formula-
tions, a number of which may be in use in a single oil field at any one time.
Obsolescence rates are high and a reagent of one type may be succeeded by another
having entirely different composition and properties, at a particular location.
All these facts have not simplified the problem of evolving a theory which will
satisfactorily explain observed field results. The highly specific nature of the
chemical reagents used today to resolve petroleum emulsions suggests that the
mechanism of the resolution process is quite complex, and that it cannot be
explained by any simple theory.
Action of demulsifiers
Strangely enough, demulsifiers are very similar in nature to emulsifiers. The

action is all at the oil-water interface and, therefore, the faster the demulsifier gets
there, the better job it can do. After it reaches the interface, it works by flocculation,
coalescence, and solids wetting, as described below. For oil-in-water emulsions, the
actions of oil-in-water demulsifiers are very similar.
(1) Flocculation. The first action of the demulsifier on the emulsion involves a
joining together or flocculation of the small water drops. When magnified, the
133
flocks take on the appearance of bunches of fish eggs. If the emulsifier film
surrounding the water drop is very weak, it will break under this flocculation force
and coalescence will take place without further chemical action. In most cases,
however, the film remains intact and, therefore, additional treatment is required.
Good flocculation is characterized by bright oil.
(2) Coalescence. The rupturing of the emulsifier film and the uniting of water
droplets is defined as coalescence. Once this process of coalescence begins, the water
droplets grow large enough to settle out. Good coalescence is characterized by a
good water drop.
(3) Solids wetting. In most crude oils, solids such as iron sulfide, silt, clay,
drilling mud solids, paraffin, etc., complicate the demulsification process. Often
such solids are the primary stabilizing material and their removal is all that is
necessary to acheve satisfactory treatment. For removal from the interface, these
solids can be dispersed in the oil or water-wetted and removed with the water.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
Chemical injection
The purpose of the chemical injection is to introduce a chemical into the

wellstream so that it will neutralize the foreign materials acting as emulsifying
agents and permit the separation of water.
In order to get the most out of chemical injections, the actual location of the
injection point must be properly chosen. It should be located at a point far enough
upstream from the treating equipment to allow adequate mixing. A good point is at
the wellhead (Fig. 5-5) or the location of some other restriction such as a choke or
header. There should be sufficient turbulence, mixing, and time for the chemical to
exert its influence on the emulsion before entering any other equipment.
To effectively use the large number of different demulsifier formulations requires
a proficient method for selecting the proper compound for a given emulsion and
system.
Agitation
Sufficient agitation must be applied to the crude oil after the introduction of
chemical. Additional hard agitation may or may not be beneficial. Increase in the
amount of gentle agitation, such as in flow lines and settling tanks, is beneficial in
promoting coalescence. Reemulsification may occur if severe agitation is given to an
emulsion once it has broken into water and oil. This reemulsification may occur in
gas separators, pumps, or any other location in the system that produces severe
agitation once the emulsion has broken.
134
Heating
Many plants use heat in the treating process because it provides an aid to mixing,
coalescing, and settling. Heat aids the treatment in the following three ways: (1)
reduces the viscosity of the oil; (2) weakens or ruptures the film between the oil and
water drops by expanding the water; and (3) alters the difference in gravity of the
fluids and thereby tends to reduce the settling time.
In effect, heat accelerates the treating process and is used primarily to reduce the
size of the treating vessel. It must be remembered, however, that heat vaporizes the
light ends of the oil. Unless some means is taken to conserve these, a reduction in
API gravity and volume will result and it may be more beneficial to treat the crude
oil at lower temperatures.
Settling
Settling is the basic component in all treating procedures. All operations involv-
ing the use of heat, chemicals, or mechanical devices are designed to prepare the
oil-water mixture for the settling step in the chemelectric heater treater or settling
tank.
The treating vessel usually provides sufficient time for quiet settling to allow all
the water to settle. Time necessary to allow the water to settle is determined by the
difference in specific gravity between the water and oil, viscosity of the oil, and by
the size and condition of the water drops. While gentle movement will aid in
coalescence, more severe turbulence in the settling section will increase the settling
time.
Mechanical systems
Free water knockout

Many of the free water knockout systems used in the field have been designed for
specific applications. In general, free water knockouts have been used to separate
the oil and water produced from a single well or several wells. Larger units can also
be found where all the wells go into a free wqter knockout after the manifold. In
either case, their function is to remove the excessive volumes of free water ahead of
the treating plant. Free water knockout systems are generally used in connection
with production having a high water/oil ratio. Separation of gas may also occur in
the upper section of the knockout system.
Free water is defined as water produced with the oil that will settle out within
five minutes while the well fluids are stationary in a settling space within a vessel.
Specific application of a free water knockout system and requirements it is
expected to fulfill may vary and will have to be determined for each location. In
some areas, the amount of BSW leaving the knockout system is unimportant as long
as the treating plant is operating effectively. Other fields may have requirements of
20%or even as low as pipeline oil. Chemical injection may be applied before, after,
135
or both ahead and behind of the free water knockout system. Generally, it is ahead
of the knockout system in order to assist in the removal of the water.
Gas separator
Horizontal and vertical gas separators provide tremendous agitation potential.
The evolution of the gas in itself creates the turbulence and agitation which may be
even greater, depending upon the separator design. Without the efficient removal of
gas in these vessels, unwanted agitation will, at times, be created in downstream
treating vessels. The use of chemicals, such as silicones, will greatly aid in the
removal of gas.
Settling tanks
The rate of water drop is not too important because the chemical may continue
acting over a relatively long time. The water-oil interface will be at the bottom of
the settling tank and will not interfere with the saleability of the oil. (See Fig. 5-6.)
Gun barrels
Speed of water drop is generally not too important because gun barrels usually
have a high volume to throughput ratio. The chemical may continue acting over a
relatively long time. The interface need not be clean, but if an interface layer does
develop, it must stabilize at some acceptable thickness. An interface layer in a gun
barrel sometimes helps to treat in that it acts as a filter for solids and unresolved
Fig. 5-5. Flowing well with wellhead connections, which are referred to as a “Christmas tree”.
136
emulsion. Fresh oil containing demulsifier passing up through this interface layer
helps treat it out and prevents an excessive buildup.
Vertical heater treater

Inasmuch as volume to throughput ratio in a vertical heater treater is generally
lower than in a gun barrel, speed of chemical action becomes more important. With
this higher throughput, it is harder to stabilize an interface layer, so more complete
treatment is necessary in a shorter time. Solids control may be important in
controlling the interface.
Horizontal heater treater

Horizontal heater treaters normally have a high throughput, so chemical action
must be fast. The large interface area and shallow fluid depth require that the
interface be maintained fairly clean. This type of treater can tolerate only very little
interface accumulation. The higher the throughput, the less this can be tolerated
and, therefore, the more complete the chemical treatment must be. Inasmuch as
solids tend to collect at the interface, the chemical must also control any solids
which might be present.
Electrical dehydration
Inasmuch as chemelectric treaters are horizontal vessels, the same general actions
are required for them as for horizontal treaters. The chemical must break the
emulsion rapidly and completely. The electric field promotes excellent water coales-
cence, so the chemical need not provide this. The electric field tends to throw down
solids in the oil. These solids then accumulate at the interface, build up into the
electrical field, and being conductive, short it out. Chemelectric treaters, therefore,
require a chemical to effectively water wet any solids which are present.
RESOLUTION OF OIL-IN-WATER EMULSIONS
Oil-in-water emulsions, although not so commonly or widely encountered in

oil-producing operations as the water-in-oil type, are receiving increasing attention,
particularly because of the growing interest of governmental authorities in pollution
prevention. Although such emulsions commonly contain less than 1% oil and
frequently contain less than 1000 ppm of oil, they are unacceptable to disposal
systems at such levels. Maximum permissible oil content is usually on the order of
25 ppm or even less. The oil producer must, therefore, be prepared to clean his
waste water of oil before disposing of it. Thus, it behooves him to become familiar
with the characteristics of oil-in-water emulsions.
Oil-in-water emulsions are readily miscible with water. They are thereby dis-
tinguishable from the more common water-in-oil type crude oil emulsions, which are
miscible with oil. The O/W emulsions are usually more fluid than W/O emulsions.
137
Chemical demulsifiers have been developed which are extremely effective in

recovering the oil dispersed in such emulsions. This is accomplished without the
production of undesirable residues or flocs, which would themselves present dis-
posal problems. Oil-in-water demulsifiers, which ordinarily have different composi-
tions than water-in-oil demulsifiers, are usually effective in proportions much
smaller than those required to resolve conventional water-in-oil type petroleum
emulsions. This reduces the cost of resolving oil-in-water emulsions and allows the
producer to sell the recovered oil.
For optimum results, the ratio of demulsifier to water-in-oil emulsion may be of
the order of 1: 10,000-1 : 50,000, whereas the ratio of demulsifier to an oil-in-water
emulsion is more likely to be of the order of 1:40,000-1 : 200,000.
The procedure for demulsifying oil-in-water emulsions is substantially similar to
that described for water-in-oil emulsions: (1) The demulsifier is added to the
emulsion in the required proportion; (2) the chemicalized emulsion is agitated to
promote coalescence of the oil particles; and (3) quiescent settling is thereafter
provided in a suitable facility to achieve separation of the oil and water, which may
be aided by air-gas flotation. Froth flotation procedures may be helpful in
accelerating separation of the oil particles.
It is important to note that, in contrast to the experience with water-in-oil
emulsions, use of an excess of oil-in-water demulsifier is sometimes very disadvanta-
geous. An appreciable excess of reagent may produce an oil-in-water emulsion
which is at least as stable and undesirable as the emulsion originally subjected to
treatment. Ordinarily, however, an acceptably wide range of reagent concentrations
will be found to produce satisfactory resolution of the emulsion, before “overtreat-
ment” becomes apparent.
Heat is rarely useful in resolving oil-in-water emulsions chemically.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
When chemical, agitation, heat, time, and, in some cases, electricity are used to
produce good treatment, they are in balance with each other. If one of these
variables is changed, therefore, another one must normally be changed in order to
regain the most economical balance. For example, as treating temperatures are
reduced, it is usually necessary to increase the amount of chemical or time. Often
treating problems which develop are a result of some malfunction in the mechanical
system.
Chemical injection
If a system is not functioning properly, the first thing that must be done is to
check to make sure that the correct amount of chemical is getting into the system.
Even though a chemical injector is running properly, it may not be injecting
properly. Filter screens can become plugged, pumps can become gas locked, balls
and seats may be worn, and check valves may be leaking.
138
Check the location of the chemical pump. Chemical should be injected at a

mixing point and relocation of the pump may solve the problem.
Changing conditions of the wellstream may necessitate a change in the chemical
used. Before bottle testing is done, however, the various problems possible in the
system should be checked.
Gas separators
Gas separators can be plagued by solids buildup, especially if the solids content
is high. This may be particularly true if the demulsifier is injected prior to the
separator, resulting in release of solids from the emulsion. A suitable demulsifier
will break the foam and release the gas, but if excessive foam is the problem and the
chemical does not readily break the emulsion and release the gas at this point, it is
possible for foam to build up and carry emulsion out the gas outlet. Ineffective gas
removal in the separator can cause some rolling of fluids in vessels at atmospheric
pressure or in pressure vessels where operating pressures are exceeded.
Injection of 1-5 ppm of a silicone prior to the gas separator (Fig. 5-7) may be
beneficial to proper separator performance. Unless the silicone is an emulsion type,
normally a 2%solution is made in diesel or other solvent and then injected into the
well fluids.
Fig. 5-6. Beam pumping unit with settling tanks at ambient temperature.
139
Fig. 5-7. Flowline header with chemical injection and vertical gas separator.
Free water knockout
If the demulsifier is sensitive to excessive agitation, it may not have sufficient

quiet time to release the water. When the water leg carries free oil, it may be caused
by the demulsifier either being too slow or developing a poor interface.
An associated problem concerning a water-dump valve is a vortex reaching up
into the interface, causing an oily effluent water even if the interface is clear. This
can be eliminated by the installation of a vortex breaker, installed over the interior
of the outlet.
Poorly operating interface level controllers can upset the interface level and cause
a loss of water resulting in oil being dumped out. There is also a problem of
improperly positioned inlet splash baffles within the vessel and this can cause
problems regardless of the chemical. A lack of quiet time caused by an increase in
production can also cause excessive water carry-over with the oil.
Flow splitters
When flow splitters are provided with coalescing and knockout sections, exces-
sive agitation can be detrimental, resulting in water carry-over. Corrosion of the
weir boxes will also result in excessive water carry-over.
Any part of the system where a pressure drop across a water outlet line occurs is
susceptible to scaling, depending on the mineral content of the water. Such scaling
can cause the control valve to either block open or shut.
140
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are often the culprit in faulty treating systems. Holes between
the incoming wet stream and outgoing dry stream permit commingling of the two
and, regardless of what is tried, oil going to stock will be dirty. Injecting water-solu-
ble dye into the incoming stream will result in the rapid appearance of dye in the
clean oil line if there is communication.
Another method is to get a sample of oil from the top sight glass of the vessel and
compare its grindout to a sample obtained from the dump valve. Should the oil
from the sight glass be cleaner, it is quite possible that there is a hole in the heat
exchanger.
The same result would show up if there were a leak in the top plate of the treater
which separates the gas section, or a hole in the upper part of the incoming line.
Gun barrels
Leaks in internal conductors can contaminate the treated oil, whereas external
conductors will not present this problem. Spreader variations can also cause
problems. A cone-type spreader,,similar to an inverted funnel, causes very irregular
spreading and may not provide a suitable coalescing water wash. Improper distribu-
tion can also cause turbulence and rolling. Almost all gun barrels are at atmospheric
pressure, which can supplement the effects of rolling. Heating elements, if placed in
the water, will provide satisfactory heating action. If by chance the heating elements
are also in the oil phase, convection currents or rolling will prevent treatment and
result in unsaleable oil. Corroded steam coils can cause turbulence and steam
cutting of the oil.
Heater treaters
If the desired treating temperature cannot be maintained:

(1) Check the thermometers and thermostat. Make sure of the proper combus-
tion mixture.
(2) When the treater is constantly firing, determine the amount of oil-water
throughput and the fire box rating. Normally, 150 Btu’s are required for raising 1
bbl of oil 1°F and 300 Btu’s are required if it is water. By calculation it can be
determined if the heater treater is overloaded.
(3) If the treater is overloaded due to an excessive amount of water, the use of a
free water knockout and/or demulsifier that exhibits a faster water drop may allow
the treater to operate properly.
(4) If the treater is not overloaded, an inspection for fouling of the fire tube and
sand on the bottom of the treater is required.
If the pilot light will not stay lit:
(1) Check to insure the pilot gas is dry.
(2) Check the air-gas mixture for a blue flame.
141
If the interface is continually increasing in height:

(1) Check for proper operation of the water discharge valve.
(2) Check the lines and valves for salt or scale deposits.
(3) Check bottom of treater for a blockage that will reduce the flow of water.
If the interface is decreasing in height:
(1) If the oil level is above the oil outlet, check for a loss of pressure on the
treater and restrictions in the oil discharge line.
(2) If the oil level is below the outlet, check the temperature and chemical
injection.
Other possible problems that will cause improper treatment are:
(1) Foaming of the oil caused by the release of entrapped gas. This can be
corrected by preheating the oil or the use of silicones.
(2) Channeling in the filter section which will require repacking.
(3) Unlevel or corroded spreader plates.
(4) Solids or scale buildup within the treater.
( 5 ) Holes in internal piping.
When everything else has been checked and stable levels are being maintained,
but treating is still not adequate:
(1) Check for foaming oil being carried out the vent line. This will usually
indicate that emulsion in the foam is bypassing the settling section through the
equalizer line directly to the top of the oil in the settling section. This may require a
preheated coil. Severe foaming may be noticed in oil carryover in the vent line even
before poor treatment is indicated.
(2) Check filter section for channeling. Repacking may be necessary.
(3) A buildup of solids or scale may drastically reduce the residence time in the
treater. Solids buildup can usually be detected by feeling the difference in skin
temperature around the bottom. Inasmuch as solids do not transmit heat to the skin
of the vessels as readily as liquids, if cool spots are observed, a buildup is indicated.
Solids buildup may also cause channeling from under the spreader plates. Unlevel
or eaten-out spreader plates will also cause channeling.
(4) Make sure the thermometers are not faulty and that the sight glasses are not
plugged up. Either of these could lead to faulty judgements.
Chemelectric treater
Problems in a chemelectric treater are usually indicated by low voltage or the

pilot light blinking, dimming,. or going out. This is a signal transmitted from the
electrode section, which is caused by the charged (lower) electrode shorting to
ground.
The upper electrode is grounded to the vessel and any conductive material
between the electrodes can cause a short circuit. The charged electrode can also
short to the vessel or to the oil-water interface. Any accumulation of water, BSW,
iron sulfides, or similar material can result in a short circuit. The most common
cause of shorting is an interface buildup.
142
The electrical supply to the treater should be checked and examined for blown
fuses, burned out light bulbs, or tripped switch gears. If electricity is the source of
trouble and a shorting situation is indicated, the water level should be lowered
gradually. If the condition was caused by an interface buildup, then lowering the
water level would lower the interface and treater conditions should return to
normal, i.e., voltage will increase, amperage will decrease, and the light will become
bright and steady. Increasing temperature or slugging the system with a proper
chemical should clear up the buildup in the treater, but more than likely, some basic
change in treating will be required to prevent frequent recurrence of this situation.
If this procedure does not disclose the source of the trouble, further investigation
will involve closer inspection of the transformer and testing of electrical circuit to
pinpoint shorting conditions caused at entrance bushings, electrode, the insulated
hangers, or the safety float switch.
Produced fluids
Significant changes in emulsion characteristics occur rather infrequently and then

usually slowly over a long period of time. Slow changes in treating, however, may
also be the result of some slowly developing problem downhole or in the treating
plant. Rapid changes in the emulsion may occur following the introduction of a new
well, well workover, etc. Such changes may be temporary or permanent. Occasion-
ally, an acid job may leave a quantity of acid trapped in the formation. ,Such
trapped materials may break out weeks or even months later and cause temporary
treating upsets.
Frequently, a well will start cutting a tighter emulsion because of pump wear and
may require additional chemical. A change in the water/oil ratio may also change
the required quantity of demulsifier.
WASTE OIL TREATING SYSTEMS
There are no universal waste or slop oil treating plants, because there are no
universal slop oils or volumes of waste oil processed. The following comments,
suggestions and diagram (Fig. 5-8) are designed to aid in the selection or modifi-
cation of a waste oil treatment plant.
Treatment tanks
The size of the tank will depend on the volume of waste oil to be processed and
the time required for complete treatment. A good starting point is to allow 24 hr for
each batch treated. There should be sample valves at regular intervals on the side of
the tank in order to check the treatment. Most tanks have these sample cocks at 2-ft
intervals.
143
n
' 1#1oBBL
O0 -M
1
con
oo
'INSULAN
WASTL
oa
ACCOMULAT"
CHEMICAL
TREATMENT
Fig. 5-8. Waste oil treating facility.
If heat is to be used, the tank should be insulated. This will result in more rapid
heating, less heat loss; and more economical fuel costs.
When solids are present, there should be some method for removing them from
the tank. Solids should not be allowed to build up in the bottom of a tank, because
they will only make the next batch of waste oil harder to treat.
Cone-bottom tanks are highly recommended and preferred in handling solids-
laden waste oil. One common cone-bottom tank used in slop oil treatment has a
1000-bbl capacity., If a cone-bottom tank is not used, some method should be
provided for removing the solids from the bottom of the tank.
A swingline to remove the oil from the top can be used, if the separated
oil-solids-water are sensitive to agitation or if the interface easily redisperses into
the clean treated oil.
Heating
Heat aids demulsification and reduces the amount of processing time that is
requiied. The most desirable and safest method is to install steam coils from the
bottom to the middle of the tank. A steam generator or source of steam that is
capable of heating the oil to the desired temperature in 4-6 hr should be provided.
Heat lances, heat exchangers, gas-fired U-tubes, or circulation through an external
heater could also be used, but they are less desirable.
144
Even if the planned treatment temperature is 120-140°F, the system should be

designed so that temperatures of 180-190°F can be achieved should they ever
become necessary. A well-insulated tank will hold temperatures for a long time and
will require less heat input.
Agitation
No matter how good the chemical is, it would not work if it does not make
contact with the emulsion. Tanks can be mixed using air, steam, recirculation, or
commercial tank mixers. The effectiveness of these various methods depends on
tank size and temperature. Generally, more mixing gives better results.
The preferred method when installing new tanks or modifying older tanks is the
use of commercial tank mixers. The number of mixers required depends on the size
of the tank. Suppliers of commercial mixers can supply data and recommend the
size and number of mixers required.
If a tank is rolled with air or gas, it should be done for a period of about 3 hr at
high temperature. The size of the tank will determine the time required for mixing.
The 1000-bbl tanks are generally mixed for 3 hr and larger tanks are mixed for
longer times. The type of mixing is not important. What is important is that the
chemical is thoroughly mixed with the emulsion.
Chemical addition
Chemical (demulsifier, acid, or caustic) poured in the top of a tank with 5-gal
buckets does not promote good treatment. A chemical pump injecting chemical into
a flowline, preferably into the suction of a pump, helps mixing and demulsification.
Chemical should be added, at least, as the tank is filled. A chemical pump aids
dispersion of the chemical when batch treating, but is mandatory for continuous
systems.
When the chemical is batch treated into a tank after it is filled, the type and
amount of agitation becomes more critical than if the chemical were continuously
injected into the line that was used to fill the tank. The chemical should also be
added slowly as the tank is being mixed in order to achieve a better distribution of
the chemical.
Settling time
The amount of settling time required for a given slop oil depends on the gravity
of the crude oil and the treating temperature. Lower API gravity oil and/or lower
treating temperatures require longer settling times. Conversely, for a given oil, the
settling time can be reduced by increasing the temperature.
The settling time required to obtain treated oil can also be reduced by increasing
the amount of demulsifier that is being used or changing to a different demulsifier.
The normal settling time for most slop oils is 8-24 hr after the mixing has been
stopped. In some cases, the settling time may be as much as 48 hr.
145
Solids
When a noticeable amount of solids is present, it may be necessary to use a

wetting agent and/or caustic in addition to the demulsifier. The solids will be on the
bottom of the tank if their specific gravity is greater than water and at the oil-water
interface if their specific gravity is less than water.
If the treated oil is to be processed through the same system that generated the
slop oil, the solids must be removed in the waste-oil treating facilities and not be
permitted to re-enter the system. The waste-oil treating facilities are the best place
to remove the solids from the oil-treating system.
STOKES LAW
The separation of two immissible liquids is governed by Stokes’ law (see

Appendix 5.1), which gives the rate of fall of a small sphere through a viscous fluid.
Stokes’ law states that when this sphere is under the influence of gravity it attains a
constant velocity, which is given by the following equation:
where: g = 980 cm/sec2 (gravitational acceleration); pd = density of dispersed

phase in g/cc; pc = density of continuous phase in g/cc; pc = viscosity in poises of
continuous phase at settling temperature; r = radius of dispersed phase droplets in
cm; and u = rate of fall of dispersed phase in cm/s (or rate of rise if negative).
Examination of eq. 5-1 shows that the following three factors influence the rate
of fall of the water droplets in a water-in-oil system.
(1) As the viscosity of the continuous phase (oil) increases, the rate of fall
decreases. Temperature will also have an effect on the viscosity. As the temperature
increases, the viscosity decreases.
(2) As the difference in density of the dispersed phase (water) and the continu-
ous phase (oil) becomes greater, the rate of fall of the water drop increases.
(3) The radius of the dispersed phase (water) has the greatest influence, because
it is not only squared but can be increased considerably by coalescence. As the size
of the water drop increases, the rate of fall increases. Initially, in petroleum
emulsions the size of dispersed phase droplets is in the 3-10 pm range.
In addition to Stokes’ law, there are four other factors discussed below that will
aid in coalescence, thus allowing more rapid treatment:
(1) Stokes’ law applies to static systems, whereas oil field treaters contain
horizontal and/or vertical movement. It is this movement that encourages coales-
cence of water droplets yielding greater settling rates.
(2) The use of a water leg in treaters not only removes free water, but also aids in
coalescence and increasing size of water drops.
146
(3) As the temperature is lowered, the viscosity increases and, thus, velocity of
water droplets decreases. As these water droplets fall, however, more effective
sweeping and coalescence may occur yielding larger drop size.
(4) The use of increased amount of chemical or using a different chemical may
give rise to more interaction between the emulsion droplets and, thus, improve
coalescence.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
(1) Describe the action of an emulsifying agent.

(2) Describe Bancroft’s rule.
(3) What relationship exists between the viscosity of an emulsion and the volume
of the inner phase?
(4) What is the function of a conductor (boot)?
(5) Describe the heat factor in treating the heavier crude oil emulsions.
( 6 ) What effect do fine solids have on emulsions?
(7) Derive Stokes’ law equation.
(8) Explain how the law derived in (7) may be used to help in breaking
emulsions.
(9) Name a few chemicals that can break emulsions.
(10) Plot a schematic diagram of temperature versus density for oil and water.
Compare.
(11) If viscosity of emulsion (O/W) at 70°F is 3200 cP, estimate its value at
170°F.
APPENDIX 5.1-DERIVATION OF STOKES LAW EQUATION
For Reynolds number, NR, below about 0.4, the drag coefficient, C,, for a
sphere is equal to 24/NR. Thus, for a laminar or viscous flow the drag force in lb is
equal to:
(5.1-1)
where p is mass per unit volume in slugs/cu ft, u is velocity in ft/s, d is diameter of
sphere in ft, A is the largest projected area in sq ft, and p is viscosity in lb-s/sq f t
(or slug/ft-s).
Inasmuch as the buoyant force, B, and drag force, D, are acting in upward
direction, whereas the weight, W , in lb is acting down:
B+D= W ( 5 .I-2)
1 poise = 2.089X10-3Ib-s/sq ft.

147
or
(5.1-3)
where y is specific weight in lb/cu ft ( y = p g ) ; g (gravitational acceleration) =

32.174 ft/s2.
Thus:
( 5 .I-4)
and
(5 .I-5)
REFERENCES
Abraham, H., 1960.Asphalt and Allied Substances. Vol. 1. Van Nostrand, New York, N.Y., 6th ed., p. 52.
American Petroleum Institute, 1975. Primer of Oil and Gar Production. Dallas, Tex.
Bansbach, P.L. and Bessler, D.U., 1975.Cold Treating of Oil Field Southwestern Petroleum Short Course.
Texas Tech. University.
Barnickel, W.S., 1914. U.S. Patent No. 1,093,098.
Bessler, D.U., 1980. Treating Emulsions from Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects. Chemical Marketing and
Economics, A.C.S. Meet., 179,Houston, Tex., March 26,1980,pp. 201-208.
Chilingar, G.V. and Beeson, C.M., 1969. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production. Elsevier, New York,
N.Y., 397 pp.
Clayton, W., 1954. The Theory of Emulsions and Their Technical Treatment. Chemical Publishing Co.,
New York, N.Y., 5th ed., 699 pp.
DeGroote, M., 1926-1964.U.S. Patents Nos. 1,590,617through 3,148,154(total 546).
Dodd, H.V., 1923.The resolution of petroleum emulsions. Chem. Met. Eng., 28: 249-253.
Dow, D.B. and Reistle Jr., C.E., 1925.The physical chemistry of oil-field emulsions. U.S. Bur. Mines,
Rep. Invest., 2692: 14 pp.
Gunvitsch, L., 1935. The Scientific Principles of Petroleum Technology. Van Nostrand, New York, N.Y.,
572 pp.
Monson, L.T. and Stenzel, R.W., 1946. The technology of resolving petroleum emulsions. In: J.
Alexander (Editor), Colloid Chemistry, Vol. 6. Reinhold, New York, N.Y., pp. 535-552.
Nellensteyn, F.J., 1938.The colloidal structure of bitumens. In: A.E. Dunstan (Editor), The Science of
Petroleum. Vols. 1-4. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, pp. 2760-2763.
Petroleum Extension Service, 1962.Treating Oil Field Emulsions. 2d ed., rev. University of Texas, Austin,
Tex., 86 pp.
Traxler, R.N. and Coombs, C.E., 1938.Structure in asphalt. Znd. Eng. Chem., 30:440-443.
Williams, A.R., 1953.A wash tank design. World Oil, 137: 203-213, 278-284.
This
149
Chapter 6
VAPOR RECOVERY
VAREC ',G.V. CHILINGARIAN and S . KUMAR

INTRODUCTION
The first step towards energy conservation is probably taken in the oil and gas
producing field itself in the form of vapor loss prevention. A properly designed and
installed vapor recovery system is very effective in preventing all kinds of vapor loss.
In addition, it reduces fire and corrosion hazards, pollution, and. associated prob-
lems.
At the very outset, it is important to establish some clear-cut concepts about
vapor recovery. Some operators consider a vapor recovery system to be a storage
tank with a gas-tight roof; equipped with pressure apd vacuum relief valves. This
kind of system is not a recovery system, but merely a primitive means of preventing
some vapor loss under certain conditions, such as when no pumping operations are
taking place and when no temperature change in the vapor space is occurring. A
true vapor recovery system collects the vapors from the storage tanks at all times
under all conditions.
EVAPORATION LOSS
Evaporation loss is common when a volatile product is stored in any conven-

tional oil tank (cone or dome-shaped roof structure). There are essentially three
types of evaporation losses: breathing loss, filling loss, and boiling loss.
Breathing loss
Breathing loss refers to the daily evaporation loss due to the normal cycle of
atmospheric temperature change. During the daytime, the vapor space absorbs heat
from the sun causing the air-vapor mixture to expand, and the temperature of the
liquid surface gradually rises, increasing evaporation of the liquid. This causes some
air and vapor to be vented to the atmosphere. During the late afternoon, the venting
gradually decreases.
At night, heat is radiated from the vapor space through the tank shell and roof.
This results in condensation, creating a partial vacuum which draws in air through
Permission was granted to reproduce portions of Varec, Inc. Handbook and Catalog.
150
the vent. Warm air rising in the center of the tank creates convection currents until
air and vapor become stabilized.
In the early morning, when the vapor space becomes uniform in temperature and
hydrocarbon content, conditions are nearly static. In late morning, the heating and
venting cycle begins anew.
Filling loss
As liquid is withdrawn from a tank, the vapor space is filled by vapors

evaporating from the surface of the remaining liquid. When the tank is refilled, a
volume of air-vapor mixture is displaced, equal to that of the incoming liquid. The
excess vented to the atmosphere is the filling loss.
Boiling loss
Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point and the process of
vaporization takes place. This may occur along the shell on the sunny side of the
tank. Boiling causes excessive evaporation losses, but fortunately is not commonly
encountered in lease tank batteries.
EVAPORATION CONTROL
Conservation by evaporation control may be defined as any control of product

evaporation, which results in the reduction or complete elimination of stored
product loss to the atmosphere (Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1970).
It is quite difficult to quantitatively estimate evaporation losses and vent valve
requirements, because of the numerous variables that govern these relationships, i.e.,
vapor space volume, vapor pressure of product, vapor pressure change with temper-
ature change, rate of temperature change, etc. Data has been gathered, however, by
various researchers, which enables an engineer to make close estimates.
According to Varec (1976), methods of conservation vary in accordance with the
degree of evaporation loss control desired as determined by consideration of
economics which may be affected, plant safety, and the requirements of law. On
low-pressure fixed roof tanks, conservation vent valves reduce evaporation losses by
limiting the amount of air admitted to, or vapors released from, the vapor space. If
vent valve settings and the tank are capable of maintaining pressures equal to or in
excess of vapor pressure, vaporization will take place until the partial pressure of
product vapors in the vapor space is equal to product vapor pressure at the
prevailing liquid surface temperature. Any change of conditions, such as an increase
or decrease of vapor space volume, and a corresponding increase or decrease of
pressure in the vapor space, change of temperature in the vapor space, or change of
product vapor pressure due to temperature change may result in loss of equilibrium.
Thus, unless the tank is capable of withstanding the resulting increase or decrease in
pressure, vapors must be released or air admitted to prevent structural damage.
151
Fig. 6-1.System of manifolded tanks. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
A system of manifolded tanks, such as shown in Fig. 6-1, is commonly referred to

as a vapor balancing system. This is a somewhat more efficient method of conserva-
tion, especially where operations can be arranged so that when one tank in the
system is being filled, at the same time and at the same rate another one is being
emptied. Theoretically, assuming no temperature change in the product or its
vapors, vapors are transferred from one tank to another without loss. Actually,
appreciable vapor losses through the vents will occur due to: (1) unequal pumping
rates; (2) vapor space temperature changes; and (3) the probable increased rate of
product vaporization in the tank being filled, due to agitation and product tempera-
ture increase from heat added by line friction and other outside sources.
Any one of the aforementioned methods of conservation is effective in reducing
evaporation losses. A third method, which completely eliminates the loss of vapors,
is known as a.vapor recovery system. A typical tank installation is shown in Fig.
6-2.Basically, this is a closed system, wherein the vapor space pressure of individual
tanks (or a group of manifolded tanks) is very closely regulated at some pressure
well within the range of vent valve pressure and vacuum settings. In addition to the
necessary control equipment, a complete system requires a means of pumping off
excess vapors (which may be processed or stored as a supply for repressuring) and a
source of makeup gas for repressuring. Excellent results have been reported from all
installations where large volumes of high vapor-pressure product are handled
(Varec, 1976).
152
PRESSURE IEXROS
BREATKR W V E
WITH F M ARXSTER
__ TNUtnGE
ITYFiCbL EbCH TANK 1
OF C W R E S S O R WRY GAS \
i l M E UP
IUTOMATIC DRIP TRAP
Fig. 6-2. Typical vapor recovery system. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
Several tank manufacturers produce conservation type storage tanks, which

effectively reduce evaporation losses. Although there is an increasing trend toward
this type of tank, particularly in new installations of large-capacity, fixed-roof tanks
operating at pressures below 15 psig are the most common type of storage tanks. In
this category, the cone-roof tank, operating at essentially atmospheric pressure, is
the minimum accepted standard in present day practice (Varec, 1976).
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM
Vapor recovery equipment is installed on field production and storage tanks and
on storage tanks containing crude oil and refined products at the refinery. In
general, a vapor recovery system serves five purposes:
(1) Economy-conserves valuable light components and, therefore, there is more
income from sales.
(2) Conserves oil (or product) gravity by reducing evaporation losses.
(3) Reduces fire and explosion hazards by preventing air from entering and
mixing with the vapor during out-pumping operations.
(4) Reduces internal tank corrosion by preventing the addition of oxygen to
vapor from humid air, which otherwise would be drawn into the tank.
153
( 5 ) Controls air pollution by preventing loss of vapor to the atmosphere. This is

an important function in view of the E.P.A. regulations relating to smog and
pollution control in oil field operations. The level of exposure of oil field personnel
to toxic vapors, which are invariably associated with oil and gas production, is also
reduced.
When vapor recovery equipment is installed on field production tanks, the
amount of gas which can be recovered per barrel of produced crude varies widely,
depending upon several factors. Most important are gravity, temperature of the
crude oil, and the drop in pressure which takes place following low-stage separation.
Where a pressure drop of about 20 psi or higher occurs between the low-stage
separator and the flow tanks, the volume of vapors recovered in California (U.S.A.)
fields, for example, range from less than 20 to more than 60 cu ft/bbl of produced
crude oil. In case of appreciable pressure drop, there is a high content of entrained
liquids in the vapors, making them even more valuable (Varec, 1976).
If elevated separators are operated at near atmospheric pressure, the great bulk of
recoverable vapors will be removed from the crude oil before it enters the tanks.
Because of agitation and especially if heat is used to achieve an oil-water sep-
aration, it may be worthwhile to recover the vapors even in this case.
The air content in vapors is reduced by “repressuring” the tanks with dry gas
from the absorption plant, for example, whenever required. For example, when a
tank is being pumped out and the release of vapors from the oil within is not
sufficient‘to fill the vapor space at the rate of pumping, instead of taking in air to
fill the vapor space, dry gas from the absorption plant is used. Reduction of the air
content in the tank reduces the fire hazard. The gravity of the oil is preserved as
oxidation is reduced, thus lowering the temperature of the vapors and the oil
surface. The presence of inert, dry gas slows down corrosion.
The above discussion was directed towards economics of a vapor recovery
system. The cost of the system is balanced against the profits accrued through
conservation of the light fractions and the increased value of the product due to the
preservation of product gravity. Indirect savings include reduced corrosion and fire
hazards.
It is assumed that an engineer would recommend installation of a recovery
system only after carrying out a detailed financial analysis. Generally speaking,
vapor recovery systems are viable in all cases where gas production is significant.
The factors that affect the amount of vapor that can be recovered are:
(1) Drop in pressure that occurs between the last stage of the separators and the
tank.
(2) Crude oil gravity, which is a function of various chemical and physical
properties such as vapor pressure and content of light fractions.
(3) Temperature of the crude oil. Heating for the purposes of demulsification is
included here.
154
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
The main functions of a vapor recovery system are: (1) removing pure vapor
from the tanks during product inpumping operations and during thermal expansion
of the vapors inside the tanks, as a result of atmospheric temperature increase or
heat from the sun, etc; and (2) adding pure vapor to the tanks during product
outpumping operations and during thermal contraction of vapors inside the tanks
due to temperature reduction. This can be accomplished by various means from the
standpoint of controlling the vapors to and from the tank portion of the system.
A vapor recovery system should be automatic in operation, self-protective, and
should function without maintenance for long periods of time, even in highly
corrosive service.
The equipment required can be briefly summarized as follows:
(1) Devices to make the tanks gas-tight and spark-proof. May need self-closing,
spark-proof gauges and thief hatches.
(2) Pressure and vacuum relief vents, either in conjunction with the balance-line
header or as an integral part of the hatches. (Refer to the API Guide for Tank
Venting presented in the Appendix of this chapter.)
(3) Vacuum and pressure regulators.
(a) Regulator on vacuum line, to remove vapors.
(b) Regulator to control automatic repressuring of tank with field gas, usually
from the gas-oil separators. This will prevent air from entering tanks when vacuum
develops.
(4) Compressor to compress vapors from collecting system battery and send
them into the field low-pressure gathering system. If there are vacuum gathering
lines near the tank, compressors are not required.
Figure 6-2 shows a manifolded tank system. A pipe manifold interconnects the
tanks vapor-wise. The manifold is fitted with breather valves which serve to relieve
excessive pressure or vacuum, which may be created as a result of abnormal system
operation or malfunction of pressure-control equipment. Each breather valve in-
cludes a flame arrester for fire protection when and if the breather valve functions.
An emergency relief manhole cover is used on each tank for relieving very excessive
pressure buildup. Vapor-control regulators are provided: one to control the release
of vapor from the system when the normal operating pressure within the system
reaches a predetermined level; the other to control the addition of vapor to the
system when the normal operating vacuum within the system reaches a pre-
determined level. A manometer can be used to visually determine whether or not the
system is operating within predetermined pressure and vacuum limitations.
Control of product inpumping and outpumping operations has great effect upon
the proficiency of the vapor control system. It is desirable to limit the withdrawal of
vapors from the tank system to a minimum. The ideal operation, although impracti-
cal to expect from the operator, is to predetermine and schedule product pumping
so that vapors will be transferred between tanks within the tank system by means of
the manifold. This would involve continuous and equal rates of product inpumping
155
and outpumping. Inasmuch as this is impractical, the basic vapor system at the
tanks must be pressure balanced. The various relief valves, relief manhole covers,
and regulators must be set so that when the normal product inpumping rate causes
the vapor space pressure within the tank system to exceed a predetermined limit, the
vapors will be released through the pressure (wet gas) regulator (Fig. 6-3). Con-
versely, when the normal product outpumping rate causes a vapor space vacuum
Fig. 6-3. Typical installation of pressure (wet gas) and vacuum (dry gas) regulators. (Courtesy of Varec
Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976).
156
within the tank system to exceed a predetermined limit, vapors will be added
through the vacuum (dry gas) regulator.
Settings of the regulators must be closer to atmospheric pressure than settings of
the breather valves and the emergency relief manhole covers.
Under normal operating conditions, the regulators must control only the flow of
vapor to and from the tank system. In the event that a slightly abnormal pressure or
vacuum increase occurs, which exceeds the capability of the regulators to control,
then the breather valves relieve the excess. In the case of a greatly abnormal increase
Fig. 6-4.Typical installation of fittings on a low-pressure, cone-roof tank. (Courtesy of Varec Division,
Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
157
Fig. 6-5. Float-actuated gauge, powered by negator motor (controlled power). (Courtesy of Varec
Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
158
in pressure or vacuum, which the regulator and breather valves cannot handle, the
emergency manhole covers relieve the excess. Figures 6-2 and 6-3 show typical
settings for the various equipment involved in the vapor control system at the tanks.
In Fig. 6-4, a typical installation of fittings on a low-pressure, cone-roof tank is
presented. A gas-tight, float-actuated gauge, powered by a motor, is presented in
Fig. 6-5. It measures changes in liquid level as a function of float travel. The float
acts upon a counterbalanced, nongraduated, perforated tape which moves a dial
counter. Dial-counter reading minimizes the possibility of error, which was inherent
in reading devices using a graduated tape.
DESIGN OF VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS
In planning the installation of a vapor recovery system, one has to consider

several factors: (1) volume of gas; ( 2 ) specific gravity of gas; ( 3 ) allowable tank
pressures (allowable pressure drop and pressure drop actually required are both
considered); (4) available vacuum for removing vapors; (5) available market or
facilities for processing surplus gas; ( 6 ) availability of gas for repressuring for a fully
closed system; and (7) type of tank installation (individual or manifold system).
In arriving at the volume and'content of the vapors, one can use recording orifice
meters to determine flow rates and the gas chromatograph test to establish their
average gasoline content. It is believed advisable to make these surveys over a
period of several days in order to offset variations in volume and composition
caused by temperature changes.
Where field vacuum lines do not exist, small compressors driven by electric
motor or gas engine, usually ranging in horsepower input from 5 to 25 hp, may be
used to supply vacuum for removing the vapors. These compressors are either air- or
liquid-cooled, with single or double cylinder, and are single-stage. Where discharge
pressures are required, two-stage equipment is employed. These small, fairly cheap
compressors, operating continuously day after day, have permitted the installation
of many systems which otherwise would not have been possible because of the
necessity for running large lines considerable distances to a field vacuum line.
To prevent any liquid, which may condense in the intake line, from being pulled
into the compressor cylinder, scrubbers are placed just ahead of the unit. Whereas
they are equipped with a bleed at the bottom so that any accumulated liquids can be
drained as often as needed, mercury high-level switches are provided as a safety
precaution. Likewise, to prevent overheating of the compressor, mercury switches
are used to shut down the motor when temperatures become too high (Varec, 1970).
To collect vent gas satisfactorily and safely, regulators (Fig. 6-5) must operate
dependably at predetermined, supersensitive pressures, frequently as low as one- or
two-tenths of an inch of water above and below atmospheric. At maximum flow,
pressure drop through the vapor line (between the tank and regulators) plus dead
weight of the vapor in the regulator control line must not exceed vent valve opening
pressure.
159
Regulators should be capable of handling the pressure and vacuum requirements

of the tanks as determined by calculations. Venting formulas [see American Petro-
leum Institute (API), 19681 or actual oil/gas ratios are guides to be used. Regulator
sizes are obviously smaller than the vent unit sizes because of the required
differences in valve design and pressure drop. As an example: the vent units may be
required to handle normal venting of 30,000 cu ft/hr of gas at 0.35-02differential
pressure drop and 20,000 cu ft/hr of inhaled air at 0.50-02differential drop. The
wet-gas regulator would be required to handle the same 30,000 cu ft/hr at from 1 to
20 in. of mercury pressure drop, and the dry-gas regulator, 20,000 cu ft/hr of
makeup gas at from 1 to 30 psi pressure drop. Thus, whatever capacities are
2.0 '-EMERGENCY RELIEF MANHOLE

A FULL FLOW OPEN
b
1.8-
1.6-
BREATHER
U 1.4 - VALVE
W
a 1.2-
3
.r' 1 1
1.0
W
3
v)
0.8-
W
v)
FULL FLOW OPEN
a 0.6- t
PRESSURE (WET
GAS) REGULATOR
0.4 - I
0.2-
+ I
ATMOSPHERIC o
I 0.21- FULL FLOW OPEN
U
l-
W
a 0.865 in. WATER :0.5 ounces/%q in.
3
.-c I.o
5 1.2 EMERGENCY RELIEF MANHOLE

U
a IBREATHER
VALVE
1.73 in. WATER = 1.00ounces Irq in.

FULL FLOW OPEN
\' 1.8
' +
PRESSURE OR VACUUM SETTING
Fig. 6-6. Pressure balance for a typical vapor recovery system. (After Hein et a].. 1969. fig. 5, p. 76.)
160
required of the regulator, are also required of the vent valve for any emergency
eventualities. After regulator requirements have been determined, capacity charts
for regulators must be consulted to select the correct size.
Size of pressure- and vacuum-relief vents must be sufficient to insure against
damage to tanks. They should have sufficient capacity to exhaust incoming dry gas
in case the repressuring regulator sticks open, and to admit air to vent the suction
line in case the wet-gas regulator sticks open. With the pressure-vacuum relief
manhole covers set to pop open in the event that a trap valve sticks and throws the
entire gas load on the battery, there is little danger of tank rupture.
Certain auxiliary equipment for additional safety to the system is recommended.
A sediment trap is required in order to protect the dry-gas regulator against foreign
matter such as sand, millscale, etc. Foreign matter passing through the valve at high
velocities can seriously damage the valve seats, thus requiring their repair. A
back-pressure check valve should be installed downstream of the wet-gas regulator
for the purpose of protecting the valve and system against downstream flame
ignition, which might spread back up through the wet-gas regulator. A manometer
should be installed in the common control line and not in any portion of the vertical
riser, because the pressure at the "sensing point" is the true critical value. A
manometer installed on the vertical riser would be subject to varying flows and
would tend to give erroneous readings. The manometer serves both in initially
setting the regulators and also in observing the condition of the system. An
automatic drip trap, which is installed at the low point of the common control line,
serves the purpose of draining condensate. An explosion- or pressure-relief valve
-
ROOF CONNECTIONS BALANCE LINE BRANCHES
ANGLE BRANCHES R O U N D E D CORNER
A b
Pressure drop
4 k
Pressure drop
JL
P r e ssu r e d r o p
BRANCHIS
equals 40diameters. equals 20diameters. n e g l i g i b l e . -=qqjG$ %if

Ratio 2 pressure drop
equals 5 diameters.
VAPOR LINE CONNECTIONS 90' angle pressure drop Ratio 1.3 persure drop
WELDED
9 0 "ELBOW WELDED
9 0 ' ELBOW 9 0 ' FORGED OR equals 40 diameters. equals 6 diameters.
SWEDGED ELBOW
60' m g k pressure drop Ratio 1.25 pressuredrop
662 RATIO.!
equals 17.5 diameters.
4 5 O angle pessure drop
equds 8.8 diame8ers.
30' angle pressure drop
equals 9 diameters.
Ratio 1.0 pressure drop
equals 10 diameters.
Ratio .75 pressure drop
Pressure drop Pressure drop Pressure drop
equals 40 diameters. equals 20 diameters. equals 10 diameters. equals 6.8 diameters. equals 16 diameters.
FULL PIPE AREA ELBOWS 13' angle pressure drop Ratio .50 pressure drop
Ratio 2 pressure drop equals 5 diameters. equals 3.9 diameters. equals 30 diameters.
Ratio 1.1 pressure drop equals 6 diameters.
Ratio 1 .25 pressure drop equals 9 diameters.
Ratio 1 .O pressure drop equals I0 diameters. M A I N VAPOR LINES
Ratio .75 pressure drop equals 16 diameters.
Ratio S O pressure drop equals 30 diameters. WHEN CONNECTING LAPGB A N D SMALL LINES.
-
S Q U A R E WELDED TEES ROUNDED CORNER TEES
4 'p' .
<
T A P E R 7 D' TAPER-,
7 5
i t r > I f q- -I. \
D - 1'42 0
Pressure drop eqsuls Pressure drop equals Pressure drop Pressure drop Pressure drop
40 diameters. 6 diameters. equds 40 diameters. equals 20 diameters. equds 9 diameters.
Fig. 6-7. Gas pressure drop in tank roof fittings and pipe bends. Equivalent length of straight pipe
expressed in pipe diameters. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
161
should be installed at the top of the vertical riser for the purpose of relieving
excessively high pressures caused by an ignition emanating downstream of the
wet-gas regulator. When hydrocarbon vapor ignites, it expands approximately 15
volumes (sometimes almost instantaneously), depending upon the composition. The
size of the explosion-relief valve, therefore, must handle 15 times the volume of the
vacuum pipe, calculated at atmospheric pressure. An expansion of 15 volumes
increases the pressure 15 atm.
This increased pressure will travel down the line in two directions from the point
of origin, ahead of any flame, and will be relieved at the explosion-relief valves.
A pressure balance chart for a typical vapor recovery system is presented in Fig.
6-6.
In the design and installation of vapor recovery systems, it is important to keep
in mind that the pressure drops involved are small. Vacuum- and pressure-relief
valves are set to function somewhere between 0.5 and 2.0 oz/in.2 (about 1-4 in. of
water).
The total pressure drop through a vapor recovery system must be kept well
within the limits of pressure- and vacuum-relief valve settings. For this reason, it is
necessary that the header, laterals, and all other piping be properly sized and
streamlined. If maximum benefit of the recovery system is to be gained, the piping
must be of sufficient diameter to permit the vapors to be readily withdrawn. Also,
angles, bends, and other resistances to flow should be kept at a minimum (Fig. 6-7).
Although most engineers, experienced in flow calculations, have preference
regarding flow formulas, the following formula may be used for estimating pipe
sizes:
q = 3550
/ Apd’
+
GI [l + ( 3 . 6 / d ) 0.03d]
where: q = quantity of gas, cu ft/hr; A p = drop in pressure, in. of water; G = specific

gravity of gas at flowing conditions, air having sp. gr. = 1; d = internal diameter of
pipe, in.; 1 = length of pipe, ft.
The above formula applies only for straight pipes, with fairly smooth interior
surface, and should only be used for flow of gas where pressures do not exceed 1
psig.
Having determined the line sizes and pressure drops, allowances should be made
for possible further expansion. In order to handle sudden overloads, it is usually
advisable to slightly oversize the piping. Ordinarily, to hold the weight of the header
and laterals to the minimum, the lightest-weight pipe obtainable is used. In some
cases, sheet metal duct piping is satisfactory. The use of this light-weight pipe in
flanged, shop-fabricated sections will materially reduce installation costs.
STORAGE PRESSURES
When low vapor pressure products are being stored, the construction of most
tanks is such that vent valves should not open at pressures and vacuum higher than
162
TABLE 6-1
Table of weight conversions for steel tank roofs (After Varec. 1976, p. 3) a
Gauge and thickness, Weight Weight Weight

steel deck materials (Ib/sq ft) (oz/in.2) (in. H20/in.2)
16-gauge (0.0625”) 2.553 0.284 0.490
14-gauge (0.0781”) 3.187 0.354 0.613
12-gauge (0.1094”) 4.473 0.497 0.860
11-gauge (0.1250”) 5.107 0.568 0.982
10-gauge (0.1406”) 5.740 0.638 1.103
9-gauge (0.1562”) 6.374 0.708 1.225
8-gauge (0.1719”) 7.00 0.778 1.346
7-gauge (0.1875”) 7.65 0.850 1.471
6-gauge (0.2500”) 10.20 1.133 1.961
~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~
a Based on US. Standards.
0.5 oz/in.2. The internal pressure at which a tank may be maintained, however, is
dependent upon design and condition of the tank. Generally speaking, cone-roof or
low-pressure fixed-roof tanks should not be operated at pressures beyond dead
weight loading of the deck. Vent valves for such tanks, therefore, should be sized
and pressure settings so fixed that maximum normal relief requirements are attaina-
ble within this limitation (Table 6-1).
It is equally important that the required flow capacity be obtained when the tank
is breathing-in without developing a vacuum, which will cause damage. This
requires consideration of tank size, design, the possibility of external loading, and
other considerations, which make a general rule-of-thumb method for determining
maximum safe working vacuum and maximum allowable vacuum impossible.
According to Factory Mutual Engineering Division, Loss Prevention Bulletin No.
13.23, 1-f in. H,O negative pressure is the maximum allowable for vertical
cone-roof tanks having 3/16-in. roof plates. No recommendation, however, is made
for tanks of heavier construction and it is, therefore, suggested that established
company policy or the recommendation of the tank manufacturer be followed.
For high vapor pressure products, entirely different vent valve designs are used.
These valves are equipped with dead weight vacuum pellets for settings of 0.5
oz/in.2 to 0.5 psig, depending upon tank construction. Higher pressure settings are
obtained by weight-and-lever arm, spring loading, or even diaphragm-operated relief
valves. It is important to note that increasing storage pressures reduces storage
losses. This, however, is complicated by the changes in temperature and the
consequent changes in vapor pressure, which may lead to vapor release during the
day and air admittance at night.
VENT VALVE PRESSURE SETTINGS
Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture of
gases equals the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if present alone at
163
the same temperature in the volume occupied by the mixture (provided, of course,
that there is no chemical reaction or that there is no tendency for one gas to dissolve
in the other). Partial pressure of an individual component in a gaseous mixture is
equal to the product of the total pressure and the mole fraction of that individual
component:
where: p,Y = partial pressure of a component in the vapor phase; 'TT = total pressure
of the system; and y,, = mole fraction of the component in the vapor phase.
For example, if a tank contains a volatile product and equilibrium exists between
the liquid and vapor at an absolute temperature T, and at atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psia), the vapor space will contain a mixture of gas having a pressure of ( pmin)
and air at a pressure of (14.7 -pmin). If the temperature in the vapor space is
increased to some other absolute value ( T 2 ) ,the partial pressure of the air will
increase to (14.7 - pmin)T2/Tl, At this increased vapor space temperature, the
product-surface temperature will also increase, resulting in an increased vapor
pressure ( p , , ) . This makes a total pressure (absolute) in the vapor space equal to
[(14.7 - pmi,)T,/T1 + p,,]. Thus, the theoretical storage pressure ( p s ) , at which
equilibrium is re-established and at which no breathing losses occur, is equal to:
Obviously, this equation applies to standing storage only and its use is restricted
to tanks which' are constructed to withstand pressures so calculated (Varec, 1976).
In order to make use of this equation, it is necessary to obtain data on vapor
space and liquid-surface temperature. According to Rogers (in Varec, 1976), maxi-
mum liquid-surface temperatures in the United States vary from 85 to 115°F. The
maximum vapor space temperature is approximately 40°F higher than the maxi-
mum liquid-surface temperature, whereas the minimum vapor space temperature is
15°F lower than the maximum liquid-surface temperature. According to informa-
tion published by the A.P.I. (1965), the maximum liquid-surface temperature on the
Gulf Coast, Atlantic seaboard, and northern Middlewest in U.S.A. is about 100°F.
In the Mid-Continent area and the arid Southwest of the U.S.A., temperatures as
high as 115°F are encountered. On the West Coast of the U.S.A., at locations
directly tempered by the Pacific Ocean, the maximum liquid-surface temperature
may be as low as 80'F.
The size and shape of a tank, product outage, color and condition of exterior
surface paint, length of daily exposure to direct solar heat, and heat input from the
introduction of warm product, all have a definite effect on inside temperature. The
maximum liquid-surface temperature, resulting from atmospheric conditions only, is
equal to or is slightly above the maximum atmospheric temperatures. If more
accurate information is not available, therefore, it is suggested that the maximum
TABLE 6-11
Daily average temperature relationships between atmospheric temperature and those in the tank (All other sources of heat disregarded) (After Varec, 1976,
P. 5 )
Tank Maximum atmospheric temperature ( O F )

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Max.liquidsurfacetemp. 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Min. liquidsurface temp. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
Max.vaporspacetemp. 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170
Min. vapor space temp. 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
165
atmospheric temperature be used as the maximum liquid-surface temperature and

that the preceding data be accepted as a basis for estimating probable vapor space
and liquid-surface temperatures. These temperature relationships are presented in
Table 6-11.
Example 6-1
Gasoline having Reid vapor pressure of 9 Ib/in2 is stored in a tank. Determine

storage pressure (p,) required to eliminate standing storage losses from a tank
operating at sea level and in a climate where maximum and minimum liquid-surface
temperatures, as the result of atmospheric conditions, are estimated at 100°F and
90°F, respectively. Under such conditions, according to Table 6-11, maximum vapor
space temperature will be 140'F and minimum temperature will be 85°F. Product
has a vapor pressure of 8.1 psia at 90°F ( pmin)and 9.6 psia at 100°F (p,,). Thus:
+
Tl = 460" 85' = 545"R
+
T2= 460" 140" = 600"R
By substituting in eq. 6-3:
T2 600
p, = (14.7 -phn)-
Tl
+ p , , - 14.7 = (14.7 - 8.1)-
545
+ 9.6 - 14.7 = 2.2 psig
Altitude should be taken into consideration if storage tanks are located at

altitudes where barometric pressures vary appreciably from the sea level pressure of
approximately 14.7 psia. For example, atmospheric pressure at 4000-ft elevation is
approximately 12.7 psia and, thus, required storage pressure to prevent standing
losses from the same product subject to identical temperature variations at this
altitude is equal to:
600
p , = (12.7 - 8.1)-
545
+ 9.6 - 12.7 = 2.0 psig
VALVE FLOW CAPACITY
The free gas capacity of a valve varies inversely with the square root of the gas
gravity (with respect to air = l.O), Gg. In addition, qg varies directly as the square
root of the ratio of the absolute standard temperature (520"R) to the absolute valve
inlet temperature. Thus:
166
where: qg = free gas capacity of the valve; qa = free air capacity of the valve;
Gg = specific gravity of gas (air = 1); and Ti = absolute valve inlet temperature, OR.
The qg and qa must be expressed in the same units, e.g., ft3/min or m3/hr.
VENTING
Conservation vent valves mechanically limit the loss of vaporized product to the
atmosphere. The same variables that make evaporation loss calculations difficult,
must also be considered in arriving at vent valve flow rates required to protect tanks
under conditions requiring maximum normal pressure or vacuum relief.
Conservation vents also serve as safety equipment and are, therefore, designed
for the worst conditions anticipated in order to safeguard against tank damage due
to underventing. But in several instances, the conservation role is overemphasized,
leading to a tendency toward size reduction to conform more nearly with capacity
requirements based on normal operating conditions. This is a very poor economic
decision, because damages to a tank may result in repair costs which are several
times the cost of additional venting equipment. Also, installation of equipment,
after a tank has been placed in service, is very often hazardous.
Many formulas, charts, and tables have been developed, based on experience and
available data, for vent valve flow capacity requirements. The American Petroleum
Institute (A.P.J.) has reviewed all of these, and the A.P.I. Venting Guide (A.P.I.,
1968) presented in the Appendix of this chapter, serves as the general guide for the
petroleum industry at the present time.
FAST PAYOUTS FROM VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Conservation venting equipment, properly installed and maintained, will often

pay for itself several times a year in evaporation savings alone. Studies have shown
that lease-tank evaporation is often reduced by as much as 50%, solely through the
use of gas-tight tanks equipped with vapor conservation devices. There have been
several reports claiming total return of conservation vent valve and installation costs
on the first shipment of crude oil from gas-tight field production tanks. In addition,
by reducing air content, corrosion of the tank and its equipment is reduced and fire
prevention is enhanced. Another advantage is the fact that properly equipped tanks
result in insurance savings and offer other safety features which cannot be estimated
on a strictly monetary basis (Varec, 1976).
In 1951, a survey conducted by Oil and Gas Journal (Stormont, 1951a, b)
covering vapor recovery systems in California showed that very rapid payouts can
be obtained where substantial volumes of vapors are available. They also indicated
that in a number of cases reasonable payouts can be made from rather small
volumes. The following illustrative examples are taken from the survey.
167
Example (A)-System payout from vapor recovery only
There were 4 tank batteries, each equipped with a conventional vapor system.
Batteries consisted of 1600-bbl steel tanks in groups of 3, 5, 6, and 13. With the
exception of the number of tanks, other system characteristics, such as gas content,
trap pressures, etc., were similar.
Cost of the vapor recovery equipment per battery ranged from $2000 for 3 tanks
to $5500 for 13 tanks.
In this example, $101,007 was realized from the recovered vapors from a total of
27 tanks. Total cost of construction and equipment was less than $14,000 (engineer-
ing time was not included). This was the case of an exceptional payout (Table 6-111).
Example (B)
In this example, the recovered tank vapors amounted to 17,000 Mcf or 32 cu

ft/bbl of crude oil produced (Table 6-IV). Average liquid content of the vapors was
14.4 gal per 1000 cu f t accounting for 244,800 gal or 7.5% of the 3,256,000 gal
contained in all the gas.
TABLE 6-111
Performance of Company A, Fresno County, California (After Stormont, 1951a)
Month Vapor Liquid content Value of Value of Total

recovered (isobutane liquid stripped value of
(Mcf/mo) plus) fractions a gas vapors
(gal) (9 ($1 ($1
1950
March 8518 73,136 4388 886 5274
April 10,554 111,084 6665 1098 7763
May 14,777 133,819 8029 1537 9566
June 11,776 147,008 8820 1537 10,357
July 15,914 191,053 11,463 1655 13,118
August 16,082 210,482 12,629 1673 14,301
September 13,452 168,393 10,104 1399 11,503
October 10,583 108,642 6519 1101 7619
November 11,120 110,538 6632 1156 7789
December 10.896 97.808 5868 1133 7002
1951
January 10,228 94,194 5652 1064 6175
Total 136,900 1,446,157 86,769 14,238 101,007
a Estimated on the basis of 6c/gal for butane and gasoline content. No credit given for propane content.
Calculated on the basis of 16t/1000 cu ft for dry gas, allowing 35% for shrinkage and lease fuel.
For period March 7-31 inclusive.
168
TABLE 6-IV
Vapor recovery operations in Company B during January, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951a) (524,600 bbl of
crude oil and 1,614,000 Mcf of gas produced)
Monthly Average liquid content Total

volume (gal/Mcf) liquid
(Mcf) 21-lb butanes propane total ‘Ontent
gasoline (gal)
Tank vapors 17,000 3.75 4.55 6.10 14.40 244,800
Low-pressure gas, 30 psi 220,000 1.15 1.40 2.50 5.05 1,111,000
High-pressure gas, 480 psi 1,377,000 0.22 0.56 0.60 1.38 1,900,200
Totul 1,614,000 3,256,000
Example (C)
As shown in Table 6-V, tank vapors recovered amounted to 18 cu ft/bbl of

produced crude oil and 2.1% of the total gas gathered. The collected vapors
contained 5.5 % of all recoverable liquid hydrocarbons.
TABLE 6-V
Vapor recovery operations at Company C during January, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951a)

(Mcf) 21-lb butanes propane total ‘Ontent
gasoline (gal)
Tank vapors 8,500 3.90 3.40 3.50 10.80 91,800
Low-pressure gas, 30 psi 339,000 1.28 1.21 1.75 4.24 1,437,360
High-pressure gas, 450 psi 49,000 0.70 0.78 1.20 2.68 131.320
Torul 396,500 1,660,480
Example (0)
Although the percentages of gasoline fractions are not shown in Table 6-VI, one
can see that 13,149 Mcf of recovered tank vapors amount to 52 cu ft/bbl of
produced crude and 1.2% of the total gas gathered. Tank vapor accounts for
approximately 12% of the butanes plus recovered.
At the time of the survey in 1951, the cost of vapor recovery equipment was in
the range of $400 to $500 per tank. Some installations, however, ran over $1000 per
tank because a relatively larger compressor was required.
169
TABLE 6-VI
Vapor recovery operation at Company D unit during October, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951b) (254,800 bbl
of crude oil and 1,095,639 Mcf of gas produced)

content
(Mcf) isobutane-plus
(gal)
Tank vapor 13,149 8 105,000
Low-pressure and
High-pressure gas 1,082,490 - 748,919
Total 1,095,639 853,919
SUMMARY
It is estimated that, on the average, rapid payouts occur on installing vapor

recovery systems, many in less than one year.
Although vapors ,represent only a small fraction of the total gas recovered, the
gasoline content may run as'high as 10% or more of the liquid in the total gas from
field.
Vapor recovery offers oil operators important additional revenue by recovery of
light hydrocarbons, dollar value of natural gas saved, and increased value of stored
oil due to preservation of product gravity. Other considerations, not directly
measurable dollarwise, are reduction of fire hazard, oxidation, and corrosion.
Fortunately, a good conservation practice can yield attractive profits to the oil
operator who installs a complete, gas-tight, vapor recovery system.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
"\
(1) List five reasons for installing vaflor recovery systems on lease-flow tanks.
(2) List four factors which affect the amount of gas that can be recovered.
(3) Describe the equipment required for vapor recovery.
(4) In outline form, present steps followed in designing vapor recovery equipment.
( 5 ) Draw a schematic diagram (flow diagram) of all the surface equipment; start
at wellhead.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The help extended by Robert Siler, District Manager of Varec, and B.C. Wride is
indeed greatly appreciated by the writers.
170
REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.), 1965. Evuporution Loss of Petroleum from Storuge Tunks.
American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.), 1965. Guide for Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storuge
Tunks. API RP 2000. 10 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1968. Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storuge Tunks (Nonre-
frigeruted). API Standard 2000, 1st ed., 18 pp.
Hein, W.G.. Johnson, J.L. and Chilingar, G.V., 1969. Vapor recovery. In: G.V. Chilingar and C.M.
Beeson (Editors), Surfuce Operutions in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New York, N.Y., pp.
67-86.
Rogers, W.F., 1976. Method of calculating oil evaporation losses. In: Tunk Venting und Guuging: Tunk
Equipment, Gus Control and Safety Devices. Handbook and Catalog No. P-8. Varec Inc.
Stormont, D.H., 1951a. Conservation of lease-tank vapors. Oil Gus J., 50(2): 93-96.
Stormont, D.H., 1951b. Tank-vapor recovery at Guijarral Hills effects payout in few months. Oil Gas J.,
50(4): 85-87.
Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1910. Pollution und Gus Control Equipment. Bull. CP6003-A, 61 pp.
Varec, Inc., 1976. Tunk Venting und Gauging: Tunk Equipment, Gus Control und Safety Devices.
Handbook and Catalog No. P-8.
Varec, 1979. Pollution und Gus Control Equipment, Vupor Recovery Systems, Gus Piping Systems,
Technical Reference. Bull. 6003-B, Cypress, Calif., 52 pp.
171
A P P E N D I X 6 . I - V E q T I N G A M O S P H E R I C A N D L O W - P R E S S U R E STORAGE T A N K S ( N O N -
R E F R I G E R A T E D ) * (d N D A R D 2000, 1st ed., M A Y 1968.)
Scope perate-zone climate and normal operating conditions.

The many abnormal variables which must be considered
This standard applics to the normal and emergency in connection with tank-venting problems make it im-
venting requirements for aboveground liquid petroleum practicable to set forth definite simple rules which are
s t o m tanks and aboveground and belowground re- applicable to all locations and all coaditions. Larger
frigerated storage tanks designed for operation from
46 oe per sq in. vacuum through 15qsig pressure. The vents may be required on tanks in which oil is heated, on
rcqwkements of this standard do not apply to floating- tanks whizh receive oil iron] wells or traps, and on tanks
ocMer-root tanks. subjected to pipeline surgcs. Similarly, the use of flame
Bn@neeringstudies of a particular tank may indicate arresters or other restrictions, which may build up pres-
that it is desirable to use a venting capacity other than sure under certain conditions, m y requirc the use of
thstatimated in accordance with this standard. larger vents on tanks.
Part I of this standard applies only to aboveground Part I1 of this standard applies only to aboveground
notrefrigerated liquid petroleum storage tanks. It out- and belowground refrigerated liquefied hydrocarbon
1$4(safe and reasonable practices for the normal tem- storage tanks.
PART I-NONREFRIGERATED ABOVEGROUND TANKS

1.0 Determination of Venting Requirements However, lhe required capacity may be reduced for those
prcducta whose volatility is such that vapor generation or
Venting requirements are set forth for the followin4 condensation, within the permissible vessel pressure operating
conditions: range, will provide all or part of the vcnthg requirewnts.
Where noncondcn~blesM pmt, chi3 should be taken into
1. Inbreathing resulting from maximum out5ow of oil .ccounL
from tank.
2.1 Inbreathing Nacuum Relief)
2. Inbreathing resulting from contraction of vapors
ca)lsed by maximum decrease in atmospheric tem- 2.1 1 Venting capacity requirement for maximum
pctatun. oil movement out of a tank should be equivalent to
560 cu ft of free air per hour for each 100 bbl (4,200
3. Outbreathing resulting from maximum inflow of oil gal) per hour of maximum emptying rate, including
&to tanks and maximum evaporation caused by such gravity flow rate to other tanks, for oils of any flash
iO8OW' point.
4. Outbreathing resulting from expansion and evapora-
tion which result from maximum increase in atmospheric 2.12 Venting capacity requirement for thermal in-
temperature (thermal breathing). breofhing for a given tank capacity for oils of any flash
5. Outbreathing resulting from fire exposure. point should be. at least that shown in column 2 of
Table 1.
2.0 Normal Venting Capacity Requirements
2.2 Outbreathing (Pressure Relief)
Normal venting capacity shall be obtained without
cxcceding the operating pressurc or vacuum which may 2.21 Venting capacity requirement for maxinium
be applied regularly to a tank without causing physical oil movement into a tank and resulting evaporation:
damage or permanent deformation to the tank. 1. For oil with a flash point of 100 F or above, should
Total normal venting capacity shall be. at least the be equivalent to 600 cu ft of free air per hour for each
sum of the venting requirements for oil movement and 100 bbl (4,200 gal) per hour of maximum filling rate.
hmaleffect.*
* Reprinted with permission of American Petroleum Institute, New York, N.Y.

172
2. For oil with a flash point below I00 F, should be 3.0 Emergency Venting Capacity Requirements
equivalent to 1,200 cu ft of frce air per hour for each When storage tanks are exposed to fire, the venting
100 bbl (4,200 gal) per hour of maximum EUing rim. rate may be in excess of that resulting from a combina-
2.22 Venting capacity requirement for thermal tion of normal thermal effects and oil movement. In
ouibreathing, including thermal evaporation, for a given such cases, the construction of the tank will determine
tank capacity: whether additional venting capacity must be provided.
1. For oil with a dash point of 100 F or above, should 3.1 Tanks With Weak Roof-to-Shell Attachment
be at least that shown in column 3 of Table 1. On fixed-roof tanks with a roof-to-shell attachment
2. For oil with a dash point below 100 F, should be (maximum %-in. single-fillet weld) as described in
at least that shown in column 4 of Table 1. Par. 3.5.2(c) and (e) of API Standard 650: Welded
Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, the roof-to-shell connection
will fail preferentially to any other joint, and excess
TABLE 1-Thermal Venting Cepadtj Repoirementi pressure will be safely relieved, if the normal venting
(Expressed in cubic feet of free air per hour- capacity should prove inadequate. In tanks built to
14.7 psia at 60 F.) these specifications, consideration need not be given
Outbreathing to any additional emergency venting requirements.
Inbreathing
--
(Pressure)
Flash 3.2 tanks Without Weak Roof-to-Shell Attachment
Tank Capacity (Vacuum) Flash Poinr Point
All 100 F or Below Where the tank is not provided with a weak roof-to-
(Barrels) (Gallons) Stocks Above 100 F shell attachment as described in Par. 3.1, the following
1 2 3 4 procedure shall govern in evaluating the required vent-
60 2,500 60 40 60 ing capacity for fire exposure.
100 4,200 100 60 100
500 21,000 500 3 00 500 3.21 For tanks designed for pressures of 1 psig or
1,000 42,000 1,000 600 1,000 below, the total rate of venting shall be determined in
2,000 84,000 2,000 1,200 2,000
3,000 126,000 3,000 1,800 3,000
accordance with Table 2. (No increase id venting is
4.000 168,000 4,000 2,400 4,000 required for tanks with more than 2,800 sq ft of exposed
5,000 210,000 5,000 3,000 s.000 wetted surface. The basis for Table 2 is given in the
10,000 420,000 10,000 6.000 10,000 Appendix.)
15,000 630,000 15,000 9,000 15,000
20,000 840,000 20,000 12,000 20,000 3.22 For tanks and storage vessels designed for
25,000 1,050,000 24,000 15,000 24,000 pressures over 1 psig, the total rate of venting shall be
30,000 28,000 17,000 28,000
35,000 3 1,000 19,000 3 1,000
determined in accordance with Table 2, except that
40,000 34,000 2 1,000 34,000 when the exposed wetted area of the surface is greater
45,000 37,000 23,000 37,000 than 2,800 sq ft, the total rate of venting shall be calcu-
50,000 40,000 24,000 40,000 lated by the following formula:
60,000 44,000 27,000 44,000
70,000 48,000 29,000 48.000 CFH = 1,107
80,000 52,000 3 1,000 52,000
90,000 56,000 34,000 56,000
100,000 60,000 36,000 60,000
120,000 68,000 41,000 68.000
140,000 75,000 45,000 75,000
160,000 82,000 50,000 82,000
180,000 90,000 54,000 90,000
lnterpolile for intermediate sira.
NO=%
I. For tanks with 8 capacity of more than 20,000 bbl (840,000gal).
the reguircmenls for the vscuum condition are very close to the theo-
rcticslly computed YSIYC of 2 EU f l of air per hour per squaw foot of
total shell and roof area.
2. For tanlo with a capacity of lus than 20,OW bbl (840.000 gal). the
thermal inbrcathing requirement for the vacuum condilion haa been based
on 1 CY n of free sit per hour for each banti of lank capaciw. This is
substantially equivalent to P mean rate of YPPDI 8paEbtcmwraturc changc
of 100 F per hr.
3, For slocki with P flash point at 100 F or ~ ~ O V Cthe . outbreathing
requirrmenl has k e n amumcd a8 60 percent of the inbreathing capacity
requirement. I h c tank roof and shell tempemure E B M O ~ iise as rapidly
under MY condition as they c a n drop. rush as during I sudden cold rain.
4. For stacks with P flash mint below IM) F. lhe thermal ~ i e w u r c -
venting requirement has bem ksumed equal to ihc vacuum rcqhiremeat
in Order to ~ l l o wfor ~apoI(2~Uonat the liquid curface and far the higher
specific grwity of the tnnk vapors.
173
TABLE %-Total Rate of Emergency Venting Required L = latent heat of vaporization of the specific liquid,
for Fire Exposure Vs. Wetted Surface Are. in British thermal units per pound.
(Wetted area versus cubic feet of free air per hour- M = molecular weight of the specific liquid.
14.7 psia at 60 F.)
Wetted Venting Wetted Venting 3.24 Full credit may be taken for the vent capacity
Area Requirement Area Requirement provided for normal venting, since the normal thermal
(Square (Cubic Feet (Square (Cubic Feet effect can be disregarded during a fire, and it can also
Fat) perHour) Feet) per Hour) be assumed that there will be no oil movement into the
20 21,100 350 288,000 tanks.
30 31,600 400 312.000
40 42;lOO 500 354;000 3.25 If normal vents are inadequate, additional
50 52,700 600 392,000
60 63,200 700 428,000 emergency vents of the type described in Par. 4.2 shall
70 73,700 800 462,000 be provided so that the total venting capacity is at least
80 84,200 900 493,000 equivalent to that required by Table 2.
90 94,800 1,000 524.000
100 105.000 1.200 557.000 3.26 T h e vent size may be calculated on the basis
120 126;OOO 1;400 587;OOO of the pressure which the tank can safely withstand.
140 147,000 1,600 614,000
160 168.000 1.800 639.000 3.27 T h e total rate of emergency venting deter-
180 190,000 2,000 662;OOO mined by Par. 3.21 or 3.22 may be multiplied by the
200 211,000 2,400 704,000
ZSO 239,000 2,800 742,000 appropriate one of the following factors when additional
300 265,000 Over 2,800 * protection is provided:
' FW expo(ed wetted aurfrcca with more lhm 2,8W 8q 11. l e e Par. 3.21, 0.5 when drainage away from the tank or vessel is
3.22, .nd 3.24.
NOTBl:
provided.
1. 1ntCfloate for htcrmcdiate Y B I Y U . 0.3 when 1 in. thickness of external insulation is
2. I h c weNd area for B e lank or storage YCSIC~ shall be cslcylatcd a8
provided.
fouom:
SQhnO a d rphemld: the total cxposcd Surface Up to the mPxlmum
horizontal diameter or to a height of 25 ft. 0.15 when 2 in. thickness of external insulation is
whichever is srcaler.
Horimntal tank: 75 pcrccnl of the total exposed surface.
provided.
Vmical unk: the tom upmed area of L c shell within a
muimum height of 30 fl above grade.
0.075 when 4 in. thicknesa of external insulation is
provided.
Note 2: The values for insulation are based o n an arbi-
WheW trary conductance value of 4 Btu per hr per sq ft per deg F
per in. of thickness. Insulation shall resist dislodgement by
CFH = venting rcquircmcnt, in cubic feet of free air fire-hose streams and shall be noncombustible.
per hour-14.7 psia at 60 F.
A = exposcd wcttcd surface, in square feet. Note 3: Water films covering the metal surfaces can, un-
der ideal conditions, absorb substantially all incident radia-
N m I: The foregoing forn~ulais based on tion. However, the reliability of effective water application
is dependent upon many factors. Freezing weather, high
Q = 21.000 A',. winds, clogging of the system, unreliability of water supply,
at given in API RP 520: Design and Installation of Pressure- and tank surface conditions are a few factors which may
RdieVing Systems in Refineries, Parf I-Design. The total heat prevent adequate or uniform water coverage. Because of
absorbed, Q, is in British thermal units per hour. The constant, these uncertainties, the use of an environmental factor other
1,107, is derived by converting the heat input value of 21,000 than 1.0 for water spray is generally discouraged.
Bhl per hr per sq ft to standard cubic feet of free air by using
tbs latent heat of vaporization and molecular weight of hexanc 4.0 Means of Venting
(aCr Apwndix of this standard for further detail).
3.23 The total venting requirements in cubic feet 4.1 Normal Vents
of free air determined from Table 2 and the formula in Normal venting shall be accomplished by a pilot-
Par. 3.22 are based on the assumption that the stored operated relief valve, prcssure relief valve, pressure
liquid will have the characteristics of hexane, since this vacuum (PV) valve, or an open vent with or without
will provide results which are within an acceptable a flame-arresting device. in accordance with the follow-
d e p e of accuracy for almost all liquids encountered. ing requirements:
However, if a greater degree of accuracy is desired,
the total emergency venting requirement for any specific 1. A pilotsperated relief valve, if used, shall be so
liquid may be determined by the following formula: designed that the main valve will open automatically
and protect the tank in the event of failure of the pilot
Cubic feet of free air per hour = Y E valve diaphragm or other essential functioning device.
L a Relief valves equipped with a weight and lever prefer-
Where: ably should not be used.
V = cubic feet of free air per hour from Table 2 or 2. A pressure relief valve is appliciible on tanks oper-
the formula in Par. 3.22. ating above atmospheric pressure; in cases where a
174
vacuum can be created within a tank, vacuum protcction 5.0 Testing of Venting Devices
may be required. The capacity of venting devices shall be established
3. PV valves are recommcndcd for usc on atnlospheric by any of the following:
storage tanks in which oil with a flash point bclow 100 F 1. In accordance with Par. UG-131 of Unfred Pres-
is stored and for use on tanks containing oil which is sure Vessels, Sect. VIII of A S M E Boiler and Pressure
heated above the flash point of the oil. A flanic arrester Vessel Code (1965), with the exception that the deter-
is not considered necessary for use in conjunction with mination of theoretical flow for the valve (actual dis-
a PV valve. charge area) and the application of any coefficient to
4. Open vents with a flame-arresting dcvice may bc determine flow capacities shall be based on formulas
used in place of PV valves on tanks .in which oil with a which describe flow rates occurring below the critical
flash point below 100 F is storcd and on tanks conlain- pressure drop, rather than those shown in Par. UG-
131(e), item 2, which describe theoretical flow rates
ing oil which is heated above the flash point of the oil. above the critical pressure drop.
5 . Open vents may be uscd to provide vcnting capncity 2. By determining flow capacities of manhole covers
for tanks in which oil with a flash point of 100 1: or with long bolts and similar venting devices by calcula-
above is storcd, for heated tanks whcrc thc oil stordg': tion, using a flow coefficient of 0.5, rather than by flow
tempcrature is bclow the oil flash point, for tanks with test. The flow formula used shall be suitable for non-
a capacity of less than 59.5 bbl (2,500 gal) used for critical flow and shall give proper consideration to
the storage of any product, and for tanks with a capacity actual flow area, flowing pressure, and features of the
of less than 3,000 bbl (1 26,000 gal) used for the storage vent which would affect flow capacity. Data and cal-
of crude oil. culations to show how capacities were determined shall
6. In the case of viscous oils, such as cu:baA and be available.
penetration grade asphalts, whcre the danger of t x k 3. By flow-testing at least one production model of
collapse resulting from sticking pallets or from pluggin2 every type and size of venting device under the condi-
of flame arresters is greater than the possibiiity of i l a m tions listed hereinafter. Tests may be made by the
transmission into the tank, open vcnts may be used as manufacturer if certified by a qualified impartial ob-
an exception to the requirement for PV valvcs or flame- server, or tests may be delegated to an outside agency.
arresting devices as called for in items 3 and 4.
5.1 Capacity Data
4.2 Emergency Vents
5.1 1 Capacity data shall be presented in the form
Emergency venting may be accomplished by the of curves or tables which give the volume of flow
use of: through both vacuum and pressure ports, and which
1. Larger or additional open vents as limited by Par. cover the full range between the opening pressure (or
4.1, items 3 and 4. vacuum) and the pressure (or vacuum) at which the
ports are fully open. Capacity data for pilot-operated
2. Larger or additional PV valves or pressure relief vents or devices which open fully at set pressure (or
valves. vacuum) may be expressed as a flow coefficient, this
3. A gage hatch which permits the cover to lift under coefficient being the ratio of the flow of the vent to
abnormal internal pressure. the flow of a theoretically perfect nozzle of the same
4. A manhole cover which permits the cover to lift diameter.
under abnormal internal pressure. 5.12 Capacity data shall indicate points of initial
5 . A connection between the roof and the shell which opening and final closing of the venting device; the
is weaker than the weakest vertical joint in the shell or closing noted as pressure (or vacuum) is decreased
shell-to-bottom connection. A tank with a roof-to-shell after fully opening the ports.
attachment (maximum ?bin. single-fillet weld), as 5.13 Capacity data shall be expressed in terms of
described in Par. 3.5.2(c) and ( e ) of API Standard cubic feet of free air per hour at 60 F and at a pressure
650, is recognized as having a weak seam connection of 14.7 psia.
and, therefore, will not require emergency vents.
5.14 Pressures shall be expressed in inches of
6. Other forms of construction demonstrably compa-
water; however, auxiliary scales shall be expressed in
rable for pressure relief purposes.
ounces per square inch, and other units of measurement
4.3 Vent Discharge may also be included if desired.
For tanks located inside buildings, discharge from 5.15 Sufficient measurements shall be made at
vents shall be to the outside of the buildings. A weak pressures in the viciuity of the opening points, particu-
roof-to-shell connection shall not be used as a means larly at 1.15, 1.25, and 1.50 times the opening pressure
for emergency venting a tank within a building. or vacuum, in order to clearly establish the flow capacity
at those points.
175
5.16 The pressure or vacuum at which the valve 5.23 Valves to be used on productica tanks or
disk reaches its fully open position shall be noted in the to be mounted on special nozzles or fittings shall be
capacity data sheet. mounted on the test equipment in the same manner as
they are to be mounted in the field, with their axes in
5.17 Capacity data shall include a statement of the the position normally used on a tank.
manner in which the valves were mounted and tested.
If any fluid other than air is used in the test, this fact
shall be noted on the test report, together with the 5.3 Test Tank
temperature of the fluid actually used and its specific
gravity at standard conditions. 5.31 The test tank shall be so constructed as to
prevent high-velocity jets from impinging on the venting
5.2 Mounting of Venting Device for Test
device.
5.21 To minimize the effect of entrance losses, the 5.32 Provisions shall be made to dampen pulsations
venting device shall be mounted on the top of the test in the test medium supply in order to avoid errors in
tank at a location near the center of an area which is flow metering.
essentially flat. The flat area shall have a diameter at
least five times greater than the nominal diameter of the 5.4 Flow Metering
device to be tested. 5.41 Air or other suitable gas shall be employed in
5.22 The valve shall be mounted for test on a
testing the venting device.
straight-pipe nipple which has the same nominal di- 5.42 Air or gas flow shall be measured in accord-
ameter as the valve and a length one and one-half times mce with Chapter 4, “Flow Measurement by Means of
the nominal diameter. The pipe nipple shall squarely Thin Plate Orifices, Flow Nozzles, and Venturi Tubes,”
enter the top of the test tank near the center of the flat of Part 5, “Measurement of Quantity of Materials,” of
portion, with the end of the nipple machined to 90 deg the supplement on “Instruments and Apparatus” to the
with the axis and flush with the inside of the tank. ASME Power Test Codes.
Rounding of the entrance in excess of a %-in. radius
shall not be permitted.
This
177
Chapter 7
NATURAL GAS AND NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS
BRUCE A. ECKERSON, ARNOLD L. JOHNSON and

GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
The contribution of natural gas to the national supply of energy in the U.S.A. is
presented in Figs. 7-1 and 7-2, with forecast through the year 2000. The demand for
natural gas is now greater than the supply during periods of cold weather.
100
LEAR
90
80
70
i3
E
a
8"
AND GAS LIPUIDS
b
3
;so
'
a
J
3!
I-
8'
40
6L 30
20
10
0 1920 1930 1940 I950 1960 1970 K)
Fig. 7-1. Distribution of United States energy market among various fuels, 1920-1980.
178
In the United States, over 75% of the required energy comes from petroleum and
natural gas (DeGolyer and MacNaughton, personal communication, 1976). Natural
gas and natural gas liquids contribute approximately 32% of this total.
Figure 7-1 shows the distribution of the total United States market from 1920 to
1980: (1) since 1920, the water power has remained approximately constant at 4%;
(2) nuclear energy has reached about 3% in 1975; (3) from 1920 to 1975, coal's share
of the market has decreased from 78% to 18%;(4) from 1920 to 1975, oil's share has
increased from 13% to 42%; (5) from 1920 to 1975, the natural gas share has
increased from 4% to 30%; and ( 6 ) the consumption of natural gas liquids have
increased from a negligible amount in 1920 to 3% of the energy market in 1975.
Marginal gas reserves containing large quantities of inerts, such as carbon dioxide
and nitrogen, are now being considered for development. Removal of inerts is
expensive and these resen-s can be economically produced when natural gas prices
are allowed to seek t h c - proper level. It is imperative that all available gas be
produced in the most efficient way, which requires an understanding of natural gas
and its properties.
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is a naturally-occurring mixture of hydrocarbon and nonhydro,.

carbon gases found in porous formations beneath the earth's surface, often in
association with crude petroleum (AGA, 1965).
Primarily, natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules belonging to the
paraffin series. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, CH,; followed by ethane,
C,H,; propane, C,H,; butanes, C,H,,; and heavier components as shown in Table
7-1, and in Fig. 7-3. These compounds have the chemical formula of CnH2,,+,.
Natural gas is principally composed of methane with decreasing amounts of
ethane, propane, and heavier components. It normally is partially or completely
saturated with water vapor and may contain inert gases such as nitrogen and
helium, and acid gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans.
There are many dry gas fields in which no liquids are produced, and the only
processing required is dehydration, or perhaps, heating value adjustment.
The other fields, in which a clear condensate is produced with the gas, are called
condensate fields. In these fields the phenomenon of retrograde condensation often
occurs; that is, liquid condenses out of the gas as the pressure is reduced (Katz et
al., 1959). Thus, when the high-pressure gas is produced into a lower-pressure
system through a choke, liquid forms. Liquid also condenses in the formation as the
pore pressure drops and, unfortunately, does not completely revaporize before
abandonment pressure is reached. Cycling plants are installed to prevent this loss of
product.
The produced gas is processed to remove the heavy ends; the residue gas, rather
than being sold, is injected to maintain reservoir pressure. When the reservoir has
179
TABLE 7-1
Composition of natural gases
Component Type of gas field Natural gas separated

Gas from crude oil
Dry gas, Sour gas,
Los Jumping condensate, Ventura "
Medanos " Pound ' Paloma L(
400 lb 50 Ib Vapor
(mole ') (mole ') %) (mole %) (mole %) (mole %)
Hydrogen sulfide 0 3.3 0 0 0 0
Carbon dioxide 0 6.7 0.68 0.30 0.68 0.81
Nitrogen and air 0.8 0 0 0 - 2.16
Methane 95.8 84.0 74.55 89.57 81.81 69.08
Ethane 2.9 3.6 8.28 4.65 5.84 5.07
Propane 0.4 1.o 4.74 3.60 6.46 8.76
Isobutane 0.1 0.3 0.89 0.52 0.92 2.14
n-Butane Trace 0.4 1.93 0.90 2.26 5.02
Isopent ane 0 * 0.75 0.19 0.50 1.42
n-Pent ane 0 0.63 0.12 0.48 1.41
Hexane 0 0.7 1.25
Heptane 0 0.15 1.05 4.13
Octane 0 6.30
Nonane 0
100.0 100.0 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
" In California. ' In Canada.
% ANNUAL
CHANGE 1979 O ' O ~ ~ 2000
~~ E
85-2000
YEAR
Fig. 7-2. Outlook on energy consumption in U.S.A.; forecast through the year 2000 (Copyright", 1985 by
Chevron Corporation.)
180
HYDROCARBONS IN NATURAL GAS
METHANE Ci CH4
ETHANE c2 C2H6 H-C-

" YC -H
k k
PROPANE C3 C3He Vt 'i'
H-C-C-C -H
k k h
M
Y H Y Y Y
PENTANE Ca CsH12 HC-~-C-C-C-H
~ A IH l H l H
Fig. 7-3. Principal hydrocarbons present in natural gas and their structural formulas. With few
exceptions, natural gas consists of at least 95% hydrocarbons. The remainder is nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
and, sometimes, small proportion of hydrogen sulfide. The principal hydrocarbon is methane with
heavier hydrocarbons, i.e., ethane, propane, butane, pentanes, hexanes, and heptanes, being present in
decreasing proportions.
been swept of heavy ends so that retrograde condensation no longer can occur, the
field is produced in a normal manner.
Gas is also produced with crude oil. This associated gas is normally rich in
recoverable liquids, and construction of a gas processing plant may be economically
justifiable even at relatively low gas production rates. At lower oil-gas separator
pressures the heavy ends content of the associated gas is higher.
Several gas analyses are given in Table 7-1 including dry gas, sour gas, gas from a
condensate field, and oil-well gas produced at different pressures. Although these
compositions are typical of many gases, it should be pointed out that nonhydro-
carbon contents may be many times those shown. Methane-ethane ratio may also
be as low as 4 : 1. This wide diversity of composition means that each gas must be
individually evaluated and properly handled. This is the function of a skilled gas
engineer, which is discussed later.
181
GAS PROCESSING PLANTS
A typical gas processing plant produces residue sales gas and a variety of liquid
products including ethane, liquefield petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gasoline
(Table 7-11). Inasmuch as early plants were intended to remove only heavier
components intended for blending into motor fuel, the term gasoline plant came
into being. Since World War 11, recovery had emphasized both on LPG and natural
gasoline. LPG is usually defined as propane, butanes, or mixtures thereof. In recent
years, the extraction of ethane for petrochemical feedstocks has become an im-
portant function of the gas processing plant. Operation of the plant involves the
removal of impurities such as water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur compounds.
The number and types of hydrocarbon products produced depends on the size of
the plant and its location with respect to other facilities. Whereas older plants
generally have their own fractionation facilities, newer plants more often produce a
single demethanized or deethanized product, which is shipped by truck or pipeline
to a central fractionating facility. Older plants had a relatively long life expectancy,
being built during times of restricted production, and were designed for handling
relatively small volumes of gas over long periods. Modern plants, on the other hand,
have shorter lives, which is a result of unrestricted production, and the economics of
larger short-lived facilities are less acceptable. A centrally-located facility can handle
products from many sources and can, therefore, have a long economic life.
Natural gas may be liquefied and transported by ship. Liquefied natural gas,
normally referred to as LNG, is becoming an important source of energy for
European, American, and Japanese markets. Large LNG plants are operating or
planned for construction in Alaska, Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and
TABLE 7-11
Composition of natural gasoline (liquid volume per cent)
Ventura Gasoline Plant Ten Section Gasoline Plant

Reid vapor pressure 38 psia 60 psia 100 psia 22 psia
Ethane Trace 0.5 0.7 0
Propane 1.1 16.0 43.8 0
Isobutane 19.0 16.0 10.7 0.2
n-Butane 41.0 34.7 23.0 22.7
Isopentane 13.2 11.2 7.4 24.1
n-Pentane 11.3 9.5 6.3 21.0
Hexane 6.8 5.7 3.8 12.6
Heptane 5.3 4.4 2.9 13.7
Octane 1.2 1.o 0.7 4.1
Nonane 1.1 1.0 0.7 1.2
Decane Trace Trace Trace 0.4
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
182
other countries. Production of LNG, however, is not a normal surface operation in

petroleum production.
GAS SPECIFICATIONS
Sales gas specifications for natural gas include one or more of the following:
water content, hydrocarbon content, heating value, specific gravity, acid gas con-
tent, temperature, and pressure.
Water content
Water content is ordinarily expressed as pounds of water per million standard

cubic feet of gas; however, dew point temperature and pressure also are used. The
two methods have a definite relationship as shown by curves of water content as a
function of saturation temperature and pressure (N.G.P.S.A., 1966). Common
specifications are 1-, 4-,or 7-lb gas (i.e., lb water/Mscf gas) depending on the
severity of conditions to which the gas will be exposed. In some warmer areas a
maximum dew point of 50°F at delivery pressure is specified to assure that no water
will condense in underground lines. Ground temperatures seldom fall below that
level in those areas.
Hydrocarbon content
Hydrocarbon content is usually indicated indirectly by either heating value or

specific gravity. This procedure is not entirely accurate because composition can
vary widely in a multicomponent system without changing either property signifi-
cantly. Hydrocarbon dew points are sometimes specified or limits placed on gas
enrichment with reference to specific components, expressed as gallons of liquefia-
ble material per thousand cubic feet of gas (GPM, G/M, or gal/Mcf). Of particular
importance are hexanes and heavier components which may condense or otherwise
create problems in gathering or distribution systems. If significant amounts of
carbon dioxide or nitrogen are present, neither gravity nor heating value will
indicate hydrocarbon content. If both of these properties are measured, presence of
one or both of these impurities will be indicated because either will raise gravity and
lower heating value.
Hydrocarbon content is not specified as often as it was in the past. The demand
for energy has made purchasers less demanding. Gas is seldom sold strictly on a
volume basis today, the price being adjusted for the heating value of the gas. The
contract gas price is expressed as $/MMBtu; the price per Mcf is equal to
$/MMBtu X gas Btu per cf/1000.
Acid gas content
Acid gas content is specified according to the particular impurity. The usual
specification for hydrogen sulfide is 0.25 grain/100 scf, although specifications as
183
high as 1.0 grain/100 scf are sometimes found. As a comparison, current OSHA
standard for H,S in ambient air is 20 ppm (1.2 grains/100 scf); at that level,
protective gear is required. Mercaptans are also expressed as grains/lOO scf;
however, they do not often present a problem in gas sales because mercaptans are
added as a warning odorant for natural gas. Carbon dioxide content may also be
specified; an upper limit is commonly 5% by volume. There are a few reported cases
of carbonyl sulfide (COS), although its occurrence in natural gas is rare.
GAS TEST METHODS
The value of any specification depends on the availability of reliable test methods
to determine the specific property. Reference is made to published test methods of
the American Society for Testing Materials (A.S.T.M), Gas Processors Association
(G.P.A.), and the Pacific Energy Association (P.E.A.; previously Western Gas
Processors and Oil Refiners Association: W.G.P. and O.R.A.). Specific references
are given at the end of this chapter (G.P.A., 1980a-d; N.G.P.S.A., 1962,1966,1972;
P.E.A., 1943, 1950, 1966; W.G.P.&O.R.A., 1950a,b, 1955, 1956, 1965). The follow-
ing methods are the most common.
Water content
Water content is most often determined by measuring the dew point temperature
at a fixed pressure with a commercial device (Bureau of Mines Tester). This
indicator consists of a pressure chamber with a thermometer and a mirror that can
be cooled with a refrigerant. The dew point is visually observed and the water
content read from any standard chart (e.g., N.G.P.S.A., 1966). Some experience is
required to differentiate between the water and the hydrocarbon dew points. Water
content and dew point are relatively independent of gas composition. At very low
water contents, a. suitable refrigerant may not be readily available and, in some
cases, a continuous record is desired. In these cases a recorder using the conductiv-
ity of a hygroscopic salt is used.
Carbon dioxide and air
Determination of carbon dioxide and air, as well as hydrocarbons, is most

frequently done by gas chromatography. Carbon dioxide is also determined by
Orsat analysis which is based on volume reduction of a known volume of gas after
reaction of the carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide solution. Air is sometimes
estimated by determining oxygen by Orsat analysis with a special reagent (pyrogal-
101) and assuming a normal air/O, ratio.
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is determined by the cadmium sulfide test in which a measured

volume of gas is first bubbled through a cadmium solution to precipitate cadmium
184
sulfide and then titrated iodometrically. In the presence of very high concentrations
of H,S the Tutweiler method is used by allowing it to react directly with iodine
solution. A qualitative test for the presence of H,S is the use of moist lead acetate
paper. Semiquantitative tests can be made with any of several “length of stain”
tubes, in which a substrate is impregnated with a reagent that turns dark on contact
with H,S. The length of darkening and the volume of gas are a measure of the H,S
con tent.
Specific gravity
Specific gravity, whch can be determined with a gravity balance, is commonly

measured with a Ranarex or calculated from the gas analysis.
Heating value
Calorimeters are used for direct determination of heating value. Inasmuch as the
equipment is very expensive, however, it is more common to analyze the gas by
chromatography and calculate the heating value from known properties of the
individual components. A method for this calculation has been published by the
G.P.A. This method is also used for specific gravity and compressibility determina-
tions.
Gas measurement
Measurement of natural gas usually involves inserting a restrictive orifice in the

line and measuring the pressure drop across the orifice. Basic measurement data
were developed by the American Gas Association, which appears in the publications
of G.P.A., P.E.A., and the Southern California Meter Association. Chapter 2 of
Volume I1 discusses the equipment and procedures involved in gas measurement in
detail.
NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS
Natural gas liquids can be classified as (1) ethane, (2) LPG (liquefied petroleum
gas), or (3) natural gasoline. The LPG is normally restricted to propane and butane
or mixtures thereof, with small amounts of ethane and pentane being present as
impurities. Natural gasoline is considered by many to consist of pentane and heavier
hydrocarbons, but the term is also applied to mixtures of LPG and pentanes plus
(i.e., pentanes and heavier fractions).
Liquid specifications
Liquid specifications as set by mutual agreement between buyer and seller vary
widely, but approximate limits for commercial products can be summarized as
follows:
185
Ethane
Maximum methane content = 1.5%by volume. Maximum carbon dioxide content
= 0.28% by volume. It is noncorrosive by using copper strip method.
Propane
A minimum of 95% propane by volume, a maximum of 1-2% butane, and a
maximum vapor pressure which limits ethane content. The currently used vapor
pressure is 208 psig, which is limited by the working pressure of DOT shipping
containers (300 psig at 130°F.) Corrosivity, sulfur content, dryness, and specific
gravity also may be specified. If propane is to be used as a motor fuel, the propylene
content is limited because of its low octane rating.
Butane
The percentage of one of the butane isomers is usually specified along with the
maximum amounts of propane and pentane. Other properties that may be specified
are vapor pressure, specific gravity, corrosivity, dryness, and sulfur content.
Butane-propane mixture
In the case of butane-propane mixture, in addition to limits on nonhydro-
carbons, the maximum isopentane content is usually stated. The particular mix is
identified by vapor pressure or percentages of the components.
Natural gasoline
In the midcontinent area, natural gasoline is designated or sold on the basis of
vapor pressure or, sometimes, by grade. The grade is defined by the vapor pressure
and the percent vaporized at 140'F and 740 mm Hg. On the Pacific Coast, gasolines
are usually sold on the basis of actual composition, which is determined from the
Reid vapor pressure-composition curves prepared for each product source. Specifi-
cations for natural gasoline limit the Engler distillation end point to 375°F. End
points of 300-32OoF, however, are more common.
Liquid testing
Standard tests for LPG and gasoline are given in the technical bulletins referred
to above. The P.E.A. Bulletin TS-352 presents an empirical method for computing
Reid vapor pressure from analytical data. Engler distillation and copper strip
corrosivity tests are A.S.T.M. methods. The G.P.A. has published an improved
copper strip method using instrumental readings to replace colorimetric visual
evaluation,
GAS TREATING
Water removal
The most common impurity in natural gas requiring treatment is water. Water
removal is necessary to prevent condensation of water and formation of ice or gas
186
PUMP
Fig. 7-4. Fluid process for gas treating.
hydrates. Liquid water can cause corrosion or erosion problems in pipelines and
various equipment, particularly in the presence of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide. Solid formation can plug pipelines, block control valves, and cause other
operating problems. The simplest method of water removal is to cool the gas to a
temperature equal to or below the required dew point. The range of this method can
be extended if cooling can be done at higher pressures. For example, if it is
necessary to produce a gas with a dew point of 50°F at 135 psig (water content of
60 lb/MMscf) when the best available cooling is 80"F, the required dew point can
be realized by cooling to 80°F at 460 psig or higher, under which conditions the
water content will be 60 lb/MMscf or lower.
In a majority of cases, cooling alone is insufficient and, in field applications,
usually impractical. Most dehydration requires the use of solid adsorbents or
hygroscopic liquids. Solid desiccants include alumina, silica gel, and molecular
sieves. Liquid agents for countercurrent contact are usually di- or triethylene glycol.
Ethylene glycol can be directly injected into the gas stream in refrigeration-type
plants (see Fig. 7-8).
Figure 7-4 shows a typical fluid process for gas treating which may be used for
glycol dehydration. Field units normally do not have a reflux drum or pump. The
regenerator overhead is cooled with air fins at the top of the column or by an
internal coil through which the feed flows. Reflux condenses and flows downward
by gravity.
Countercurrent vapor-liquid contact between the gas and the glycol produces an
outlet dew point that is a function of the contact temperature and the residual water
content of the stripped or lean glycol. Stripping (regeneration) of glycols is limited
by the temperatures to which they can be heated. Both di- and triethylene glycol
tend to decompose before they boil. The boiling point composition curves of both
glycols are almost identical; better stripping and, hence, lower dew points can be
187
COOLING GAS-OUT
Y
m, BED BED
COOLER
n7-+by
A
WATER
-@ COOLING
HEATING
GAS-IN
GAS - O U T +
, -
r
I
INLET I V PROCESS GAS-IN
obtained with triethylene glycol which has a higher decomposition temperature.

Normal dew point depressions are 50-60°F below contact temperature for diethyl-
ene glycol and 70-75°F for triethylene glycol.
Special techniques such as stripping of hot triethylene glycol with dry gas give
dew point depressions up to 100°F or more. The Drizo Process, which uses heavy
hydrocarbon vapors as a stripping medium for triethylene glycol, reportedly can
give equally low dew point depressions. Vacuum distillation can also be used.
Figure 7-5 shows a typical two-bed solid adsorbent treater used for dehydration.
While one bed is removing water from process gas, the other is being heated and
cooled. Sometimes a three-bed system is used: one bed is adsorbing, one is heating,
and one is cooling. An added advantage is that the three-bed system can be used as
a two-bed system while the third bed is being maintained or replaced. For this
reason, a third bed is most often used where a dehydrator failure can result in a
costly plant shutdown.
Desiccants, as mentioned above, may be alumina, silica or molecular sieve. Silica
gel and aluminas have capacities for water adsorption in the order of 7-8% by
weight; cheaper bauxite (crude alumina): 4-6%; and molecular sieves: up to 15%.
These are long-term design capacities and not the higher initial capacities often
quoted. Molecular sieves are severalfold more expensive, but provide very low dew
point outlet gas and are used almost exclusively for cryogenic plant feed prepara-
tion.
Because of its high tolerance to hydrogen sulfide, silica is usually selected for
sour gas dehydration. To protect molecular sieve beds from plugging by sulfur,
alumina beds are sometimes placed ahead of the molecular sieves to remove the
sulfur compounds.
Regeneration is usually carried out with gas heated to 350-400'F. Heating is
continued until the gas leaving the bed reaches 300-375°F. Although lower temper-
188
atures result in longer bed life, higher temperatures regenerate better. Molecular
sieves require regeneration gas having temperatures of 450-500'F.
Downflow is most commonly used during adsorption, with regeneration flow
being in the opposite direction and cooling in the same direction as adsorption. This
flow pattern requires the smallest vessel diameter because of higher permissible gas
velocities. There is no tendency to lift the bed and cause breakage. Upflow, although
more expensive because of initial vessel cost, is more conducive to trouble-free
operation.
Acid gas removal
Treatment of natural gas to remove the acid gas constituents (carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide) is most often accomplished by contact with an alkaline solution.
The basic flow is the same as that shown in Fig. 7-4. Common treating solutions are
aqueous solutions of the ethanol amines or alkali carbonates. A number of special
treating agents have been developed in recent years the action of which is based on
physical absorption and chemical reaction. Most of the newer agents are economi-
cally competitive only when the ,partial pressure of the acid gas is high (50-75 psi or
higher). When only carbon dioxide is to be removed in large quantities, or when
only partial removal is necessary, hot carbonate or one of the physical solvents is
the most economical selection. The hot carbonate process operates at about 200'F
and both the heat exchanger and the solution cooler are eliminated (Fig. 7-4).
Hydrogen sulfide is sometimes removed by the iron oxide or dry box method.
The gas is passed through a bed of wood chips or shavings impregnated with iron
oxide, while the bed is being kept moist by circulation of a small stream of soda ash
solution. The hydrogen sulfide reacts with the iron oxide to form iron sulfide and is
regenerated by passing air through the bed, either continuously or on a batch basis.
Aeration of the bed converts the iron sulfide to elemental sulfur and iron oxide. The
method is suitable only for small quantities of sulfur, inasmuch as only about 90%
removal per bed can be realized. If several beds in series are required, the process is
not economic. The total sulfur removed by a bed is limited, because it becomes
clogged with elemental sulfur and must be discarded.
Modern environmental considerations may require that impurities should not be
discharged to the air. Most hydrogen sulfide removal processes return the hydrogen
sulfide unchanged. If the quantity involved does not justify installation of a sulfur
recovery plant, usually a Claw plant, then a process must be selected which
produces elemental sulfur directly. The dry box is suitable for the removal of small
quantities of hydrogen sulfide, whereas larger quantities require a continuous
process such as Ferrox or Stretford. Ferrox process is based on the same reactions
as the dry box method except that it is fluid and continuous. Stretford is a licensed
process using a solution containing vanadium salts and anthraquinone disulfonic
acid (ADA). In an excellent book, Dr. R.N. Maddox of Oklahoma State University
discusses these treating methods in detail (Maddox, 1974).
189
Nitrogen removal
Nitrogen is sometimes found in sufficient quantities to lower the heating value of

the gas. Such a gas can sometimes be sold at reduced prices if it can be blended with
a gas having a higher heating value. Some gas reserves were left undeveloped in the
past because the low energy content in the gas would not justify treatment. At
current high gas prices, however, plants for the removal of nitrogen are being
considered and a few have been installed. Nitrogen removal requires liquefaction
and fractionation of the entire gas stream which is quite expensive.
LIQUID EXTRACTION
Recovery of liquid hydrocarbons can be justified either because it is necessary to

make the gas salable or because it is economic to do so. With the increasing scarcity
of natural gas, purchasers are less critical and processing for liquid recovery is
usually based on economic considerations alone. Figure 7-6 shows the value of
recoverable liquids as natural gas energy. The justification for building a plant
depends on the spread between the value of enriched gas containing heavier
hydrocarbons and the price of lean gas plus the value of extracted liquid. The
spread must be sufficient to pay operating costs, amortize the plant cost, and
provide an adequate rate of return on capital. In many cases, particularly when the
volume of gas is small, processing cannot be justified.
If salability of the gas is the only reason for processing, then liquid removal
usually is a field operation using either crude oil enrichment, adsorption, or
30
m
c
8 10
0
I.o 1.5 21) 2.5
Dollar8 per million BTU
Fig. 7-6.Value of liquids as gas.
190
refrigeration processes. If liquid recovery is economic, the extent to which extraction

is carried out will depend on the availability of a market for the products and
heating value limitations of the residue gas. Most of the liquid recovery plants
recover a substantial portion of the propane and essentially all of the butanes and
heavier hydrocarbons comprising gasoline. These products can be readily moved by
rail, truck, and pipeline. Ethane recovery depends on availability of a product
pipeline, although small amounts of ethane are moved by truck or rail when mixed
with heavier hydrocarbons. Sufficient amount of ethane, however, must be left in
the gas to meet contractual requirements for heating value.
Crude enrichment
The purpose of crude enrichment is to produce two products: sales gas and
enriched tank oil. The tank oil contains more light hydrocarbon liquids than the
virgin crude oil and the residue gas is drier (leaner). Inasmuch as crude oil is finally
separated at atmospheric pressure, only those fractions can be added that can be
retained at that pressure. Every crude oil enrichment process, therefore, must, in
some manner, remove light ends from the oil to make room for the gasoline-and the
LPG fractions. One of the simplest and yet least often recognized methods is
manipulation of the number and operating pressures of the gas-oil separators
(traps). In rare cases, separator temperatures also can be varied. Selection of trap
pressures will also affect the nature of other processing steps and significantly affect
the amount of gas compression.
One method of removing light ends is using pressure reduction (vacuum condi-
tioning). A typical process of this type is shown in Fig. 7-7. Heating, stripping with
SALES
GAS
CRUDE
OIL
I
COOLER I
COMPRESSOR
bR
1
p
-k
TO FUEL OR
COMPRESSION
PUh
Fig. 7-7. Crude oil enrichment process.

191
dry gas, or a combination thereof are also used. Generally, stripping is done at low
pressure, after which the crude so stripped is pumped to high pressure to act as an
adsorbent. The enriched crude oil is then reduced to atmospheric pressure in stages
or using fractionation (rectification). Crude oil enrichment is used where there is no
separate market for light hydrocarbon liquids, or where the increase in API gravity
of the crude will provide a substantial increase in the price per unit volume as well
as volume of the stock tank oil.
Adsorption
When gases are relatively lean, adsorption-type units are installed for liquid
recovery. Equipment is similar to that used for dehydration (Fig. 7-5),and operation
is identical except for the length of the cycle. Dehydration is normally accomplished
in eight hours or longer and permits saturation of the bed with water, resulting in
the displacement of adsorbed hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon recovery requires 30-60
min per cycle and most of the adsorbed hydrocarbons are retained. The size of the
unit depends on the amount of liquid to be adsorbed and, therefore, the process is
not economically feasible for rich gases.
Refrigeration processes
Refrigeration processes can be classified according to the source of the refrigera-

tion and the nature of the basic separation step. A typical flow sheet is shown in
Fig. 7-8. In this case, mechanical or compression-type refrigeration is used to reduce
I GAS
SALES I f
FUEL
GAS
t
192
the temperature, and the basic separation is simply a phase separation followed by
liquid stabilization. When wellhead pressures are high and large pressure drops can
be used, expansion across a choke (Joule-Thomson effect) will supplement mecha-
nical refrigeration or even supplant refrigeration by an outside medium. Propane
and ammonia are the most common refrigerants. Ethylene glycol is injected into the
system at points where icing or gas hydrate formation can occur. The glycol is
recovered from the main separator and regenerated in the manner shown in Fig. 7-4.
The most common process used today, when liquid recovery can be economically
justified, is the one which uses a turboexpander to produce the necessary refrigera-
tion. Very low temperatures and high recovery of light components, such as ethane
and propane, can be attained using this process, a typical flow chart of which is
presented in Fig. 7-9. Inlet gas is dehydrated in molecular sieve beds and cooled by
heat exchange. The separated liquid containing most of the heavy fractions is fed to
a demethanizer column. The cold vapors are expanded through a turbine which is
loaded by a compressor wheel on the same shaft. This removal of energy from the
gas results in much lower temperatures than are possible by ordinary Joule-Thom-
son expansion. The expander outlet is a two-phase stream that is fed to the top of
the demethanizer column, which serves as a separator. The liquid is used as the
column reflux and the separated vapors combined with vapors stripped in the
demethanizer are exchanged with the feed gas. The heated gas, which is partially
recompressed by the expander compressor, is further recompressed to sales pressure
in a separate compressor. Inlet gas is used for heating reboiler, which makes the
193
FGAS
UEL
GLYCOL
I SALES
J
I
GAS
INTAKE t
GAS v
HEAT
EXCHANGER a
2
s
-43 REBOILER
CONDENSATE
Ir
\--1
-To
GLYCOL WATER I 1
Fig. 7-10. Vapor rectification process.
process very efficient, i.e., the fuel is only required for dehydrator regeneration and
for recompression. When the inlet gas is rich in liquefiable hydrocarbons, the inlet
heat exchange is supplemented by mechanical refrigeration ahead of the primary
separator.
Vapor rectification processes, typified by Fig. 7-10, also employ mechanical
refrigeration, but the basic separation is accomplished in a series of steps in the
vapor-rectified column. Refrigeration is applied to the column overhead to produce
reflux and, sometimes, to partially condense the feed. If the recovery of lighter
liquids is sufficiently high, the reboiler may be placed on the vapor rectifier and the
stabilizer is not used. The process is very flexible within the limits set by heating
medium, refrigeration system, and equipment size. Production can be varied simply
by resetting the top and bottom temperatures.
Absorption
Up until the early 1970s most hydrocarbon recovery plants involved oil absorp-
tion process. These complex plants tend to consume excessive fuel and are difficult
to operate. In a time of energy conservation and the trend towards construction of
short-lived plants, oil absorption process has become economically undesirable in
most new applications. Although the majority of operating plants still use this
process, very few newly-constructed plants utilize it. Oil absorption process involves
countercurrent contact between stripped or lean oil with the incoming wet gas,
(Figs. 7-11 and 7-12), at such conditions of temperature and pressure that the
desired amounts of the liquefiable components are dissolved in the oil (Figs. 7-13
and 7-14) together with lesser amounts of lighter components. Refrigeration is
frequently used to obtain lower (more favorable) temperatures. The remainder of
194
Wire Mesh Demirler

R e s i d u e G o s lo S a l e s
Lean Oil
Troy
Bubble C o p
Down Spoul
W c l Gor
Rich Oil
u
Fig. 7-11. A schematic diagram of bubble tray absorber.
the plant can be divided into the following functional sections: (1) separation of
light ends from the oil; (2) separation of absorbed materials from the oil; (3) final
removal of light ends from the raw product; and (4) separation of the raw product
into various finished products.
A typical oil absorption system is illustrated in Fig. 7-15. The extraction of a
given component in the absorber depends on (1)the number of equilibrium contacts
(theoretical trays) in the absorber during countercurrent flow of gas and liquid and
(2) the absorption factor A defined as L / V K , where L = moles of liquid, V = moles
of vapor, and K = equilibrium ratio. Inasmuch as the L / V is a molal ratio, a
low-molecular-weight oil will yield a large L for the same volume of oil circulated.
Refrigeration, intercooling, and presaturation of the oil with light components are
all used to reduce effective absorber temperature and increase the absorption factor
by reducing K,the equilibrium ratio (mole fraction of a component in the gas: mole
fraction of component in the oil). Increase in pressure also reduces K up to a point;
195
Fig. 7-12. Bubble cap (a, b) and bubble tray (c, d).
LEAN OIL RATE O A L S ~ C F
Fig. 7-13. Relationship between the propane recovery (in 76) and lean oil/gas ratio (in gal/Mcf). Ventura
gasoline plant, California.
196
o/o PROPANE RECOVERED
Fig. 7-14.Relationship between the propane recovery (in %) and recovery of butane and pentane.
Ventura gasoline plant, California.
however, after reaching a minimum at some high pressure (500-600 psig), the value
of K starts to increase. Absorber pressure is usually set by the sales or end-use
pressure. Absorbers used in cycling plants are operated in the 1400-2000 psig range,
because it is more economic to cool or circulate more oil than to greatly increase the
recompression horsepower.
The rejection of unwanted light ends may be carried out in one or more steps.
Methane is nearly always removed in the rich-oil rectifier by pressure reduction and
heating. In many plants this column also removes the ethane. Following rich-oil
rectification, the absorbed material is removed from the oil in the stripper or a still.
If a heavy absorption oil is used, stripping is commonly done by preheating the oil
and countercurrently contacting it with steam. Steam is used because it is easily
condensed and is immiscible with the raw product. With low-molecular-weight oils,
197
S
I CONDENSER
COOLER
Fig. 7-15. Oil absorption process.
the still feed is heated by ‘exchange with the still bottoms and a fired heater is
installed as a reboiler. Low pressure is conducive to good stripping, whereas high
pressure aids condensation. Although most operations represent a compromise
between these two factors, some plants use two stills in series: one at high pressure
ISOBUTANE
PROPANE BUTANE
XED
N4TURAL GASOLINE FROM

DISTILLATION AREA
REBOILER
DEPROPANIZED GA5OLINE
I
I I
Fig. 7-16. Flow diagram of fractionation area.

198
to condense the light ends and the second at low pressure to insure good stripping
of the heavier gasoline fractions. If the oil is not well stripped, the lighter compo-
nents in the oil will be vaporized in the absorber and lost in the residue gas stream.
Fractionation
As was mentioned earlier, the trend is toward construction of large, centrally

located, fractionating systems; however, at times local systems may be justified. The
order of fractionation (i.e., which product is produced first) can vary widely. There
are two general rules of thumb which can be substantiated by economic evaluation:
(1) remove any unwanted light ends in the first column so that the other columns
can run totally condensing; and (2) remove the largest product stream first. In
practice this means that the first column will be a deethanizer unless (1) all ethane
was removed in the rich-oil rectifier or (2) an ethane product is being made and
shipped as an ethane-propane mix. Normally propane or ethane is the largest
volume product and the depropanizer is the next column; they are followed by the
debutanizer and the butane splitter (Fig. 7-16). Using this design each column can
operate at a successively lower pressure and streams will flow from column to
column without pumping. On the other hand, if propane recovery is low, it may be
desirable to debutanize first in order to get rid of the large gasoline stream and then
depropanize, followed by a splitter if there is one.
GAS GATHERING
Custody transfer of the gas normally takes place immediately downstream of the
trap, and it is the responsibility of the gas plant operator to gather the gas for
processing. Substantial savings in compressor horsepower can be realized if multiple
stages of separation are used. This means a partial duplication of the gathering
system to bring gas at two different pressures to a compressor station. A careful
economic study must be made to evaluate the advantages of one system over the
other during the life of the operation.
Generally, the processor gathers the gas at low pressure and compresses it to the
processing pressure which is usually the residue gas sales pressure (see Fig. 7-27). In
most gas processing units the greatest capital investment is for the gas compressors
and auxiliaries. If the gas gathering lines are short, it is advantageous to locate
compressors at the plant where they can be attended for more efficient operation. It
is a good rule of thumb that length of gathering lines to a compressor suction should
never exceed five miles. Field compressors, designed for unattended operation,
should be used for greater distances. In the later stages of a field’s operation, when
gas volumes have declined and gathering lines may be oversized, it may be possible
to bypass the field compressors. Laying of pipelines (pattern-wise), size of pipelines,
and location of compressors should be based on economic considerations, both
current and future.
199
i COOL1 n
Fig. 7-17. Example of a gas-gathering system for an oil field.
If the wells are in a gas field, rather than an oil field, the gathering lines are
normally-sized to deliver the gas at utilization pressure. As the wellhead pressure
declines, compression is added to maintain the flow.
Hydrate formation in gas gathering lines is often a serious problem, particularly
if high pressures, low temperatures, and long distances are involved. Gas hydrates,
which resemble wet snow and have a crystalline structure, can plug lines and valves
if allowed to form. Hydrates may form at temperatures considerably above the
freezing point of water; for example, at a pressure of 800 psi a water-wet,
0.7-specific gravity gas will form hydrates at a temperature of approximately 65°F.
There are three methods commonly used to prevent hydrate formation in gas
gathering lines:
(1) Operation at temperatures and pressures at which hydrates cannot form.
Wellhead gas heaters are sometimes used to heat the gas entering the gathering
system, such as at the Shell’s Jumping Pound Plant in Canada.
(2) Dehydration of natural gas at the source before it enters the gas gathering
lines. This system is used at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (Wilson, 1974) and at the Ekofisk
Field in the North Sea (Kennedy, 1972).
(3) Injection of hydrate inhibitors into the gas gathering lines. Methanol is
commonly used where only a small amount of inhibitor is required. It is sometimes
used for large systems particularly when salt water is present. For example,
200
methanol is injected into the gathering line at the offshore production platform for
the Viking Field in the North Sea. A methanol-water mixture is separated from the
well fluid at the associated onshore facilities. This stream is subsequently fractionated
to recover methanol as a top product and salt water as a bottom product.
When salt is not present, ethylene glycol is sometimes injected into the gathering
line to prevent hydrate formation. Dilute glycol is separated at the gas processing
plant for reconcentration and is recycled back to the inlet of the gathering system.
This procedure was followed in the offshore Molino Field near Santa Barbara,
California.
Two-phase flow is frequently encountered in gas gathering lines. This occurs
when warm gas enters the system and subsequently cools to a temperature below its
dew point and/or when well fluid consisting of gas, condensate, and water enters
the gathering system. Under certain flow conditions, long sections of line may fill
with liquid, thereby increasing the pressure drop in the system. Liquid can be
displaced out of the line to improve its efficiency by running spheres (“pigs”)
through the line. It may be necessary to install a large vessel or “slug catcher” at the
outlet of the gathering lines to collect these large volumes of liquid. The slug catcher
acts as a surge to level out the liquid flow to the processing facilities. An example of
this is the 3000-bbl capacity slug catcher at a pressure of 1050 psig installed in the
onshore facilities of the Viking Field.
Although only gas transmission lines and gathering lines in incorporated areas
are subject to regulation by the Federal Office of Pipeline Safety, prudent operators
should design and install all pipelines in accordance with those standards. Steel lines
must have certain minimum wall thickness and be designed for the required
operating pressure and density of population. They must be coated, wrapped,
cathodically protected against corrosion, and buried with the proper amount of
cover to avoid rupture by outside operations. Many operators are now using PVC or
other plastic pipe for gas gathering lines below a pressure of 50 psig. These pipes are
less expensive, require no coating, and are less expensive to install.
GAS INJECTION
Produced gas may be processed and injected back into the formation from which
it is produced. Additional gas from other formations may also be injected to
supplement the gas produced from a given oil zone. This is done for two reasons: (1)
reservoir engineers have determined that the production of oil can be maximized
(maximum recovery) by maintaining the field pressure and/or (2) the gas cannot be
sold because an outlet is not available and venting is not permitted because of air
pollution regulations. Injection pressures of 3000-4000 psig are common.
201
GAS ENGINEERING
The gathering and processing of natural gas is very complex, and careful
evaluation of all engineering and economic factors is essential for an efficient and
profitable operation (see Fig. 7-18). This is the function of a gas engineer with the
assistance of specialists from other fields.
The first step in the evaluation of a new project is to determine gas reserves. This
is usually done by a reservoir engineer with assistance from a geologist. The results
of this study must also include an estimate of deliverability versus time. Although
the well test is helpful, test volumes tend to be higher than can be realized in
sustained production. The well test results also include compositional data. A
complete analysis is much more desirable than some quick test methods used for
product allocation. Consideration must be given to probable changes in composition
in oil well gases as gas/oil ratios increase.
On the basis of the gas analysis and the market conditions, the process engineer
will prepare a flowsheet for the processing scheme and the mechanical engineer will
prepare detailed designs and mechanical equipment specifications. Preliminary cost
estimates are prepared by the process and/or mechanical engineer. The gas engineer
will make an economic evaluation outlining production, income, expenses and
profitability. If the profitability meets the requirements of the management of a
FUNCTIONS OF ENGINEERING DEPT.

QE
NATURAL GAS AND GASOLINE DIVISION
j -1
I I
I PROCESS ENGINEERING 1 I MECHANICAL ENGINEERING I
I
1 JUSTIFICATION, PROFITABILITY, PAYOUT I
. t ,
(PROJECT)
PROJECT
I HYDROCARBON BALANCE I
I P L O T PLAN 1
I EQUIPMENT RATING 1
L I
I 1
I PROCESS ENGINEERING I 1 - 1
PROCESS PROBLEMS AND CONSTRUCTION
INSTRUMENTATION SUPERVISION
I START UP ]
Fig. 7-18. Example of functions of engineering department of the natural gas and gasoline division
202
particular company, the project will proceed. Economic criteria vary widely; among
those used are payout, rate of return on capital, ratio of cash flow to investment,
and the net present value at a specified discount rate.
Final engineering design may be completed in-house and the engineering draw-
ings submitted to contractors for construction bids, or the entire project may be
submitted to contractors for both final design and construction. The size of the
engineering group determines how much work is done in-house. In very small
companies, a few engineers perform all the engineering functions and preliminary as
well as final design may be made by an engineering contractor.
The various facets of gas engineering are so interrelated that even a specialist,
such as the process or mechanical engineer, should be as familiar as possible with all
aspects of a project, including field production, so that the proper decisions can be
made. The production engineer responsible for field operations should also be
familiar with the problems of the gas processor in order to make the entire
operation run smoothly.
(1) Draw a simplified flow 'diagram of absorption, stripping, and stabilization

operations.
(2) Describe three general methods of concentrating the components of gases.
(3) List agents which can remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gases. Also show
corresponding reactions.
(4) Draw a simplified flow diagram and cross section of an ethylene recovery
unit.
(5) For a specific period of operation of the ethylene recovery plant, the
compositions of the various streams are given below in mole%:
Component Feed Make Discharge Purge

29.2 0.0 23.3 42.6
2.9 0.0 2.5 3.9
1.1 0.0 1.1 1.3
1.3 0.0 1.3 1.6
58.4 0.0 71.5 49.2
1.2 13.9 0.2 0.5
5.9 86.2 0.0 0.8
100.0 100.1 99.9 99.9
For the period covered by the table, the number of moles of discharge gas was
1.447 times the number of moles of purge gas, and 94.8% of the C,H, was recovered
in the make gas.
For each 100.0 moles of feed gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams, entering the
answers on a skeleton-flow diagram.
203
(6) For a specific period of operation of the natural gasoline plant, the composi-
tions of the various streams are given below in mole%:
Raw Absorber Reabsorber Stabilizer Finished

gas residual residual residual gasoline
gas gas gas
Cl 44.5 60.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
c2 16.9 22.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
c3 16.2 14.2 55.4 53.1 0.0
c4 12.1 2.6 44.6 46.9 34.4
c: 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 65.6
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
For each 110.0 moles of the raw gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams, entering the
(7) Crude oil is heated in exchangers by the counter-current flow of fuel oil.
Measured at 60°F, the exchangers handle 30,500 gal/hr of the crude and 10,250
gal/hr of the fuel oil. The gravity and U.O.P. characterization factor of the crude
are 35" API and 11.3, whereas those for the fuel oil are 20" API and 11.3,
respectively. The fuel oil is cooled from 750 to 250"F, and the crude enters the
exchangers at 85°F.
Compute the heat lost by the fuel oil in Btu/hr. Estimate the outlet temperature
of the crude oil, assuming all of the heat lost by the fuel oil is picked up by the
crude.
(8) Engineers were studying the advisability of deasphalting lube oil by contact
with a mixture of propane and normal butane. A mixture containing 32.1 mole%
propane, 31.2 mole% butane, and 36.7 mole S lube oil was flashed at 25 psig and
100°F. Under these conditions, the equilibrium ratios ( K= y / x ) were 3.87 for
propane, 1.28 for butane, and 0.00 for the lube oil. For 100.0 moles of the original
mixture, compute the number of moles and mole % of each constituent in the
equilibrium liquid. For the first approximation, assume that the total number of
moles of liquid is 1.75 times the total number of moles of vapor, or L / V = 1.75.
(9) Outline a satisfactory sampling procedure for a nonretrograde wet gas and
sketch the equipment required. What precautions should be taken?
(10) A mixture of nitrogen and propane having a gross heating value of 1035
Btu/cu ft is used as a fuel in lieu of natural gas. It is transported in a buried line. If
the ground temperature is 50"F, what is the maximum permissible pressure that will
avoid condensation of liquid in the line?
(11) (a) Define "equilibrium ratio".
@) What factors affect the value of the equilibrium ratio?
(c) What methods can be used to correlate the most complex of the factors
listed in (b)?
(12) On purchasing propane as a motor fuel, what properties should one specify?
Why? Describe testing procedures.
204
APPENDIX 7.1 - SAMPLE PLANT FLOW PROBLEMS (After Chilingar and Beeson, 1968, pp.
360-365)
Ethylene recovery plant problem
For a specific period of operation of the ethylene recovery plant, the composi-
tions of the various streams are given below in mole %:

30.3 0.0 22.5 49.7
3.1 0.0 2.2 5.3
1.0 0.0 0.7 1.8
1.5 0.0 1.5 1.8
56.7 0.0 72.5 40.0
1.3 12.1 0.5 0.6
6.1 87.9 0.2 0.6
100.0 100.0 100.1 99.8
For the period covered by the table, the number of moles of discharge gas was
1.765 times the number of moles of purge gas, and 95.1% of the C,H, was recovered
in the make gas.
For each 100.0 moles of feed gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams. Enter the
Description of plant used for ethylene recovery

The feed gas stream, which is piped directly from the demethanizer column, is
introduced about midway in the tower. It moves upward in contact with (and
countercurrent to) the activated carbon bed, moving downward through the tower.
At 140°F temperature, which is maintained at the feed point, the carbon selectively
adsorbs the ethylene and other gases of higher molecular weights.
The unadsorbed lighter gases, with predominating methane and hydrogen, pass
upward and are removed as a discharge gas. This removal occurs at a disengaging
plate located just below the cooling section at the top of the tower. This discharge
gas is then used around the plant as fuel.
In order to keep the system free of an excessive amount of 60-mesh or finer
carbon particles, a portion of the unadsorbed gases is permitted to pass up the
tower, and past the cooling section, as purge gas.
The adsorbed gases (mostly ethylene) pass downward with the carbon, into the
stripping section, where the temperature of the carbon is increased to about 510°F.
At this temperature the adsorbed gases are desorbed from the carbon, pass back up
the tower, and are removed as make gas at the second disengaging tray situated just
above the stripping section. A small portion of these gases, however, continues on
up past the disengaging tray and serves as reflux in the section of the tower below
205
the feed tray. These gases serve to liberate the lighter components which may
contaminate the adsorbed material.
The last traces of adsorbed gases are removed by the steam (at 150 psig), which is
introduced below the stripping section. This steam passes upward and out with the
make gas, and is then condensed in a cooler. In order to remove the remaining
moisture from the product, the make gas is finally passed through an alumina
dehydrator.
As the carbon leaves the base of the tower, it is moved back up to the top
through a pipe. A sealing leg at the bottom of the tower prevents the stripping steam
from entering the lift section. The gas pressure for lifting the carbon is supplied by a
centrifugal blower. On reaching the top of the tower the carbon is dehydrated and
cooled to about 120°F in the cooling section.
Solution:
(95.1)( 6.1)
Moles of C,H, = = 5.8 moles
100
5.8
Total moles in make gas = -- 6.6 moles
0.879
Material balance:
100.0= 6.6 + P + 1.765P
solving for P (moles of purge gas)
P = 33.8 moles
and
D = 100 - 33.8 - 6.6 = 59.6 moles (discharge gas)

Mole % Mole % Moles Mole % Moles Mole % Moles
H2 30.3 0.0 0.0 22.5 i3.4 49.7 16.9
NZ 3.1 0.0 0.0 2.2 1.3 5.3 1.8
0 2 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.4 1.8 0.6
co 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.9 1.8 0.6
CH, 56.7 0.0 0.0 72.5 43.2 40.0 13.5
CZH, 1.3 12.1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.2
C2H4 6.1 87.9 5.8 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2
100.0 100.0 6.6 100.1 59.6 99.8 33.8
206
Moles
Purge 33.8
Discharge 59.6 -=-
59*6 - 1.765
P 33.8
Make 6.6
100.0
5.8
Recovery of C,H, in make gas = - = 95.1%
6.1
Natural gasoline plant problem
The compositions of various streams (mole %) in a natural gasoline plant are as

follows:
Component Raw gas Absorber Reabsorber Stabilizer Finished
residual gas residual gas residual gas gasoline
c, 76.0 84.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
c2 9.5 10.5 ' 0.0 0.0 0.0
c3 6.0 3.9 78.6 73.7 0.0
c4 4.5 1.7 21.4 26.3 35.5
c; 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 64.5
100.0 100.1 100.0 100.0 100.0
Assume that the liquid volumes are additive and that 1 gal of gasoline can be
obtained from 37.0 scf of C, vapor, 31.0 scf of C, vapor, or 26.0 scf of C: vapor.
(a) Calculate the number of moles (based on 100 moles of raw gas) for each
stream and each component.
(b) Calculate the total number of moles per day (based on 15,000 standard Mcf
per day of raw gas being processed) of residual gases from the absorber, the
reabsorber, and the stabilizer.
(c) Calculate the composition of the raw gasoline fed to the stabilizer.
(d) Compute the number of gallons per day of finished gasoline produced (based
on 15,000 standard Mcf per day of raw gas being processed).
Description of natural gasoline plant

The natural gasoline plant (see Figs. 7.1-1, 7.1-2, 7.1-3, and 7.1-4) is processing gas
which is pumped from the casing heads of oil wells. The raw gas is compressed,
cooled, and then sent upward through an absorbing column, countercurrent to a
stream of cold absorption oil. The residual (or fuel) gas leaving the absorber
contains almost all of the C, and C, present in the raw gas. As the gasoline-rich
absorbing oil leaves the bottom of the absorber, it is pumped through a heat
exchanger, and through a steam preheater, into a common stripping still and
207
FIELD FUEL r
COMPOSITIONS
VOLUME %
WET RESIDUE LlOUlD FIELD
GAS GAS HYDROCARBONS FUEL
METHANE 80.38 90.87 0 70.55
ETHANE
PROPANE
ISO- BUTANE 9 58
NORMAL BUTANE 2.24 .02 2 3 14
PENTANE + I69 17 4 4
100 00 100 00 100 00 100 00
Fig. 7.1-1. Example of compositions of various flow streams in a natural gasoline plant.
rectifier. The stripped absorption oil, which is devoid of all gasoline fractions, is
pumped from the bottom of the still through the above mentioned heat exchanger,
-
and through a cooler, back to the top of the absorption column.
4
LIGHT
FRACTIONS
!I
UTILITIES
STEAM
ABSORPTION RIC DlSTILLATION FRACTIONATION WATER
AREA AREA AREA E L E C T R I C POWER
COMPRESSED A I R
t
TO STORAGE
SPEC I F IC A T ION N A T U R A L
HYDROCARBONS
Fig. 7.1-2. Schematic flow diagram showing the various areas of gasoline plant.
208
,
r----* -
-
Fig. 7.1-3. Flow diagram of absorption area
The raw gasoline vapors from the top of the still are partially condensed and
collected in a small rundown tank. Inasmuch as the uncondensed vapors contain
sufficient amounts of pentane and heavier hydrocarbons, they are sent up through a
small reabsorber in order to relieve the main absorber of a heavy recycle load. The
reabsorber is fed at the top with gasoline-free absorption oil; and the rich oil from
the bottom is added to the rich oil from the absorber. The reabsorber does not
absorb propane, but absorbs some of the butane and all of the pentane. The
unabsorbed gas from the reabsorber is a residual or fuel gas.
The condensed raw gasoline from the still is pumped through the second heat
exchanger, and a steam preheater, to a stabilizer. The residual or fuel gas taken
overhead contains all of the propane, part of the butane, but none of the pentane.
Gosolip Vapors and Stwm

t c
I
Hot Lton Oil ACCUMULATOR

Cold Leon Oil
COOLER
Fig. 7.1-4. Flow diagram of distillation area.
209
The finished, propane-free gasoline is pumped from the bottom of the stabilizer
through the second heat exchanger and a cooler to storage.
Solution:
Absorber residual gas:
C, = 84.0%= 76.0 moles
Total moles = -
loo x 76.0 = 90.5 moles
84.0
3.9
c, = -
84.0
x 76.0 = 3.5 moles, etc.
Finished gasoline:
C: = 64.5%= 4.0 moles
Total moles = -
loo x 4.0 = 6.2 moles
64.5
35.5
c, = -
64.5
x 4.0 = 2.2 moles
Reabsorber residual gas and stabilizer residual gas:

If R and S are the total number of moles in these two streams, respectively, then
0.786R+0.737S=2.5; 0.214 R + 0 . 2 6 3 S = ( 3 . 0 - 2 . 2 ) = 0 . 8
On solving these two equations simultaneously,

S = 1.9 moles and R = 1.4 moles
(a) The number of moles of C , , C , , C , , C,, and :

C in: (1) absorber residual gas
are 76.0, 9.5, 3.5, 1.5, and 0.0, respectively; (2) reabsorber residual gas are 0.0, 0.0,
1.1,0.3, and 0.0, respectively; (3) stabilizer residual gas are 0.0, 0.0, 1.4,0.5, and 0.0,
respectively; and (4) finished gasoline are 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 2.2, and 4.0, respectively.
15,000,000 = 39,600
(b) Moles/day raw gas =
379
Absorber residual gas = 0.905 X 39,600 = 35,800 moles/day

Reabsorber residual gas = 0.014 X 39,600 = 550 moies/day
Stabilizer residual gas = 0.019 x 39,600 = 750 moles/day
Note: At 60'F and a pressure of 760 mm Hg,the volume of 1 Ib-mole of a perfect gas is 379.4 cu ft (379
is commonly used).
210
(c) The number of moles of C , , C,, C,, C,, and C: in raw gasoline fed to the
stabilizer are 0.0, 0.0, 1.4,2.7, and 4.0, respectively. Thus,
Feed to stabilizer = 0.081 X 39,600 = 3210 moles/day.
(d) Finished gasoline:
C , = 0.022 x 15,000,000/31 = 10,600 gal/day
C: = 0.040 X 15,000,000/26 = 23,100 gal/day
Total 33,700 gal/day
REFERENCES
American Gas Association, 1965. Gas Engineers Handbook. Industrial Press, New York, N.Y., pp. 2-13.
York, N.Y., 397 pp.
Gas Processors Association, 1980a. LPG Specifications and Test Methods. Publication 2140. G.P.A.,
Tulsa, Okla. 42 pp.
Gas Processors Association, 1980b. Calculation of Gross Heating Value, Specific Gravity and Compressibil-
ity of Natural Gas Mixturesfrom Compositional Analysis. Publication 2172. G.P.A., Tulsa, Okla., 6 pp.
Gas Processors Association, 1980c. Method for Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide and Mercaptan Sulfur
in Natural Gas. Publication 2265. G.P.A., Tulsa, Okla.
Gas Processors Association, 1980d. Natpral Gasoline Specifications and Test Methods. Publication 3132.
G.P.A., Tulsa, Okla., 33 pp.
Katz, D.L., Cornell, D., Kobayashi, R., Poettmann, F.H., Vary,J.A., Elenbaas, J.R. and Weinaug, C.F.,
1959. Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 802 pp.
Kennedy, J.L., 1972. Ekofisk plans include gas injection at 9200 psi. Oil Gas J., 70(9): 69-73.
Maddox, R.N., 1974. Gas and Liquid Sweetening (Petroleum Series). Campbell, Norman, Okla., 300 pp.
Momson, W.E., 1964. Summary of Energy Balance for the U.S. I.C. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 8242.
Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1962. Liquefied Petroleum Gas Specifications and Test
Methods. N.G.P.S.A., Tulsa, Okla., 36 pp.
Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1966. Engineering Data Book. N.G.P.S.A., Tulsa, Okla.,
310 pp.
Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1972. Engineering Data Book. N.G.P.S.A., Tulsa, Okla.,
425 pp. (Latest revision).
Pacific Energy Association, 1943. Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in Natural Gas. Bull. TS-431. P.E.A.,
Vernon, Calif.
Pacific Energy Association, 1950. Determination of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen in Natural Gases. Bull.
TS-501. P.E.A., Vernon, Calif.
Pacific Energy Association, 1966. Methods of Test for Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Bull. TS-441. P.E.A.,
Vernon, Calif., 81 pp.
Western Gas Processors and Oil Refiners Association, 1950a. Method for Determining the Specific Graviv
of Gases. Bull. TS-391. W.G.P & O.R.A., Long Beach, Calif.
Western Gas Processors and Oil Refiners Association (formerly California Natural Gasoline Association),
1950b. Tentative Standard Procedure for the Determination of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen in Natural
Gases. Bull. TS-501. W.G.P. & O.R.A., Los Angeles, Calif., 16 pp.
Western Gas Processors and Oil Refiners Association, 1956. Tentative Standard Procedure for the
Measurement ofNatural Gas with Orifice Meters. Bull. TS-561. W.G.P. & O.R.A., Los Angeles, Calif.,
89 PP.
Western Gas Processors and Oil Refiners Association, 1965. Tentative Standards of Test for Liquefied
Petroleum Gas. Bull. TS-441. W.G.P. & O.R.A., Los Angeles, Calif., 81 pp.
Western Gas Processors and Oil Refiners Association, 1955. Tentative Standard Method of Test for the
Reid Vapor Pressure of Natural Gasoline. Bull. TS-352. W.G.P. & O.R.A. Los Angeles, Calif., 22 pp.
Wilson, H.M., 1974. Three flow stations will handle Prudhoe East Production. Oil Gas J., 72(11): 57-72.
211
Chapter 8
OIL AND GAS TRANSPORT
SANJAY KUMAR and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
MTRODUCTION
Inasmuch as it is usually much cheaper to use pipelines than to use barges,

tankers, trucks, etc., complex transcontinental piping systems have been developed.
Some of the major advantages of using pipelines include:
(1) Economy.
(2) Reliability under almost all conditions (e.g., adverse weather, breakdowns,
non-availability of tankers, etc.).
(3) Control: An installed pipeline can usually handle a wide range of flow rates.
(4) Continuity of flow, which is highly desirable in modern continuous-flow oil
refineries, because a minimum of storage facilities are required at either end.
The designs of simple systems are briefly discussed here. The fundamental concepts
involved are very useful and their knowledge is absolutely essential for any practic-
ing petroleum engineer.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLOW IN PIPES
Reynolds applied dimensional analysis to the phenomenon of the transition from

laminar to turbulent flow. He concluded that it occurred at a fixed value of a
dimensionless group, which is called the Reynolds number ( N R e )in his honor:
NRe = dVp/p = d V / v = inertia forces/viscous forces (8-1)
where d = diameter of the conduit through which the fluid is flowing, V = velocity
V = O AT PIPE WALL
I
LAMINAR FLOW TURBULENT FLOW
Fig. 8-1.Velocity profiles in a circular conduit for laminar flow (left) and turbulent flow (right).
212
2
of the fluid, p = density of the fluid,’ p = dynamic viscosity of fluid, and
Y = kinematic viscosity of fluid.
For laminar or viscous flow, N,, < 2100; for transitional or intermediate flow,
2100 < N R e < 10,000 3 , and for turbulent flow, N,, > 10,000.3
For cases where the flow is not through a cylindrical pipe (the cross-section is
other than circular), the concept of effective diameter has been developed:
d, =4R, (8-2)
where hydraulic radius, R , = (area of flow)/(wetted perimeter).
If the cross-section of a pipe is square, for example, cross-sectional area of
flow = a’,
d a2 a
wetted perimeter = 4 a , and R , = = -= -. Thus: d , = 4 R , = a .
4 4a 4
In the case of circular cross section, area of flow, A = r d 2 / 4 , wetted perimeter
=rd, R , = ( m d 2 / 4 ) / ( r d )= d / 4 , and d , = 4 R , = d .
The schematic diagrams of velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent flows are
shown in Fig. 8-1.
Allowable working pressure of pipeline
The allowable working pressure of a pipeline, p a , is equal to:
St’Fe ( d o - d , )
Pa = (8-3)
do
where S = specified minimum yield strength, psi; t’ = temperature derating factor,
dimensionless; F = design factor (construction type); e = longitudinal joint factor
(i.e., anomaly due to weld seam); it is equal to 1.0, except for butt-welded
ASTM-A53, API-5L ( = 0.6), fusion-welded A 134 and A 139 ( = 0.8), and spiral-
welded A 211 (= 0.8); d , = inside diameter of pipe, in.; d o = outside diameter of
pipe, in.
The specific weight, y , is the weight per unit volume and can be expressed in terms of lb/cu ft. The
density, p’, which is mass per unit volume and is equal to y / g , where g is the gravitational acceleration
( = 32.174 ft-sec-’), can be expressed in terms of slugs/cu ft. For example, pure water, which has a
specific weight of 62.4 lb/cu ft, has a density, p ’ , of 1.94 ( = 62.4/32.17) slugs/cu ft. In other words, the
mass is attracted by the earth with a force of magnitude p’g. Inasmuch as 1 slug = 32.17 lb,, a density of
1 slug/ft3 = 32.17 lb,/ft3. The density expressed in lb,/ft3 will be designated by p throughout this
book.
Inasmuch as p = shear stress/shear strain = T/(dV/dy), the units of dynamic viscosity are Ibfsec/ft2
or slugs/ft-sec. 1 poise = 100 centipoises = 1dyne-sec/cm2 = 1 g/cm-sec = 0.00209 slug/ft-sec = 0.00209
lb,sec/ft’ = 0.0673 Ib,/ft-sec. 1 slug/ft-sec = 479 poises. 1 stoke -100 centistokes -1 cm2/sec =
0.001076 ft‘/sec.
Value of 3100-4000 is commonly assigned to this limit.
213
Horsepower
The hydraulic horsepower, P,, is equal to 0.000017 X bbl/D X psig = 0.00053 X

gal/min X psig.
Friction
Obviously, friction is associated with any kind of flow. Pipes are defined as
smooth, if the relative roughness k, (= r/di) is < ( c = absolute surface
roughness in inches and di = inside diameter of pipe in ft).
The Fanning equation for steady state flow in uniform circular pipes which are
full of liquid under isothermal conditions is as follows:
where A p , = pressure loss due to friction, lb/ft2; f = Fanning. friction factor,

dimensionless; I = length of pipe, ft; V = fluid velocity, ft/sec; y = fluid specific
weight, lb/ft3; p = density (mass/unit volume), lb,/ft3; g = gravitational accelera-
tion, 32.2 ft/sec2; g, = dimensional constant, 32.2 lb,-ft/lb-sec2; and d = diameter
of pipe, ft.
If A p , is expressed in psi, the eq. 8-4 becomes:
The Fanning friction factor, f , is equal to:
16
f = - for laminar flow, '
NRe
f = 0.1419( N R e ) -0.3192 for intermediate flow,
f = 4 log- NReJT for partially turbulent flow, and

1.4126
According to Hagen and Poiseuille, at N R e ranging from 2000 to 2300, f = 64/NR,. Thus, extreme
care must be exercised on using values of f available in the literature, because they may be multiples of
the f given in Fig. 8-2. The equation f = 64/( V d p / p ) is widely accepted.
214
1 = 4 log- NReJT
-
1.255
JT
for fully turbulent flow (Prandtl-Khrmhn formula)
For rough pipes, using the absolute roughness, E in microinches, the above relation-
ships are slightly modified:
1 2.51
(8-9)
for intermediate flow (Colebrook's relation),
1 3.71di
- = 4 log-
sr NRe
for turbulent flow (Prandtl-Khrmhn equation), (8-10)
f=f, + 0.68NRef? - (Supino formula), (8-11)

i i i )
where f, = friction factor for smooth pipes. These equations present fairly good
approximations over a wide range of NRe.
The most widely used correlation between NRe and f (Moody, 1944) is shown in
Fig. 8-2. For an excellent discussion of fundamentals of flow in pipes, the reader is
referred to Szilas (1975) and Craft et al. (1962, pp. 1-100).
Friction head loss in fittings and connections
The Crane Company, which conducted exhaustive tests to find the resistance of
valves and fittings to single-phase flow, classified all valves and fittings as follows:
( 1 ) Branching- tees, crosses, side-outlet elbows, etc.
(2) Reducing or expanding-swages, reducers, chokes, bushings, etc.
( 3 ) Deflecting-elbows, bends, return bends, etc.
Crane Company also included an equivalent length concept, i.e., expressing head
loss due to the friction in valves and fittings in terms of equivalent head loss due to
the friction in a straight pipe.
In 1911, Blasius formulated the following empirical equation for turbulent flow:
f = 0.316/N;<'.
This equation is valid for smooth pipes at Reynolds numbers up to about lo5.
Formula 8-8 is commonly called Prandtl's formula and is expressed as follows:
Fig. 8-2. Friction factors for various types of commercial pipes. (From Moody. 1944 p. 671; courtesy of the Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.) NRr= V D p / p . where
V = velocity in ft/sec, D = pipe diameter in ft, p = fluid density, Ib/cu ft. and p = viscosity of fluid in Ib/ft-sec (cP/1488).
215
216
I'( - ")* FEET OF FLUID
SEE ALSO EQUATION (5)

IF A, = 00 SO THAT V, = 0
h = - 'I' FEET OF FLUID
V'
h = K - FEET OF FLUID
29
Fig. 8-3. Resistance coefficients for valves and fittings (reprinted from Engineering Data Book, 1979, p
75, table 32 (a); courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute, Cleveland, OH).
217
FI
I -
BELL MOUTH
INLET OR REDUCER
K=0.05
SQUARE EDGED INLET

REGULAR
SCREWED
45O ELL.
K
K = 0.5
INWARD PROJECTING PIPE

K = 1.0
I
NOTE: K DECREASES WITH
INCREASING WALL THICKNESS OF
PIPE AND ROUNDING OF EDGES
LINE
FLOW
1
3'. .5 I n 2 A SCREWED
TEE
BRANCH
FLOW
h=K -
V'
2a
FEET OF FLUID
Fig. 8-3 continued.
21 8
0.wm
0.w15
0.w10
D
-
O.OW5
SMOOTH
0 1 2 3 4 s (I 7 8 8 10
R
-
D
Fig. 8-4. Resistance coefficients for 90" bends of uniform diameter. (From Engineering Data Book, 1979,
p. 79; courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute; Cleveland, OH).
The decrease in static head due to velocity is expressed as:

V2
and if there is a valve or fitting in the line, then the head loss due to the friction h , is
t
K
06
04
03
02
01
00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. 8-5. Resistance coefficient for sudden reducers. (From Engineering Data Book, 1979, p. 82; courtesy
of the Hydraulic Institute. Cleveland, OH).
219
equal to:
V2
hl=K- (8-12)
2g
where K = resistance coefficient, defined as the number of velocity heads lost due to
the valve or fitting.
Inasmuch as the same head loss can be also expressed by the Fanning equation:
h 1 v2
=f--
d 2g
1
K=f- (8-13)
d
The ratio l / d is the equivalent length (in pipe diameters) of straight pipe, which will
cause the same pressure drop as the fitting under the same flow conditions. Thus,
the equivalent length (in ft) of a straight pipe, I,, is equal to:
(8-14)
where ( I / d ) = equivalent l / d for a given fitting, and d = diameter of the pipe in

which the fi&g is installed.
The K values for various valves and pipe fittings are presented in Figs. 8-3, 8-4,
8-5, 8-6.
PRINCIPLES OF PUMPING
Pumping mechanisms
The six basic mechanisms of artificially-induced fluid flow are (Perry and
Chilton, 1973): (1) the action of centrifugal force, (2) volumetric displacement
(mechanical or by another fluid), (3) mechanical impulse, (4)transfer of momentum
by another fluid, (5) electromagnetic force, and (6) gravity. The mechanisms (1) and
(2) are commonly used in the petroleum industry.
Measurement of performance
The amount of useful work performed by a fluid-transport device is the product

of the rate (capacity) at which fluid is transmitted and the head (the height of a
column of fluid equivalent to the pressure differential between inlet and outlet ends
of the device). Capacity can be expressed in ft3/min, whereas head can be expressed
in ft.
220
h
NDTF:
GL GATE VALVE -3,000

'14 CLOSED
'/2 CLOSED
- 2,000
' -FULLY OPEN
--~1,000 50
-
7 500
ANGLE VALVE, OPEN
I
STANDARD TEE -
- 300 30 30
- 200
22
/SQUARE I- 20
=loo !
SWING CHECK VALVE,
FULLY OPEN F++
,BORDA ENTRANCE 14
16
--
-I
-
-- 0.5
- 0.3 I
- 0.2
LONG SWEEP ELBOW OR'
RUN OF STANDARD TEE
- 0.1
0.5
Fig. 8-6. Resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids. (Reprinted from Technical Paper No. 409,
1942; courtesy of Crane Co., New York).
221
The overall efficiency of the pumping system is defined as the ratio of useful
hydraulic work performed to the input work to the device.
8.33HGQ -
--H p
Hydraulic horsepower, P h = (8-15)
33000 1714
where H = total dynamic head, ft of liquid; H p = total dynamic head, psi; Q =
volumetric rate of flow, gal/min; and G = specific gravity with respect to water
( G , = 1). The brake horsepower of a pump, P b , is greater than the theoretical or
hydraulic horsepower by the amount of losses in the pump due to friction, leakage,
etc. The efficiency of the pump, vp, can, therefore, be defined as:
'h
v, =- (8-16)
'b
The total dynamic head H is equal to the total discharge head h , minus the total
suction head h , . The total suction head, h,, is equal to:
h , = h,, + ha + h,, (8-17)
where h,, = potential energy head at suction end, i.e., pressure head recorded on a
pressure gauge at the suction end in ft of liquid; h,, = velocity head, ft of liquid, at
the point of gauge attachment; and h a = atmospheric pressure head, ft of liquid.
Total discharge head, h,, is equal to:
h, = h,, + h a + h,, (8-18)
where h,, = pressure gauge reading at discharge end, ft of liquid, and h,, = velocity
head at discharge end, f t of liquid. Velocity head ( V 2 / 2 g )is equal to the vertical
distance necessary for a body to fall to acquire the velocity V.
There are limitations on the net positive suction head of the pump ( N P S H ) . The
maximum theoretical vertical distance between the pump and the level of suction
exposed to atmosphere is given by the following formula:
N P S H = h,, - h , - h , (8-19)
where h,, = static suction head, which is equal to the absolute pressure at the source
(ft of liquid) plus the vertical distance from this level to the pump center line;
h,, = friction head; and h , = head equivalent to the vapor pressure of the liquid.
OIL PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION
The flow of crude oil in a pipeline may be assumed to be isothermal if the oil
viscosity is low and the inflow temperature is close to the surrounding soil
temperature.
222
The design of a pipeline for hilly terrains has been discussed in detail by Beggs
and Brill (1972) and several others (see Chapter 9). Assuming a Newtonian liquid,
the principles are presented here.
As mentioned previously, the friction loss over a length of uniform pipe is given
by eq. 8-4:
This equation can be presented as follows:
(8-20)
where:
(8-21)
and h h is the hydraulic gradient.

Thus:
h , , =ALP = h I (8-22)
h
Y
where h,, = the total suction head at any point x along the length of the pipe and
y = specific weight of fluid.
One can then use the criterion of hydraulic gradient to determine the possible flow
over a given terrain, as shown in Fig. 8-7. Gradient h , is calculated using eq. 8-21,
and a line with a slope equal to this gradient is drawn from the outlet end 0 to the
inlet end. If this line A’ intersects the ground profile, there are two options:
(1) Increase the inlet head to h , . In this case, A’ is shifted upwards until it just
touches the profile at M. Because of safety considerations (safety factor), h , must
be higher than this minimum by 30-50 m.
(2) Increase the head h , to hma. This results in a line B having a different slope.
The point M is called the critical point, where the pressure head of the flowing
liquid is the lowest. If no throttling is applied at the tail end 0, the oil arrives at
atmospheric pressure, whereas if throttling is applied, the pressure head at the outlet
is h , .
The point M‘ in the valley is also critical, because one must calculate the pressure
head h and limit it to the maximum allowable operating pressure of the pipeline
( P= b ’ g ) .
The maximum flow rate in the pipeline can be determined as follows:
(1) Calculate the maximum head, h,, corresponding to the maximum allowable
operating pressure of the pipeline.
223
i 7
hl
1
09
Distance, f ? - f'
Fig. 8-7. Pressure profile for a pipeline laid over a hilly terrain. (Modified after Szilas, 1975, p. 479, fig.
7.1-1; courtesy of Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest, Hungary).
( 2 ) Determine the constants a and b in the equation f = a N i : for the flow

regime anticipated and the pipe in question. These are usually given in the pipe
manuals.
( 3 ) Substitute the above equation for f in eq. 8-21:
Inasmuch as V = -and g = 32.2 ft/sec-',

d277/4
(8-24)
or
(8-25)
This equation can be used to determine the maximum Q for a maximum h,, if
the only pump station is at the head end.
224
Example 8-1
Determine the maximum throughput of a 30-in. API 5LX grade X46 pipe
(maximum allowable stress, Sa(,,) = 21,000 psi), if the safety factor, F, = 1.2,
relative roughness c / d = l o p 6 (smooth pipe), d o = 30 in., d i = 28 in., Go,= 0.84,
poi,= 4 cP, pipe length = 40 miles, and outlet is located 400 ft above inlet.
Solution:
S, = Sam,/< = 21,000/1.2 = 17,500 psi.
Maximum allowable working pressure is given by eq. 8-3:
For additional safety, t h s h,, is, reduced by about 5%:
h,, = 3205 (0.95) = 3045 ft
Then, hh(,=) = (3045 - 400)/(40)(5280) = 0.012524 ft/ft
p, =4 CP= 4 x 6.72 X lb,/ft-sec =4 x 2.09 x l o T 5lb,sec/ft2,
p (4)(2.09)(10-5)
.. . v = o = = 5.2 x l o p 5 ft2/sec.
O po (0.84)(62.4)/32.2
Using a = 0.05 and b = 0.19 in eq. 8-24, Q can be calculated:
= 50.225 ft3/sec = 32,200 bbl/hr.
Increasing flow capacity of pipelines
There are two ways of increasing the flow capacity of an existing pipeline, which
should be achteved with a least-cost objective in mind:
(1) By installing one or more intermediate pumping stations along the pipeline.
(2) By installing a second pipeline alongside the already existing pipeline. This
so-called looped system is of two kinds:
225
(a) Complete loop-installation of a new line of the same length, but not
necessarily of the same diameter.
(b) Partial loop-installation of a new line shorter than the old line but of the
same inside diameter. This new line is preferably started at the tail end, in order to
achieve a lower average pressure in the entire system.
For short sections of the Moody friction factor chart, one can express f as an
exponential function of NRe:
f = aNi:
where a and b are constants. Assuming a = 0.05 and b = 0.19,
f = 0.05Ni:.19 (8-26)
From eq. 8-21:
2 f V 2 = 2(0.05)N;f,0.'9V2
hh= -
gdi 32.2di
- 0.05V2 diV
--
16.1di
-
(v)
~ 1 . 8 v0.19
1
= 0.0031 (8-27)
d;.l9
Inasmuch as V = Q / ( n / 4 ) d ? , in terms of Q, h , is equal to:
h h = 0 . 0 0 3 9 5 ~ ~-
"~( :*;:::) (8-28)
Thus:
Ql.81 = 252.95hhd,!.81
v0.19
or
(8-29)
and
(8-30)
226
These equations for h,, Q , and di can be used to calculate the parameters of the
new pipeline required.
( I ) Complete loop
Complete loop is regarded as two independent pipelines. In order to calculate the
diameter of the new pipeline, the following procedure must be followed:
If Qlmax=maximum flow rate in old pipeline (line l), Q, = total flow rate
desired, and Q, = flow rate in new Line 2 only, then Q , = Q, - elmax.
It is assumed that hhmaxis the same for both pipelines 1 and 2.
Equation 8-30 can be used to get the diameter of the new line d , (Q, = Q , , and
h h = hhmax):
di, = 0.3165( ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ Q 2 0 . ~ ~ ~ ) / h 2 ~ (8-31)
(2) Partial loop

In the case of partial loop for delivering at a rate Q, > elmax,
the gradient in each
line would be h , > hhmax.Using eq. 8-28:
hhl = 0.00395(
Inasmuch as the two pipelines have equal diameter and the same inlet pressure,
each will carry oil at a rate of Q,/2. Thus:
h,, = 0.00395( Q,/2)1'81/d4.81
Dividing hhl by h,, and solving for h,:
h,, = h h l ( i ) 1 . 8=
1 0.285hh1 (8-32)
After determining the two gradients, the length of the new pipeline can be either
calculated or determined graphically.
Graphical method. If the new pipeline is started at the head end Z, which is
done when pressure is to be maintained in the line due to hilly terrain, trace a
gradient h,, from the head end I and a gradient h,, from the tail end 0 as shown
in Fig. 8-8. The intersection point K enables determination of the length of the new
pipeline.
If the new pipeline is to be started from the tail end, which is preferable, then the
two gradients are reversed, as shown by the dashed lines meeting at point K'.
Calculation method. Refemng to Fig. 8-8:
h = h h m a x l = h h l ( l - l x+) h h , / ,
227
Dis?ance(l), miles W
-
Fig. 8-8. Pressure profile for a twin looped pipeline over a hilly terrain. (Modified after Szilas, 1975, p.
482, fig. 7.1-2; courtesy of Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest, Hungary),
Thus:
(8-33)
Example 8-2. Propose a feasible design for increasing the capacity to 75 ft3/sec,
using the data in Example 8-1.
Solution:
(1) For a complete loop:
Q , = 75 - 50.87 = 24.13 ft3/sec.
Using eq. 8-31:
d , , = (0.3165v0.0395Q,0~376)/h gz
- (0.3165) [ (5.128)(10 - )] 0.0395( 24.13)0.376
-
( 0.012784)0'208
= 1.756 ft = 21 inches.
The closest standard pipe size is Schedule 80, 24 in. OD, 21.562 in. ID, with a
wall thickness of 1.219 in.
228
(2) For a partial loop system:

Using eq. 8-28:
h hl = (0.00395v0.19Q:.81)/d4.81
= ((0.00395) [ (5 .128)(10-5)]0.19(75)'.8')/(28/12)4.8'
= 0.02543 ft/ft.
Using eq. 8-32:
h h , = 0.285hh, = (0.285)(0.02543) = 0.007248 ft/ft.
The length of the new pipeline in miles can be determined using eq. 8-33:
[x=
0.02543 - 0.012784
[ 0.02543 - 0.007248
]
(40) = 27.82 miles.
Booster pump stations

In designing booster pump stations, a simple graphical method can be used to
determine the minimum number of stations required.
Assuming that the oil is injected into the pipeline at pump stations at the
maximum allowable pressure of the pipeline, input pressure is the same at all
stations, except (usually) the last one. In designing for a minimum number of
pumping stations, the pressure gradient in the pipeline must reach the ground zero
level at the next pumping station along the line.
As shown in Fig. 8-9, starting from h,, at I , the gradient hh is plotted until it
intersects the ground profile. At this point, the second pumping station (the first
booster pump station) must be installed. Again the pressure at point B reaches h,,
and the same procedure is repeated for all the intersections with the ground profile,
until the outlet end 0 is reached. In Fig. 8-9 the last booster station will deliver oil
beyond point 0 (see Szilas, 1975, pp. 484-485).
Branching pipelines
Often, a single pipeline (called the main line or trunk line) is employed to
transport oil over large distances to a central location, from where it branches out to
various processing units. In order to determine the unthrottled throughputs of the
branch lines for any flow rate Q in the main line, both calculation and graphical
techniques can be employed (Szilas, 1975). It is much easier, however, to use a
simple log-log plot. The procedure is outlined below.
Consider a branched pipeline (Fig. 8-10.a) with flow rates Q , = 70 ft3/sec,
Q2 = 100 ft3/sec and Q3 = 150 ft3/sec. Then, using the h versus Q relationship for
these lines, draw the three h versus Q lines for the three branching pipelines. These
229
-
0
0'
Distonce(l), miles
Fig. 8-9. Pressure traverse with booster stations. (Modified after Szilas, 1975, p. 485, fig. 7.1-3; courtesy of
Akadtmiai Kiadb, Budapest, Hungary).
will all be parallel and are equivalent to a single line with a throughput.of Q,, which
is the sum of Q,, Q2 and Q3 (see Fig. 8-10.b).
From eq. 8-24:
3 'I 10 100 100

FLOW RATE, ~ ( f t J / r e c )
O3 @ G
Fig. 8-10. (a) Branching pipelines. (b) Flow rate versus head relation for branching pipelines. (Modifie
after Szilas, 1975, p. 487, fig. 7.1-5; courtesy of AkadCmiai Kiadb, Budapest, Hungary).
230
or
h, =KQ2-b (8-34)
where
2avb
K= is constant.
32.245 - b ( ;)2-
For a horizontal terrain, head loss h , is equal to discharge head h at the junction
B:
or log h = log K + ( 2 - b ) log Q . (8-35)
Equation 8-35 indicates that on a log-log paper, Q versus h relation is a straight

line. Inasmuch as ( 2 - b ) is a constant, the Q versus h relations for the branching
pipelines are parallel to each other, but have different K values.
The Q versus h relations for different pipelines are plotted on the log-log paper.
Adding the flow rates Q,, Q 2 ,. . . Q , of these pipelines yields a parallel line of the
same slope. This line is called the equivalent line and gives the sum of the
throughputs of the branch pipelines for any given head h. Thus, for any given total
flow rate Q , , one can get the throughputs Q,, Q 2 , ... Q , for the branch pipelines.
This is illustrated in Fig. 8-10.
NONISOTHERMAL FLOW
Pipelines transporting oil are commonly buried in the ground. If the oil viscosity
is high and the temperature of the flowing oil is significantly different from that of
the surrounding medium, the flow cannot be regarded as isothermal.
Fundamentals of heat transfer
Heat transmission can occur in three different ways: (1) conduction; (2) convec-
tion: (a) free and (b) forced; and (3) radiation.
When two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, conduction is the
dominant mechanism, whereas if the two bodies are not in contact but are separated
by a fluid body, the dominant mechanism is convection. In the latter case, the
temperature is transferred by the fluid in motion. If the two bodies are separated by
a vacuum, the mechanism of heat transport is radiation. Only conduction and
convection, however, are discussed in this chapter.
231
Conduction
Fourier's law is the fundamental differential equation for heat transfer by
conduction:
_
dq - dT
- - kA- (8-36)
dt dx
where dq/dt is the rate of flow of heat (quantity per unit time), Btu/hr; A is the
cross-sectional area across which heat flows, ft2; dT/dx is the rate of change of
temperature with distance in the direction of flow of heat (the temperature gradient),
"F/ft; and k is the constant called thermal conductivity, which is a characteristic
property of the material through which the heat is flowing and varies with
temperature, Btu/ft-hr-OF. Equation 8-36 can be used to derive the following
unsteady state energy equation for static fluids or solids in 3 dimensions:
cp( g) = &(kg) + $(k g ) + A(

) :k + q' (8-37)
where x, y , z are the distances along the x, y , z axes in Cartesian coordinates;

c = specific heat, Btu/lb,"F; p = fluid density, lb,/ft3; and q' = rate of heat
generation by chemical or nuclear reaction, electric current, etc.
In order to conform more closely to the physical shape of the system, this
equation can be transformed into cylindrical or spherical coordinates. In vector
notation, it may be written as follows:
(8-38)
Thermal conductivity, k, is approximately constant over a small range of tempera-

ture. Thus, eq. 8-38 can be simplified:
aT
CP-
at
= kV2T + 4' (8-39)
Steady-state conduction. For steady-state heat flow, dq/dt is constant and

aT/at = 0. Thus, eq. 8-39 becomes:
V2T= - q ' / k (8-40)
and eq. 8-36 may be written as follows:
dq/dt= -kA(dT/dx) (8-41)
where dq/dt = q / t = constant.
Unsteady stute conduction. In the case of unsteady state conduction, tempera-
ture is a function of both time and space. Equation 8-37 gives a general 3-dimen-
sional equation for such a situation. There is a numerical solution to this equation,
necessitating the use of digital computers. A variety of simplifications are incorpo-
232
rated to arrive at analytic solutions. One such case is the assumption of constant
physical properties c, p, and k , resulting in eq. 8-42:
aT 4'
at = a( V2T) + -
- (8-42)
CP
where (Y =k/pc, called thermal diffusivity.

Convection
Convection is an important factor in many cases of heat transfer involving
liquids and gases. When a fluid flows past a solid surface, in the immediate
neighborhood of the surface there is a film of fluid that does not contribute (or very
little) to the total flow. This film clings to the surface as shown by the velocity
distribution plot in Fig. 8-1. The film is in the laminar portion of the flow (the
laminar sublayer), through which heat is transferred by molecular conduction. The
turbulent core and the buffer layer between the laminar sublayer and the turbulent
core transfer heat by simultaneous conduction and convection. If physical proper-
ties are assumed to be constant, an energy balance equation on a flowing fluid
through which heat is being transferred is as follows:
(8-43)
where V,, 5,
V, are the velocity components in the x, y , and z directions and @ is
the energy dissipation due to the fluid viscosity, which is significant in the case of
flow of highly-viscous liquids and high-speed gas.
The local heat transfer coefficients were devised because of the impracticability
of measuring thicknesses of the several layers and their temperatures in a turbulent
flowing stream:
dq = hidAi(Ti - T,)
- = h , dAo(T, - To) (8-44)
dt
where h i and h , are the local heat transfer coefficients inside and outside the wall,
respectively (Btu/ft2-hr-"F), dA, = area element on the inside pipe wall; dAo = area
element on the outside pipe wall across which heat transfer is taking place, ft';
T, = wall temperature, OF; To = outside temperature, O F ; and T, = inside tempera-
ture, OF.
Natural convection
Natural convection occurs when a solid surface is in contact with a stagnant fluid
having a temperature different from that of the surface. The general equation used
is the Nusselt equation:
(8-45)
where NNu= Nusselt number, hI/k, (dimensionless); NGr = Grashof number,
233
I3p2gfiAT / p 2 (dimensionless); NPr= Prandtl number, c p / k (dimensionless); fi =

volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, ( O F ) - ’ ; p = fluid density, lb,/ft3;
A T = bulk temperature gradient, O F ; 1 = length in contact, ft; g = acceleration due
to gravity, 4.18 x lo8 ft/hr2, and a and m are constants.
For cylinders at 1< NPr< 40, Kato et al. (1968) presented the following rela-
tions:
NNu= 0 . 1 3 8 N p (N:;17’ - 0.55) (8-46)
where NGr> lo9,
and NNu= 0.683N2~sN:;2s (8-47)

0.861 + N,,
where NGrG lo9
Forced convection
In the case of forced convection, the fluid is pumped across the solid surface and
the rate of heat transfer is a function of the physical properties of-the fluids, the
flow rates, and the geometry of the system.
For laminar flow in circular pipes, there are several relationships depending upon
the Graetz number, NGz= NReNp,d/f.For Ncz < 100, Hansen (1960) presented the
following relation:
( NNu)= 3.66 +
0.085Ncz h)’.l4( (8-48)
1 + 0.047NZ3 P w
where d = pipe diameter, 1 = pipe length, p b = viscosity of fluid at the bulk fluid
temperature, and p w = viscosity of the fluid at the pipe wall temperature.
For NGz> 100, the Sieder-Tate relation is satisfactory:
0.14
NNu= 1.86Ng3 (8-49)
For the transition region, the following equation was presented by Hansen (1960):
(8-50)
For turbulent flow ( N , , > 10,000) and 0.7 < NPr< 700, and f/d > 60, the Sieder-Tate
equation is recommended:
0.14
NNu= (8-51)
234
Application of heat transfer concepts to buried pipelines
Thermal properties of the soil must be evaluated when designing buried pipelines.
Heat transfer through the soil is proportional to its thermal conductivity, k, under
steady state conditions, whereas under transient conditions, the thermal diffusivity
a = k/cp is the controlling factor. It is, therefore, necessary to measure these soil
constants, k, p, and c, which can be done in the following two ways:
( I ) Estimation of thermal constants from soil properties

Thermal conductivity of the soil depends on the conductivity of the soil matrix,
grain-size distribution, bulk density of the dry soil, and humidity.
Gemant’s pioneering work was followed up by the studies of Makowski and
Mochlinski (1956) who derived an empirical expression for thermal conductivity of
wet soil in Btu/hr-ft-OF:
k, = 0.578( a log m + b)1O2 (8-52)
where a = 0.1424 - 0.000465(%~1);b = 0.0419 - 0.000313(%~1);%cl= percent of

clay in the soil; z = 0 . 0 1 ~ ~pd; = density of dry soil, lb,/ft3; and m = moisture
content of soil as a percentage of dry soil weight, 96.
In order to determine the thermal diffusivity it is necessary to calculate density of
wet soil, p,, in lb,/cu ft and specific heat of wet soil, c,, in Btu/lb,-OF. In terms
of pd and cd, these variables are equal to:
p, = pd(1 + 0.000624m) (8-53)
and
c, = (cd + 0.01m)/(1+ 0.01m). (8-54)
Combining the above three equations:
k, - 0.578( a log,,m + b)lOz(l + 0.01m) (8-55)

a,=--P W C W pd(l + o.o00624m)(Cd -k 0.01m)
(2) Estimation of thermal constants by direct measurement

Thermal conductivity is usually measured in situ by a field conductivity probe.
Heat is applied at a constant rate to this thin cylindrical probe which is pushed into
the ground. The rise in temperature of the probe surface is measured as a function
of time. The k value can be determined from the heat input and temperature-time
relationship.
Yearly average diffusivity of the soil can be obtained from the measurements of
the soil temperature at various depths below the surface. If the annual temperature
235
T i m e , t, sec +
u Tsmin -Pt
Reference Temperature (O'F)
Fig. 8-11. Fluctuation of soil temperature with time. Z = ground surface, ZZ = at a depth x . Amplitude
decreases with depth. (Modified after Szilas, 1975, p. 493, fig. 7.2-1.)
cycle is assumed to be sinusoidal (see Fig. 8-11), then the temperature change on the
ground surface, AT,, is equal to:
AT, =AT,,, sin at (8-56)
where A denotes temperature fluctuation and w = 277/t,, with t, = time for 1 cycle.
Figure 8-11 shows how the amplitude decreases with depth and that the tempera-
ture wave I1 at depth x is displaced in phase with respect to the ground-surface
wave (see Szilas, 1975, p. 493). The temperature variations can be expressed as:
aT a2T
--=ff- (8-57)
at ax2
where x = depth from the ground surface (x = 0 at ground surface).
Using eq. 8-56 in solving eq. 8-57,
AT, =AT,,, exp( -x/+) sin(21it/tp - x/-) (8- 58a)
and phase shift
At, = ( x / 2 ) { F (8-58b)
When the sine term in eq. 8-58a is equal to unity, the maximum temperature
fluctuation (amplitude) at a depth x is obtained:
AT,,, =A exp I- /x *s/at,

qmax (8-58~)
236
Example 8-3. What are the extremes of daily temperature and the phase shift
(a) at a depth of 1 ft and (b) at a depth of 5 f t if a = 5.3 X lo6 ft2/sec and the
surface temperature varies from 90 to 40°F during the day.
Solution: See Fig. 8-11.

The surface amplitude of the temperature fluctuation is equal to:
Using eq. 8-58a, the amplitude at a depth of 1 ft is equal to:
AT,,, = 25 exp[ - (l){r/(86,400 x 5.3 x ] = f1.82"F.

At a depth of 5 ft, the amplitude is equal to:
AT^,^ = f 5 . i x 10-SOF.
In order to evaluate the temperature extremes, first it is necessary to calculate the
mean temperature, which is approximately equal to:
Then, the temperature extremes at a depth of 1 ft are equal to:
T,,, = + AT,,, = 65 + 1.82 = 66.82"F

and
-
Tlmin= T, - AT,,, = 65 - 1.82 = 63.18"F.
At a depth of 5 ft:
= 65.00005"F and TSmin

TSmax = 64.99995"F.
By using eq. 8-58b, the phase shift at a depth of 1 ft is equal to:
At, = (;)/86,40O/(r X 5.3 X
= 36,017.5 sec = 10 hr.

Similarly, at a depth of 5 ft:
At, = 50 hr.
237
Steady-state flow in buried pipelines

Temperature of the oil injected into a pipeline usually differs from that of the
soil. Soil is generally cooler than the oil. Some of the factors contributing to the
variation of axial oil temperature in the pipe are:
(1) A part of the potential energy of the oil flowing in the pipeline is transformed
into heat, due to the shearing at the liquid-solid pipe wall interface and the
liquid-liquid shear within the bulk liquid. This heat increases the oil temperature.
(2) Temperature also increases due to the exothermic process of separation of
solid components (such as waxes) from the oil. Inasmuch as extensive separation
leads to reduced flow efficiency and eventual blocking of the oil, crude oils are often
dewaxed before pipeline transportation.
(3) Temperature decreases due to the transfer of heat from the pipeline to the
lower-temperature soil.
In calculating the heat generated by friction, one can assume an average constant
friction gradient along the pipeline. A pressure differential, Aprriction, is equivalent
to a force F, = A p , (7rd2/4) in lb, along the length I of pipe. (1 ft-lb, = 0.001285
Btu). If the flow rate is Q (ft3/sec) and the heat generated by F, is q, then velocity,
V, is equal to:
V = Q/( 7rd2/4)
and q = 0.001285 F,I.

The heat generated by friction per unit time per unit distance of flow, @J
(Btu/sec-ft), is equal to:
@ = 4 =0.001285FrI/t = [0.001285(A p , )( 7rd2/4) V ]/ I = 0.001285AprQ / l

It I
(8-59)
Using constant w and A, which are actually temperature dependent, the heat
liberated per one O F drop in temperature (Btu/'F-sec) is equal to:
where X = latent heat of fusion of the solids (paraffins) that separate out of the oil,
Y Surface
Fig. 8-12. Schematic diagram of an infinitesimal element of flowing fluid, exhibiting a temperature drop
dq.
238
Btu/lb,; w = amount of solids formed per lb, of oil per O F drop in temperature,
lb/lb,il-oF; p = density of the paraffin-containing oil, lb,/ft3; and Q = oil flow
rate, ft3/sec.
On considering an infinitesimal volume element, as shown in Fig. 8-12 where the
temperature of the flowing oil decreases by dT, over a length d l of pipe, one can
obtain, by heat balance:
PQC, dT, = @ dl + QpwXdT, - k(T, - T,) d l
Change in Heat Heat Heat lost

heat content generated generated to
of the by by separation surroundings
flowing friction of paraffins
liquid
where T, = axial temperature of the flowing oil in the pipeline, OF; T, = original soil
temperature at the same depth, OF; k = heat transfer coefficient per unit length of
pipe, Btu/ft-hr-OF; and c, = specific heat of the flowing oil, Btu/lb,-OF:
Or :
(Qpc,-AQpw) dT,=(@+kT,-kT,) d l (8-61)
On substituting Qpc, - QpwX = A (constant) and Qz + kT, = B (constant) in eq.

8-61, integrating (initial conditions: I = 0 and T = TI):
/ ( B - kA
T,) dT,=/dl
Solving, and resubstituting for A and B, one obtains:
(8-62)
The oil temperature also varies radially. In turbulent flow, the radial temperature
variation is slight, whereas in laminar flow, it may be significant. In the latter case,
the axial temperature Tfis somewhat higher than the average temperature. Exam-
ples of temperature profiles are shown in Fig. 8-13. In practical calculations, the
latent heat of fusion of paraffin is usually not considered. As shown in Example 8-4,
however, it may be significant.
Example 8-4
Oil is injected at a flow rate Q = 700 bbl/hr into a 20-mile long pipeline having
I.D. = 12 in. The oil gravity is 0.85, temperature T, = llO°F, viscosity is 4.2 CP
239
Velocity + Temperoturr
(a) I b)
Fig. 8-13. Velocity (a) and temperature (b) profiles for oil flowing in a pipeline. (Modified after
r=
Chernikin, 1958 in: Szilas, 1975, fig. 7.2-4, p. 498). r=
0.317 m/sec, 69"C, T, = 55.5"C.
(8.778 X slugs/ft-sec), soil temperature T, = 40 OF, relative roughness c/d =

0.0001, w = 0.003/"F, c, = 0.455 Btu/lb-OF, X = 200 Btu/lb,, and k = 1.2 Btu/hr-
ft-OF. There are 2 globe valves, 1 long sweep elbow, and 100 couplings present. Find
the exit temperature Tn of the oil:
(1) Assuming friction and paraffin deposition over the entire length of the pipe.
(2) Assuming negligible paraffin deposition.
(3) Neglecting the effects of both friction and paraffin deposition.
Solution: Velocity of oil in the pipe, V = Q/( 7r/4)dz = [700 X 5.615/ 3600
ft3/sec]/[(7r/4)(1)2 ft2] = 1.39 ft/sec. Oil specific weight, y = 0.85 X 62.4 = 53.04
lb/ft3, whereas oil density, p = 53.04/32.2 = 1.647 slugs/ft3( = 53.04 lb,/ft3).
N Re = -d=Vp (1)(1.39) (1.647)

= 26,100.
P (8.778 X
From Fig. 8-2, for relative roughness r/d = 0.0001 and NRe= 26,100, the Fan-
ning friction factor f = 0.0242. From Fig. 8-6, I, for a globe valve = 320 ft, and I,,
for a long sweep elbow = 20 ft. From Fig. 8-3, K for a coupling = 0.04. Thus, the
head loss due to friction is equal to:
2f/V2y V2y 2(0.0242)[(20)(5280) + 2(320) + 201 (1.39)2(53.04)

*Pf= gdi+ K - 2g =
(32.2) (11
Using eq. 8-59:

240
(1) From eq. 8-62, the exit temperature is equal to:
110 - 40 - -
0.783 x exp[
1.2
1 - (1.2)( 20)( 5280)
(700 X 5.615)(53.04)(0.455 + 0.6) 1
+--0.783
1.2
-79.63'F
(2) On assuming w = 0,
0*783
110 - 40 - -
- (1.2)(20)(5280)
1.2 x exp[ (700 X 5.615)(53.04)(0.455) 1
0.783
+-1.2
=58.88"F
(3) On assuming w = 0, and @ = 0,
T,, = 40 + (110 - 40) exp

[ - (1.2)(20)(5280)
(700 X 5.615)(53.04)(0.455) 1 = 58.40"F
This example enables one to evaluate the significance of each of these assump-
tions. The paraffin deposition, which is neglected by many pipeline engineers, has a
very significant effect.
It is important to understand what the heat transfer coefficient, k, per unit pipe
length signifies. As shown in Fig. 8-14, there are a series of resistances to the
transfer of heat from the oil to the surrounding soil.
First there is heat transfer from the bulk oil to the pipe wall, which is a process of
forced internal convection (see eqs. 8-48, 8-49, 8-50, and 8-51).
For Na -= 100 and NRe < 2100 (eq. 8-48):
NNu=3.66 [ 0.085NGz
+ 1 + 0.047NZ3 ]( e) 0.14
Fig 8-14 Cross-sectional view of a buried insulated pipeline carrying oil

241
For NGz > 100 and NRe < 2100 (eq. 8-49):
NNu= 1. 8 6 N g 3
i-:L r4
For 2100 < NRe < 10,000 (i.e., the transition region; eq. 8-50):
0.14
”, = 0.116( N i l 3 - 125) N ; i 3 [ 1+ ( (”)
d / ~ ~ / ~ ]
PW
For NRe > 10,000 (turbulent flow; eq. 8-51):
0.14
N,, =
These equations correspond to heat transfer by convection in the three zones of

flow, i.e., laminar, transition, and turbulent. Thus, one can evaluate the Nusselt
number N N u using the appropriate equation for a particular flow regime.
Inasmuch as:
hidi
NNu= - (8-63)
k
k
h i = NNuX - (8-64)
di
In this manner, the heat transfer coefficient h (Btu/hr-ft2-OF) can be de-

termined. It is called h i , because it is the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe.
Thus, the net heat transfer per unit length of pipe (Btu/hr-ft-OF) due to the internal
forced convection is equal to:
Another resistance to heat transfer is the pipe wall. If the thermal conductivity of
the pipe wall material is k,, then its net contribution in Btu/hr-ft-”F is equal to
2rkw/ln( do/di).
In the presence of thermal insulation around the pipe, another factor
(2nkin/ln( din/d,) is introduced, where kin= thermal conductivity of the insulating
material and din= diameter of the insulating material.
Finally, the thermal conductivity of the soil surrounding the pipeline must be
considered. Assuming a constant undisturbed soil temperature T, at a depth x , it
242
can be shown that the net heat transfer coefficient of soil, h,, is approximately
equal to :
In order to obtain the net effective resistance, it is necessary to add these four
resistances ( = l/conductance) in series together:
R=- 1
hi(rdi) + -
1
2 r k w ln( 3)+ - 1
2rk,
In( 3)+ 1
-
hordin
(8-66)
Thus, the total heat transfer coefficient per unit length is equal to:
k- = - 1= r
(8-67)
‘ R 1 1 1 1
-+ - In(%) + - ln(2) + -
hidi 2kw di . 2kin hodin
The kin values for some common insulating materials are presented in Table 8-1.
Pipes, which are usually laid in ditches dug for that purpose, are covered with
backfill. Inasmuch as the porosity of this backfill is greater than that of the
undisturbed soil, its thermal conductivity is lower. The backfill compacts with time,
however, causing the effective heat transfer coefficient to increase slightly. Other
variables are wind, plant cover, snow, moisture content of the soil, etc.
Under steady-state conditions, the heat transfer across the flowing oil into the
soil is equal to:
= 2rkin(T0- qn)/ln(dh/do)
= hodin..( qn- T , ) (8-68)
One can assume that the inside and outside wall temperatures of the pipe are
After Rohsenow and Hartnett (1973) who gave an appropiate relationship:
2ks
h, =
dincosh-’(2x/din)
where cosh-’(2x/din) is approximately equal to In(4x/din).

243
TABLE 8-1
Thermal conductivities of pipeline insulators (after Thomas and Turner, 1953; courtesy of Chemical
Engineer)
Material Resistance Temperature limits Thermal conductivity Specific

towater (OF) (Btu/hr-ft 2-oF/in.) weight
Min. Max. 32°F 70°F 212OF 500OF
Cellular glass Excellent -400 800 0.35 0.39 0.46 - 10
Cellular silica Excellent - 300 1600 - 0.44 0.62 1.0 10-12
Cement Water will 100 1800 - 0.69 0.820 1.058 26
(semi thermo- soften the
setting) dried cement
Cement Will not 32 1200 0.46 0.525 0.610 0.840 49
(hydraulic soften when
setting) wetted
Diatomaceous
earth Fair 22 1900 - 0.66 0.720 - 23
Burnt diatomaceous
earth bricks Moderate 22 1900 0.603 0.617 0.694 0.742 29.95
Burnt diatomaceous
earth paste Moderate 22 1900 0.520 0.541 0.590 0.610 31.2
Glass fibers Excellent - 300 600 0.270 0.273 0.320 - 8
(formed into
pipe insulation and
blocks)
Hydrous calcium
silicate Good 100 1200 - 0.37 0.41 0.52 12
Perlite Excellent 32 1200 - 0.38 0.43 0.58 10-12
Polystyrene Excellent - 300 175 0.23 0.26 - - 2-2.3
(expanded)
Polyurethane
(expanded) Good - 50 230 - 0.17 0.35 - 3
equal ( q= To),and then break up the above multiple equation into three indepen-
dent equations:
k ( T , - T,) =mdihi(T,- Ti) (8-69)
(8-70)
and
hidi&- Ti) =hodinpin- T , ) (8-71)
If Ti is unknown, one should use a trial and error procedure. Assume Ti and
establish the physical parameters of the oil (density, viscosity, specific heat, etc.) to
244
Fig. 8-15. Universal viscosity versus temperature chart for crude oils. (After Frick, 1962, p. 19-39, fig.
19-41; courtesy of McGraw-Hill, New York).
evaluate NRe, NP,, NGr,Na and NNu. Knowing NNu,calculate h i and then k
using eq. 8-67. Another k value is obtained using eq. 8-69.
If the k values obtained by the two methods agree, then the assumed value of Ti
is correct. If not, the calculation procedure is repeated with a different value for Ti,
until one arrives at an acceptable agreement.
To carry out such calculations, the variation of the physical parameters (viscosity,
density, etc.) of the oil with temperature must be known.
Viscosity
Temperature and liquid viscosity may be correlated within the accuracy of most
experimental data (1-2%) with the de Guzman-Andrade Equation:
where A and B are constants.

This equation implies that a plot of log p versus 1/T will yield a straight line.
Figure 8-15 illustrates the above equation, which is generally used.
Beggs and Robinson (1975) presented a more recent empirical correlation be-
tween viscosity and temperature, which gives better results than the frequently used
Beal's (1946) correlations:
pdo = 10" - 1 (8-73)
where pdo= viscosity of dead oil (gas-free crude oil), cP; and x = Y T - ' . ' ~ ~where
,
T - O F ; y = 10'; and z = 3.0324 - 0.02023 ("API).
245
Fig. 8-16. Viscosity of gas-free crude oil at reservoir temperatures. (After Beal, 1946, fig. 8, p. 103;
courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.).
I00
80
60
40
20
10
8
6
I
08
06
04
I-
4, 0 2
1111 I I I1 I IllllJ
0.4 OK08 I 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 BOIOO
VISCOSITY OF DEAD OIL, CENTIPOISES
(AT RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE)
Fig. 8-17. The viscosity of gas-saturated crude oils at reservoir temperature and bubble-point pressure.
(From Chew and Connally, 1959, fig. 2, p. 25; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.).
246
Fig. 8-18. Relationship between the viscosity of oil and pressure (above the bubble-point). (From Bed,
1946, fig. 11, p. 109; courtesy of the S.P.E.of A.I.M.E.).
For crude oil containing dissolved gas, Beggs and Robinson provided the
following correction for viscosity:
Po =A d o (8-74)
+
where A = 10.715(RS+ 100)-0.515;B = 5.44 ( R , 150)-0.338;and R , = amount of
dissolved gas in oil, scf/STB.
This equation gives the viscosity of gas-containing (live) oil. This correlation was
developed by plotting log,, T versus log log(pdo+ 1). Straight lines were obtained
and it was found that each of these lines corresponded to crude oils having a
particular API gravity, which led to the development of eq. 8-73.
Because of their popularity, Beal’s correlations are also presented in Fig. 8-16 and
8-18, along with the Chew and Connally (1959) correlation (fig. 8-17).
Density
The following equation takes into account the effects of both temperature and
pressure on the density of the oil:
or
where p T = density of oil at any temperature T, lb,/ft3; pn = density of the oil at.
the base temperature T, and base pressure (usually at standard conditions); a T =
temperature coefficient of oil density, Ib,/ft’-’F; ap = pressure coefficient of oil
density, l/ft; p = pressure, lb/ft2; and y = specific weight, lb/ft3.
247
The coefficients aT and ap can be evaluated if the densities are known for any
two known conditions of temperature and pressure. There are other empirical
correlations which are not presented here.
Kinematic viscosity
A useful correlation between temperature and kinematic viscosity Y (which
combines both the viscosity p and the density p of the oil) was proposed by
Walther. This equation, however, neglects the effect of pressure, which is generally
small:
log log(102v + a ) = b + c log T (8-76)

where a , b, and c are constants, their value depending upon the particular oil in
question. The value of a is around 0.8 for most of the oils. On incorporating this
value into the above equation, one obtains:
log log(102v + 0.8) = b + c log T (8-77)

where Y = cm2/sec (or stokes) and T = temperature, "Rankine.
Specific heat
Cragoe (1929) presented a correlation for the estimation of the specific heat cp in
Btu/lb,-'F for petroleum oils:
c =
0.388 + 0.00045T (8-78)
P G,0.5
\
where T is the temperature in O F and Go is the liquid specific gravity at 60°F. The
accuracy of this equation is +5%.
Thermal conductivity
The American Petroleum Institute (1966) recommended a single value of 0.077
Btu/hr-ft-OF at 30°C (86°F) for thermal conductivity of petroleum oils. The
average and maximum deviations from this value are 7 and 308, respectively. At
other temperatures, Cragoe's equation gives satisfactory results, with average and
maximum deviations of 12 and 398, respectively:
0'0677 [ 1 - 0.0003( T - 32)]

k= - (8-79)
Go
where 32" < T -= 392°F.

Example 8-5. Determine the heat transfer coefficient for a 10-mile pipeline
buried 4 ft below the surface. Pipe having O.D. = 12.75 in. and I.D. = 12.438 in.
carries a crude oil having specific weight of 53 lb/ft3 (Go= 0.85 or 35'API). Given:
= 110'F; T, = 35'F; aT = 0.25 1b/ft2-'F; k , = 1.0 Btu/hr-ft-"F. Assume laminar
flow: NRe= 2000.
248
Solution: For the first trial, Ti = 80°F is assumed. Using eq. 8-73:
z = 3.0324 - 0.02023(35) = 2.32435
y = 10' = 102,32435= 211.033
x =yT-'.163 = (211.033)(80)-
1.163 -
- 1.2914
... = 101.2914- 1 = 18.56 CP
and
p,(at T,) = 6.8 cP.
Neglecting the effect of pressure, the density is equal to (eq. 8-75):
p r = p , - a T ( T - T,)=53.0-0.25(80-60)=48 lbm/ft3.
Using eq. 8-78, specific heat of oil is equal to:
The thermal conductivity of oil can be determined from eq. 8-79:
k o = -[l - 0.0003(80 - 32)] = 0.0785 Btu/hr-ft-"F

0.85
The Graetz number, N,(
NGz = (2000)
= N R e N P r d / l )is
0.0785
3600
Btu
sec-ft-OF
Ibm
equal to:
6)7X -
(18.56 X 6.72 X 1 0 - 4 ) ( 0 . 4 7 1Btu lbm
ft-sec 1 [lzO]
X
12.438
= 10.6
Inasmuch as Ncz < 100, one can use eq. 8-48 to find NNu:
NNu = 3.66 +
h i= NNux k o = (0.844)[
-
di
1i:;l;i2] = 0.0635 Btu/hr-ft2-OF
249
and
h, = - = 0.6941 Btu/hr-ft2-"F
din ln( 2) 4x4
In( 12.75/12 )
Thus, k can be determined using eq. 8-67:
1T
k= = 0.0604 Btu/hr-ft-'F
1/(0.06352 X 12.438/12) + 1/(0.6941 X 12.75/12)
and using eq. 8-69:
mdihi(T, - q )
k= = [ ~(12.438/12)(0.0635)(110 - 80)]/(110 - 35)
( T f - T,)
= 0.0827 Btu/hr-ft-"F
On assuming Ti = 82"F, as a further approximation, the above procedure is re-

peated :
Equation 8-67 gives k = 0.0711 Btu/hr-ft-"F, whereas eq. 8-69 gives k = 0.0705
Btu/hr-ft-OF, which is a reasonable agreement. Thus, k = 0.071 Btu/hr-ft-"F and
Ti = 82°F.
Transient (unsteady state) flow of oil in buried pipelines
If the inlet temperature, flow rate, the physical parameters of the oil, and the soil
temperature are constant over a comparatively long period of time, the heat flow in
and around a buried pipeline must be steady. These conditions are, however, never
satisfied. Slight departures from the steady-state behavior are approximated by the
steady-state relationships. In numerous practical situations listed below, however,
the departure may be sufficient to render the steady-state relationships useless for
even an approximate quantitative evaluation:
(1) Termination or beginning of flow in the pipeline.
(2) Change in injection temperature of oil into the pipeline.
(3) Fluctuations in temperatures.
(4) Fluctuations in flow rates.
Given sufficient time, any kind of flow (except the fluctuating type) will
eventually stabilize and reach steady state.
Numerous models and calculation methods have been devised to describe and
solve unsteady-state systems. Szilas (1975) presented a transient model which
describes the temperature changes in a pipeline shut down after steady-state flow.
' This book was originally published in Hungary in 1968

250
He called it a “cooling model” for an insulated pipeline.

In the case of shutdown after flow, it is assumed that:
(1) The pipeline is embedded in an infinite half-space filled with soil of homoge-
neous thermal properties.
(2) The temperature of the soil in contact with the pipeline can be described by
Chernikin’s (1958) model.
Heat flowing through the wall of unity pipe length into the cooler ground over an
infinitesimal period of time d t reduces the temperature of oil and pipe by dT:
[ rd?
4po~o
1
+ -774 ( d ? - df ) pPcp dTo = - k (T; - Tin) d t
where subscript o refers to oil, p refers to pipe, and in refers to pipe insulation; T,,
and T[n are transient temperatures. Neglecting h i and h , and using eq. 8-67:
k = r/ [ (1/2kin) In( din/do )I

Setting:
77 [ dfpoc0 + (d,2 - df)PpCp] = 4
-
4k
and rearranging:
A[dTo/(T,’- T6)] = -dt (8-80)
The Chernikin relationship is then used here to describe the change in the oil
temperature, TA, and the change in the outer temperature of the insulation Tin. If
point PI is the image of the projection of the linear heat source on a plane
perpendicular to it (see Fig. 8-19), then the difference in temperature between the
point Pz (lying in the plane of projection and defined by the coordinates y and z)
and the undisturbed soil is equal to:
TL- T,= (@/4ak,)[Ei(-xz/r2X1/NF,) -Ei(-1/4NFo)] (8-81)
where NFo= q / r 2 = Fourier number (dimensionless), and Ei is the exponential

integral function.
Fig. 8-19. The Chernikin model for unsteady state flow of oil in buried pipelines. (Modified after
Chernikin, 1958; in: Szilas, 1975, p. 517, fig. 7.2-13; courtesy of Akadkmiai Kiad6, Budapest, Hungary).
25 1
If t = 00 (steady state flow), eq. 8-81 reduces to the following form:
To - T, = (@/21rk,) ln(2x/r) (8-82)
Dividing eq. 8-81 by eq. 8-82:
Inasmuch as x, r , k,, ps and c, are constant for a given pipeline, the above equation
can be written as follows:
where
The process of warming 'up is described in eq. 8-85. In the case of cooling down
after steady-state flow:
( T; - T , ) / ( To- T,) = 1 - x
or
Td=(l-X)(To-T,)+T, (8-86)
The relationship X = f(t) for a given case can be plotted on a graph using eq.
8-86. Sections of this curve can be individually approximated by the following
relation:
X=a+bht (8-87)
In addition, an equation similar to eq. 8-86 can be written for the insulation around
the pipe:
TL = (1 - X ) ( Ti,- T,) + T, (8-88)
Combining eqs. 8-87 and 8-88:

Ti',= (1- a - b h t )( Ti,- T,) + T, = T, + (1- a ) ( Tin- T,) - b( Ti,- T,) In t
or
Ti:, = B - C In t (8-89)
where B = T, + (1 - a)(Ti, - T,) and C = b(Ti, - T,).

252
Substituting q,,from eq. 8-89 into eq. 8-80:
’[ T d - BdTo
+Clnt I = -dt
The general solution of eq. 8-90 is:

(8-90)
T,’=B-C In t + [CEi(t/A)C’] e-‘IA (8-91)

where C’ is the constant of integration.
In the case of initial condition T,’ = at t = 0:
Ti = B - C In t + [ CEi( t/A)To - B - C(0.5772 - In A ) ] e-r/A (8-92)

The above relationship can be used to evaluate the variation of temperature Ti
versus the time t elapsed after shutdown of the pipeline at any pipe section situated
at a distance 1 from the head end of the line (See Szilas, 1975, p. 519.).
Heating up of a cold line by introduction of hot oil
When hot oil is pumped into a cold line, the initial transient heat loss-to the cold
soil can be very much higher than the equilibrium steady-state heat loss. In large
crude oil lines, it may take many days or even weeks before equilibrium conditions
are established. It is, therefore, necessary to know how the transient heat loss varies
as a function of time. (See Davenport and Conti, 1971.)
In the simple case, the pipe is assumed to be surrounded by an “infinite sea” of
soil having homogeneous thermal properties. The heat transfer between the ground
surface and air is assumed to be infinite. Thus, the heat loss is directionally
symmetrical and for this simple case, the Nusselt number is related to the Fourier
number as follows (see Davenport and Conti, 1971):
N,, = 0.362 + 0.953/N;:’ (8-93)

The soil will warm up continuously and will reach equilibrium with the pipe
surface. It is assumed that equilibrium is reached when the Nusselt number from eq.
8-93 equals that from eq. 8-94:
(N,,), = 2/cosh-’(2x/d0) = 2/ln(4x/d0) if x >, do (8-94)
Thus, it is possible to calculate the time necessary to reach equilibrium, which is a

function of NFo and x / d o . Due to the approximation employed, NNuis a function
of x/do only in eq. 8-94. Substituting eq. 8-94 into eq. 8-93, yields:
r
7 (8-95)
253
where N,, = cy,t/d:; x = depth of burial of pipeline, ft; and do = outside pipe
diameter, ft.
This relationship gives the time of transient flow in the pipeline as a function of x
and do.
As the temperature wave from the pipeline reaches the surface and is reflected,
the surface begins to play an important role and the infinite sea approximation is
invalid. The heat loss exceeds the calculated value by 10 - 15%thereafter.
TRANSPORTATION OF HEAVY OILS IN PIPELINES
Heavy oils, characterized by high viscosities, high pour points, and low API
gravities, are currently being transported only to a limited extent by pipelines.
Development of the largely untapped world resources of heavy crude oils, however,
is changing this. The methods for pipelining heavy crude oils are briefly discussed
here. (See Barry, 1971.)
The major problems are caused by: (1) pour point (wax crystallization problems)
and ( 2 ) viscosity (flow problems). High pour point temperatures are caused by
excessive formation of wax'crystals in the oil, which inhibit its ability to flow. Wax
deposits form in the storage tanks as well as in the pipeline. With increasing
viscosity, the head loss due to friction increases and, therefore, greater pump
horsepower is required. Thus, it is necessary to reduce the viscosity and the pour
point of the oil being transported, which can be achieved by the following means:
(1) Use of additives (pour point depressants).
( 2 ) Preparation of an oil-solid slurry.
(3) Heating the oil to keep the flow essentially above the pour point, and also to
reduce viscosity.
(4) Dilution of oil with a solvent or with another oil for reduction of viscosity
and pour point.
( 5 ) Preparation of a lower-viscosity, unstable slurry-emulsion system by mixing
water with the oil.
The first two techniques are applicable only in cases where the oil viscosity is low
enough to permit economical pipelining at the existing temperature. The third and
fourth techniques are currently the major methods for the pipelining of heavy crude
oils. The fifth technique has not been used yet on a commercial scale.
The transportation of hot oil by pipelines, which has been discussed already,
requires some means of heating the oil. Usually direct-fired heaters are used. The
dilution technique involves the addition of low-viscosity hydrocarbons such as
condensate, natural gasoline, and naphtha in order to reduce viscosity of heavy oil.
In the case of oil fields located in remote areas, where the diluent may not be readily
available, two major alternatives are available: (1) Use of a dual pipeline, so that
one pipeline could carry the diluent back to the field. ( 2 ) Installation of a thermal
cracker, catalytic cracker, or a hydrocracker to crack a portion of the heavy crude to
254
lighter components, which can then be blended with the remaining heavy oil for
pipelining.
The choice of a technique is determined by the oil viscosity, the geographic
location, length of pipeline, process feasibility, and economic considerations.
PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF NATURAL GAS
Physical properties of gases
Physical properties of natural gases (compressibility, density, viscosity, and

specific heat), which affect gas transmission in pipelines are discussed first in this
section.
Gas compressibility
Deviation from ideal behavior of natural gas is seldom negligible. For practical
purposes, only compressibility factor Z is applied:
p v = ZnRT (8-96)
GAS GRAVITY (AIR=I)
Fig. 8-20. Pseudocritical properties of condensate well fluids and miscellaneous natural gases. (After
Brown et al., 1948; courtesy of Natural Gasoline Association of America).
255
where p = absolute pressure of the gas, psia; T/;= total gas volume, ft3; Z =
compressibility factor; n = number of moles of gas in volume y ; T = absolute gas
temperature, OR; and R = universal gas constant = 10.73 psia-ft3/lb mole-OF.
PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE PR

Fig. 8-21. Compressibility factor for natural gases as a function of reduced pressure and temperature.
(From Standing and Katz, 1942, fig. 2, p. 144; courtesy of the S.P.E.of A.I.M.E.).
256
According to the law of corresponding states, the compressibility factors Z of

two gases are equal if the reduced state parameters of these gases are equal. This is
the basis for the generalized compressibility factor chart shown in Fig. 8-21.
Reduced pressure p , is equal to p / p c and the reduced temperature T, is equal to
T/T,, where p, and T, are the critical pressure and temperature of the gas,
respectively. For a mixture of gases, the reduced state parameters are replaced by
the pseudo-reduced parameters ppr and Tp,, which are defined as follows:
n
~ p =c C Yipci (8-97)
i=l
and
n
Tpc = C YiTci (8-98)
i-1
where yi = mole fraction of component i in a gas mixture.

The molecular weight, M , is equal to:
n
M= CyiMj (8-99)
i=l
If the gas composition is not known, one can use approximate empirical
correlations (see Fig. 8-20) developed by Brown et al. (1948).
Natural gas often contains nonhydrocarbon gases such as N, and CO,. If the N,
content is less than 8% and that of CO, is less than 108, one can use the additive
rule to determine compressibility factor Z :
where ZHc is the compressibility factor for the pure hydrocarbon gas, which can be
determined as before. The compressibility charts for N, and CO, gases are given in
literature.
Density
The gas density, p , at a pressure p and temperature T can be obtained from eq.
8-96 as follows:
n / y =p/ZRT (8-100)
Inasmuch as number of moles n = mass/molecular weight = m / M , eq. 8-100 be-

comes:
m/K=pM/ZRT=p (8-101)
251
.E3
Fig. 8-22. Relationship between the viscosity of paraffin gases and molecular weight at a pressure of orre atmosphere and reservoir temperatures, with
corrections for nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. (From Carr et al., 1954, fig. 6, p. 268; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.).
258
Fig. 8-23. Viscosity ratio, p / p l , as a function of pseudoreduced temperature and pseudoreduced

pressure. (From Carr et al., 1954 p. 267, fig. 4; courtesy of the S.P.E.of A.I.M.E.). p = viscosity of gas at
reduced temperature, T,, and reduced pressure, P,; p1= viscosity of gas at atmospheric pressure and at
temperature T,.
Gas gravity, Gg, is defined as the ratio of the density of the gas, pe, to the density
of air, pa, under standard conditions:
(8-102)
because Z = 1 at standard conditions.

Inasmuch as molecular weight of air is equal to 28.97, eq. 8-102 can be written as
follows:
Gg= M/28.97
Viscosity
Gas viscosity decreases with increasing molecular weight and increases with
increasing pressure and temperature. The pressure effect is the same as in liquids,
whereas the temperature effect is just the opposite.
The two most widely used correlations are those of Carr et al. (1954, see Figs.
8-22 and 8-23) and Lee et al. (1966). Beggs and Brill (1972), gave the following
modified form of Lee's equation:
1.1= A x exp( BpC) (8-103)
where p is the viscosity in cP, A = (9.4 + 0.02M)T1.s/(209 + 19M + T ) ; B = 3.5 t

259
Temperature, OF
Fig. 8-24.Viscosity of natural gases at atmospheric pressure. (After C a r et al., 1954, fig. 7, p. 269;
courtesy of the S.P.E.of A.I.M.E.). Data is based on N.B.S.-N.A.C.A. tables of thermal properties of
gases and research work by J.O. Hirschfelder, R.B. Bird and E.L.Spotz (1949),M. Trantz and K.G. Sorg
(1931),and A.O. Rankine and C.J. Smith (1921).
+
986/T 0.01M; C = 2.4 - 0.2.4; M = molecular weight of the gas; T is the temper-
ature in OR; and p is the density in g/cm3.
The viscosities of natural gases at atmospheric pressure are given in Fig. 8-24.
Specific heat
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
a unit mass of a substance by one degree. It can be measured at a constant pressure,
cp, or at constant volume, co, resulting in two distinct specific heat values. For an
ideal gas, the difference between the two is equal to the gas constant R:
cP - C, =R (8-104)
The cp of a gas mixture can be calculated from the following formula:

n
cp= c
i-1
YiC,i (8-105)
Product of gas constant R o and molecular weight M is called Universal Gas Constant ( R= R o M )
and is equal to = 10.732 p~ia-ft~/Ibmole-~
R = 1544 ft-lbf/lbmole-o R = 1.986 Btu/lbmole-o R.
260
.W
TEMPERATURE DEtREfS FAHRENHEIT
Fig. 8-25. Specific heat, cp, of hydrocarbon vapors at a pressure of one atmosphere. (After Brown, 1945,
fig. 1, p. 66; courtesy of the S.P.E.of A.I.M.E.).
Brown (1945) has presented the molar specific heats at constant pressure for the
individual hydrocarbon gases (Fig. 8-25). Equation 8-105 can be used to determine
approximately the specific heat of a mixture of gases if the composition is known.
261
0.04 0.060.000.10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 2 4

Reduced pressure pr=P/P,
Fig. 8-26. Generalized relationship of heat capacity differences, cp - c,,, to reduced pressure and reduced
temperature. (After Edmister, 1948, p. 613, in: Perry and Chilton, 1973, fig. 3-54, p. 3-238; courtesy of
Petroleum Refiner.)
The specific heat capacity ratio, c,/c,, for an ideal gas can be easily obtained
using eq. 8-104. For a real gas, CJC, ratio is equal to:
The ( c p - c u ) quantity, which is larger than R for a real gas, may be obtained from
the generalized chart in Fig. 8-26.
Gas flow fundamentals
Detailed treatment of gas flow fundamentals was presented by the Institute of

Gas Technology (1972). Some important equations are presented here.
Q b = 38.774-
QbGgpb
p: -pz - 0.0375GgA~p,Z,,/(TZ) Os
G,ITZf
x d 2s
1 (8-107)
NRe = 0.4775 - (8-108)

pdiTb
262
(8-109)
r 1
(8-110)
(8-111)
(8-112)
Pavg = 0.67( -) (8-113)
where Q,=volumetric flow rate at pressure Pb and temperature T,,, Mcf/D;

BI = bend index, degrees/mile; Ff = drag factor; f = Fanning friction factor; fpt =
Fanning friction factor for partially turbulent flow; fft = Fanning friction factor for
fully turbulent flow; Gg = gas specific gravity (air = 1); A t = elevation, ft (positive
for net uphill flow and negative for net downhill flow); di = internal pipe diameter,
inches; I = pipeline length, miles; p b = base pressure, psia (usually atmospheric);
pavg= average pressure, psia; p 1 = upstream pressure, psia; p 2 = downstream pres-
sure, psia; T = flowing gas temperature, OR; Tb = base temperature, OR; Z = gas
compressibility factor; p = viscosity, lb,/ft-sec; and E = effective or operating
roughness, microinches:
Steel pipe Roughness E (microinches)

New 500-700
12-months old 1500
24-months old 1750
Plastic-lined, or sand blasted 200-300
The roughness E for aluminium pipe is equal to 200 microinches.

Weymouth approximation
A very widely used formula for volumetric flow rate (Qb),
which was developed
by Weymouth, can be derived as follows:
f = 0.0035rK (8-114)
and
(8-115)
263
where M = molecular weight of the gas, lb/lb-mole; R = universal gas constant =

10.73 psia-ft3/lb-mole-"R; T= average temperature, OR; and z= average com-
pressibility factor at average pressure, pavg,and average temperature, $?
Rearranging eq. 8-115:
(8-116a)
Substituting eq. 8-114:
f = 0.0035&,
and R = 10.73 psia-ft3/lb-mole-"R in eq. 8-116a:
or
(8-116b)
Mean pressure eualuation
The mean pressure for an incompressible fluid is simp] the arithmetic average of
the inlet and outlet pressures. As discussed below, this is not the case for com-
pressible fluids, i.e., gases.
One can derive a simple formula to determine the pressure at any fractional
distance x from the inlet end in a pipe carrying gas (see Fig. 8-27).
Using eq. 8-116b, at point C where l = l ( x ) from inlet end and I = l(1 - x ) from
outlet end:
Fig.8-27. Mean pressure evaluation.

264
x +
Fig. 8-28. Pressure profile along the length of a horizontal high-pressuregas pipeline shown in Fig. 8-27.
(After Szilas, 1975, p. 36, fig. 1.2-1; courtesy of Akadtmiai Kiad6, Budapest, Hungary).
and
10.5
Equating these two equations:
p:-p,Z
-- P,Z-P22
X 1-x
Solving for p,:
p, = [ P: - x ( P: - Pz’>I0.5 (8-117)
Equation 8-117 suggests a pressure profile as shown Fig. 8-28. The mean pressure is
given by the following equation:
or
If in eq. 8-116:
265
di is expressed in inches, 1 in miles, and Qb in Mcf/D, one obtains the following

equation:
Qb [ 43.487
= (52so)y’] [
24 X 3600
1000 ] (12“))[
d8l3
w] - 0.5
(Tb’pb)
(8-119)
or
(8-120)
where Qb is in Mcf/D at Tb and p b , d , is in inches, T is in OR, p is in psia, and I

is in miles.
The following approximate forms of the Weymouth equation are also used:
(8-121)
and
(8-122)
where Q is measured in Mcf/D at the average pressure and temperature.

In eq. 8-122, the friction factor, f, has been included. It can be included in a
similar way in eq. 8-120.
The hydrate point for hydrocarbon gases (see Szilas, 1975)
Gases like methane, ethane, propane, and butane can enter the water lattice
without forming a chemical bond. Upon sufficient decrease in temperature, a solid
granular substance forms, which resembles snow or ice and is called hydrocarbon
hydrate. Besides hydrocarbon gas molecules, hydrates can also be formed by
nonhydrocarbon gases, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide.
The conditions necessary for hydrate formation and stabilization are (Szilas, 1975):
(1) The water must be in a liquid state during hydrate formation.
(2) Low temperature and high pressure.
(3) The gas must be of a covalent bond type with molecules smaller than 8 A
units.
(4) The hydrate must be water resistant.
( 5 ) The gas must be immiscible with water in the liquid state.
(6) No van der Waals’ forces should arise between the hydrate molecules.
Several methods of determining the hydrate point temperature for a given
266
pressure and gas composition have been described in literature. The Katz et al.
(1959) procedure seems to be the best suited one for natural gases devoid of
nitrogen and up to about 275 atm (4000 psi). Hydrates form when the following
condition is satisfied:
(8-123)
where y, = mole fraction of i-th component in the gas and Khi = equilibrium ratio
for the i-th component obtained from the Kh versus temperature-pressure charts
(Katz et al., 1959).
Heinze (1971) gave the following relationship for the hydrate point for nitrogen-
[
containing natural gases up to 395 atm (5800 psi):
!lyiKhi]
Th= (8-124)
0.445
where Th is the hydrate-formation temperature in OK.

Gas transmission systems
Gas transmission systems are complex network (looped or loopless) systems, flow
through which can not be treated like a simple single-line flow. Flow may be at a
high pressure with significant increase in specific volume with declining pressure, as
in the case of systems for bulk transport of gas from the field to the regional supply
stations. Flow may also be at a low pressure with negligible specific volume changes,
as in the case of supply from the regional stations to the consumers.
Although the flow in a transmission system is invariably transient, the assump-
tion of steady state flow is valid for many design and operation problems.
System of parallel lines
As in liquid flow,
(8-125)
where QA, QB, and Q , are the flow rates in lines A, B and C, respectively, and QT
is the total flow rate.
Also:
(8-126)
because the end points of all three lines are common. The total pressure drop is
given by the following equation (see Fig. 8-29):
A P T = ApA(or A P B or A PC ) + A P D
9
(8-127)
267
A
l M D
I io
!
I Section I I Section 2 ~
Fig. 8-29. Pipelines in parallel for Example 8-6.
The Weymouth equation (eq. 8-120) can be written as follows:
(8-128)
where K includes the constant terms. Thus, one can use an equivalent single line
having a length 1, and an equivalent diameter d , , that has the same capacity as the
looped line under the same pressure drop. This is given in Table 8-11.
Lines in series
A system of lines in series is shown in Fig. 8-30. In this case,
Q =Q = Q =Q
1 2 3 T
and
where Q , , Q 2 ,and Q 3 are the flow rates in lines 1, 2, and 3, respectively; A p , , A p , ,

Ap, are the respective pressure drops in these lines; A p , is the total pressure drop;
and Q , is the total flow rate.
For this system, it is very simple to define a single line having diameter d , that is
equivalent to I, miles of line of diameter d 2 and I , miles of line of diameter d 3 .
TABLE 8-11
Equivalent diameter and equivalent length for lines in parallel and lines in series
Equivalent diameter Entire line looped a Equivalent length

-
Lines
in
parallel Q
3/16
Lines in
series
a It is assumed that lengths of all lines in the looped section are equal.
268
Line I
Fig. 8-30. Pipelines in series.
Alternatively, one can determine the diameter of a line having length I,, which is
equivalent to the above mentioned lines (Table 8-11).
Example 8-6
In Fig. 8-30, assume d, = 2 in.,d , = 2.5 in., d , = 3 in.,1, = 1, = 1, = 15 d e S ,

d , = 3 in. and I, = 2 miles. Determine the equivalent ~ f : / ' / l ; / ~ratio for use in the
Weymouth equation for this system.
Solution: Refer to Table 8-11. For the looped part,

d,"/' (2)"'
-=- +-( 2 .5)8/3 +--(3)"/' - 9.446-in.8/3
(15)'12 (15)'/2 (15)'12 ft'/2
Inasmuch as length 1, = 15 miles,
d,"/' = (9.446)(15)'/2 = 36.584
Thus: d , = (36.584)3/8 = 3.857 in.

The resulting configuration is shown in Fig. 8-31. This represents two pipes in
series. Choosing an equivalent length:
( 3*8357
IDe= 2 miles x -)16/' = 7.639 miles.
Therefore, the equivalent length of the full system having diameter of 3.857 in. is
+
equal to 15 7.639 = 22.639 miles.
Alternatively:
Equivalent length of the 15-mile section as a 3-in. diameter pipe= 15 X
(3/3.587)16/' = 3.927 miles.
Hence, the equivalent length of the full system having diameter of 3 in. is equal
+
to 2 3.927 = 5.927 miles.
D C3in
t
15 miles .
1-
2 miles
Fig. 8-31. Pipeline system for Example 8-6.

269
Thus, the system in Fig. 8-30 is equivalent to:

(1) 22.64-mile long 3.857-in. diameter pipe;
or
(2) 5.93-mile long 3-in. diameter pipe.
Flow in hilly terrain

Frequently the terrain over which the pipeline is laid may not be horizontal. In
such cases, the horizontal flow equations presented for gas flow have to be modified
to account for the net head (or elevation) change from inlet to the outlet, as
described earlier for flow of liquid oil. For gases, this is complicated by the fact that
the gas properties are very sensitive to pressure.
A simple, yet valid, approach is to modify the Weymouth equation by replacing
the [( p : - p i ) / 1 ) ] term by:
PI -
1
where 1 = total length of pipeline; 3 = 2Ggz/53.33TaZa; z = total elevation dif-

ference between inlet and outlet (= zOutle, - zinlet),ft.
These relationships can be used to predict the performance of many systems.
However, it must be realized that in real situations numerical simulation techniques
may have to be employed to enable more accurate predictions. The interested reader
is referred to Szilas (1975) and other references listed for a detailed treatment of the
subject.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very thankful to Mr. Rajay K. Goyal for his valuable comments
and suggestions during the preparation of this chapter.
APPENDIX 8.1
One of the most routine calculation procedures in a gas field is the determination
of deliverability. This involves a trial and error type solution for the flow capacities
of the tubing in the well and the surface flow pipes. Iterative solutions are
introduced by the gas properties (viscosity, 2 factor, etc.), which have to be
evaluated at the average pressure. The calculation procedure is outlined below:
(1) Determine the gas flow in the reservoir:
' =
kh ( F i - P $ )
1422(pZ),,TR [1n(0.472re/rw) + S ]
(8 .I-1)
270
(2) Determine the gas flow in the tubing and casing from downhole to the
wellhead:
Q 2 = (198.6)2 (8.1-2)
Express the flow for each well.

(3) Determine the gas flow in the surface flowline from the wellhead to the
supply terminal(s):
(8 .I-3)
In all these equations, Q = gas flow rate, Mcf/D; pwr= bottomhole flowing
pressure, psia; jiR= average reservoir pressure, psia; pwh = wellhead flowing pres-
sure, psia; pd= pressure at supply end of pipeline, psia; k = reservoir permeability,
md; h = formation thickness, .ft; p = gas viscosity, cP; Z = gas compressibility
factor; Gg= gas gravity with respect to air = 1; T = temperature, OR; 1 = length of
flow conduit, ft; f = friction factor, dimensionless; S = skin factor, dimensionless;
d = diameter of flow conduit, in.; re = drainage radius for the producing well, ft;
rw = wellbore radius, ft; and s^ = 0.0375 Gglt/TaZa.
Subscripts: t = tubing from bottomhole to the surface; s = surface flowline;
av = average conditions in the reservoir; a = average conditions between the bot-
tomhole and the wellhead; and R = reservoir condition.
The usual calculation procedure is to assume that the gas flow rate, Q, is equal
throughout and establish the unknown wellhead pressure, pwh, through iterative
techniques. First, assume a reasonable value of pwh, obtain the average pressure and
temperature, and then evaluate the average p and Z for the gas. Use eqs. 8.1-1, 8.1-2
and 8.1-3 to get Q. If all three Q’s are equal, the assumption was correct. If not,
assume a new value of pwhand repeat the calculation procedure.
Dougherty (1982) presented a modified calculation procedure. He defined the
following quantities:
(1) For tubing, .the flow constant B, ( n is the number of wells) is equal to:
(8 .I-4)
and
B,, = n2B1(for n wells) (8.1-5)

271
(2) For flowline, E is equal to:
(198.6)’d:
E= (8.1-6)
G,T,ZS f s 4
(3):
kh
A, = (for 1 well) (8.1-7)
1422( P 1, TR
A, = nA, (for n wells) (8.1-8)

(4) Drainage radius is equal to:
re,l = JA77. (for 1well) (8.1-9)
and
re,n = r e J 6 (8 .I-10)
if there are n wells in the drainage area, A ft’.
(5):
K , = Xl/[ln(0.472re,l/rw) +S] (8 .I-11)
and
K, = An/[ln(0.472re,,/rw) + S ] (for n wells). (8.1-12)
(6):
C=ej (8.1-13)
Dougherty then derived his solution technique as follows:
Using eqs. 8.1-1 and 8.1-12:
P i -P$ = Q/Kn (8.1-14)

Using eqs. 8.1-2, 8.1-4, 8.1-5, and 8.1-13:
P5- CPih = (),( Q2 C-1

7) (8.1-15)
(8.1-16)
272
Adding eqs. 8.1-14 and 8.1-15, one obtains:
pi- cp&= Q/K,+ Q*(C-')/('n?) (8.1-17)
Substituting eq. 8.1-16 into eq. 8.1-17:
or
(8.1-18)
Introducing new terms a,, b,, and c:
a , = C / E + (C-l)/(?B,)
b, = lJK,
and
c = p i - Cp,2
equation 8.1-18 becomes :
a n Q 2+ b,Q - c = 0 (8.1-19)
This is a quadratic equation:
Q- [ -b,f ii6,2+]/2an
Inasmuch as negative Q is not physically possible,
\i(
I
c
Q= +)2 + a, --'an
bn (8 3.20)
Thus, Q can be easily determined. It is only necessary to assume an average

pressure for pZ product evaluation. Inasmuch as the pZ product for gases is almost
constant over small pressure ranges, any assumption of Pwh will not affect the result
significantly. If required, the calculations can be performed twice to give a better
accuracy.
This procedure is illustrated in Example 8.1-1.
273
Example 8.I-1
Calculate the deliverability of a gas field for n = 1, 10, and 20 wells if the pipeline
inlet pressure is 1250 psia. The following information is given:
A = 4000 acres; Gg= 0.75; r, = 3 in.; T, = 220°F; PR= 4500 psia; T, = 80°F;
k = 50 md; I, = 10,000 ft; h = 20 ft; I, = 5280 ft; d , = 4 in.; d , = 2.5 in.; friction
factor f = [2 log d + 6.53]-*; skin factor S = 2.0; and turbulence coefficient = 0.
Solution:
Assume pwr= 2500 psia and a common gas gradient of 0.08 psi/ft. For a depth
of 10,000 ft, the static pressure difference between wellhead and bottomhole is equal
to:
A p = (l0,000)(0.08) = 800 psi.
Due to flow, an additional pressure drop due to friction is introduced, which is

assumed to be 200 psi. Thus:
A p = 800 + 200 = 1000 psi
and
pwh=pwr- A p = 2500 - 1000 = 1500 psia.
For Gg= 0.75, ppc= 668 psia, Tpc= 406"R,
TR= 220°F = 680"R * ( TPr),= 1.675,
r, = 540"R * (Tpr),= 1.330,

pR= 4500 psia * ( ppr)R
-
= 6.737,
pwr= 2500 psia ( pPr)wf

= 3.743,
pwh = 1500 psia ( ppr),h= 2.25,

pd = 1250 psia * ( ppr)d= 1.87.
Using Fig. 8-21,
Z(TR, jj,) = 0.947,
z(TR, p w f ) =o*845,
Z ( q , pwh)= 0.690
274
and,
Z ( T , , p d ) = 0.730.
Using Fig. 8-23,

p(TR, p R ) ~ 0 . 0 2 4 8CP
and,
p ( T R , p,,) =0.020 cP.
Thus:
(0.0248)( 0.947) + (0.020) (0.845) = 0.0202 CP,

(pz)av= 2
z,= 0.845 +2 0.690 = o.7675,

T a T=+ TR
L -- 610°R,
2
- (0.0375) (0.75) (10,000) = 0.6007,

s^= 0.0375Gglt -
‘ a ‘a (0.7675) (610)
f,= (2 log d, + 6.53)-2= (2 log 2.5 + 6.53)-, = 0.0186,
f,= (2 log 4 + 6.53)-2 = 0.0167,
(198 .6),d:
B, = - (198.6),(2.5)’
GgTaZafJ, (0.75) (610)( 0.7675) (0.0186) (10,000)
= 58.9761,
B,, = (10),(58.9761) = 5897.61,
B2, = (20),(58.9761) = 23,590.43,
E = (198.6)’d: -
- (198.6),(4)’
= 1592.92,
G,T,Z,&J, (0.75)(540)(0.71)(0.0167)(5280)
A, = kh -
- (50)(20) = 0.0512,
TR (1422) (0.0202) (680)
1422(p Z)av
A,, = lOh, = 0.5120, and
h,, = 20A, = 1.024,
275
re,, = = /(4000)(43560)/~ = 7447.3 ft,
re,,, =d m = 2355.04 ft, and

re,2o= 4- = 1665.3 ft,
A1 0.0512
K, =
ln(0.472re,l/rw) +S ln(0.472 x 7447.3/0.25) + 2 = 4.43 x 10-3,
0.5120
K1o = ln(0.472 x 2355/0.25) + 2 = 0.04923,
1.024
Kzo= ln(0.472 X 1665.3/0.25) + 2 = 0.10186.
Next, the gas flow rate Q for each of the three cases can be determined as shown
below:
Parameter Number of wells

n=l n = 10 n = 20
a, = e'/E + ( eg - l ) / ( S , ) 0.0244 0.00138 0.001203
b, = 1/K, 225.734 20.313 9.817
c = p i - eJpt 17,400,953 17,400,953 17,400,953
27,102.6 112,532.45 120,338.19
- 4625.7 - 7359.78 - 4080.38

22,477 105,173 116,258
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
(1) Fracture fluid having specific gravity of 1.05 is to be injected into three wells
simultaneously as shown below. Pipe section AB is 4 in. in diameter and 500 ft long.
Sections BC, BD and BE are each 1000 ft long with I.D. of 2.5 in. Friction losses at
each wellhead are equal to 50 psi. There are 2 flanged globe valves in each one of
the sections BC, BD, and BE. The depth to the midpoint of perforations in each of
the wells is 2500 ft. The tubing is 2.5 in. I.D., and casing is 4.5-in. I.D., with
c/d = lop4. The storage is open to atmosphere (Fig. 8-32). For a fracture fluid rate
of 50 bbl/min and a pressure of 3000 psig against the sandface, determine the
horsepower of the pump required at the fracture-fluid storage outlet. Assume
viscosity of fracture fluid = 100 CP and the fracture fluid is pumped through the
tubing-casing annulus.
276
C Frocture -a
Fluid Storoge
4in 4 in ID
Pump
41:
1
Fig. 8-32. Sample problem 1.
Formation
(2) A 45"API oil with solution gas/oil ratio R,=400 scf/bbl is to be trans-
ported at a flow rate Q = 12,000 bbl/D, through a 65-mile long, 10-in. I.D. pipeline.
Pipe relative roughness, ~ / = d soil temperature T, = 50°F; a, = 6.5 X lo6
ft2/sec; inlet oil temperature = 105°F; k , = 0.5 Btu/hr-ft-OF; k , = 1.5 Btu/hr-ft-
OF; kin= 0.05 Btu/hr-ft-OF; insulation thickness = 1 in.; pipe O.D. = 5.375 in. The
pipe is buried 10 ft below the surface.
Determine:
(a) The time required for flow to reach steady state.
(b) The steady-state pipeline outlet oil temperature.
(3) Gas is to be transported through a 4.5-in. I.D. 5-mile pipeline at 60 MMscf/D.
The inlet pressure is 1500 psia, gas gravity Gg= 0.80, average flowing temperature
= 75"F, friction factor f=O.O15. For a supply pressure of 800 psia, find the
horsepower of a 90%-efficientpump that must be placed 3 miles upstream from the
exit end.
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temperatures and pressures. Trans. Soc. Per. Eng. AZME, 165 :94-115.
Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P., 1972,An Experimental Study of Two-phase Flow in Inclined Pipes. 47th Annu.
Fall Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, San Antonio, Texas, Oct. 8-11, SPE 4007,13pp.
Beggs, H.D. and Robinson, J.R., 1975.Estimating the viscosity of crude oil systems, JFT Forum.J . Per.
Tech., 27(9) :1140-1141.
Brill, J.P. and Beggs, H.D., 1974.Two Phase Flow in Pipes. Textbook for courses at the Univ. of Tulsa.
Brown, G.G., 1945.A series of enthalpy-entropy charts for natural gases. Trans. Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME,
160:65-76.
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Brown, G.G., Katz, D.L., Oberfell, G.B. and Alden, R.C., 1948. Natural Gasoline and Volatile Hydro-
carbons. N.G.A.A., Gas Processors Assoc., Tulsa, Okla.
Brown, K.E. and Beggs, H.D., 1973. The Technology of Artificial Lijt Methodr, Vol. 1. Pennwell, Tulsa,
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Campbell, J.M., 1974. Gus Conditioning and Processing. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Okla., pp.
152-185.
Carr, N.L., Kobayashi, R. and Burrows, D.B., 1954. Viscosity of hydrocarbon gases under pressure.
Trans. SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, 201 : 264-272.
Chernikin, V.I., 1958. Pumping of Viscous and Congealing Oils. Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow, (in Russian).
Chew, J. and Connally Jr., C.A., 1959. A viscosity correlation for gas-saturated crude oils. Trans. Soc.
Pet. Eng. AIME, 216 :23-25.
Colebrook, C.F., 1938-1939. Turbulent flow in pipes, with particular reference to the transition region
below the smooth and rough pipe laws. J . Inst. Ciu. Eng. Pap. 5204, 11 : 133-156.
Craft, B.C., Holden, W.R. and Graves, Jr., E.D., 1962. Well Design, Drilling and Production. Prentice-Hall,
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Crane-U.S.A., 1942. Technical Paper No. 409. Crane-U.S.A., New York, N.Y.
Davenport, T.C. and Conti, V.J., 1971. Heat transfer problems encountered in the handling of waxy
crude oils in large pipelines. J . Inst. Pet., 57(555) : 147-164.
Dougherty, E.L., 1982. Aduanced Reseruoir Engineering. Lectures at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia, Los Angeles, Cal.
Edmister, W.C., 1947-1949. Hydrocarbon absorption and fractionation process design. Petrol. Eng.,
May 1947 through March 1949.
Edmister, W.C., 1961. Applied Hydrocarbon Thermodynamics, Vol. I. Gulf, Houston, Tex., 312 pp.
Frick, T.C., 1962. Petroleum Production Handbook. Vol. 11. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., pp. 19-39.
Hansen, W.P., 1960. Time-saving chart for pipe wall thickness selection. Petro/Chem. Eng., 32(6) : 1-15.
Heinze, F., 1971. Hydratbildung. Lehrbogen 3/3 von der Bergakademie Freiberg.
Hydraulic Institute, 1979. Engineering Data Book. Hydraulic Inst., Cleveland, Ohio, 203 pp.
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Kato, H., Nishiwaki, N. and Hirata, M., 1968. On the turbulent heat transfer by free convection from a
vertical plate. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, l l ( 7 ) : 1117-1125.
Katz, D.L., Cornell, D., Kobayashi, R., Poettmann, F.H., Vary, J.A., Elenbaas, J.R. and Weinaug, C.F.,
1959. Handbook of Natural Gar Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 802 pp.
Lee, A.L., Gonzalez, M.H. and Eakin, B.E., 1966. The viscosity of natural gases. Trans. Soc. Pet. Eng.
AIME, 237 : 997-1000.
Ludwig, E.E., 1977. Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Vol. 1. Gulf, Houston,
Tex., 371 pp.
Makowski, M.M. and Mochlinski, K., 1956. An evaluation of two rapid methods of assessing the thermal
resistivity of soil. Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng., Oct.
Marks, A., 1978. Handbook of Pipeline Engineering Computations. PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., 347 pp.
Moody, L.F., 1944. Friction factors for pipe flow. Trans. Am. SOC.Mech. Eng., 66:671-684.
Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H. (Editors), 1973. Chemical Engineers' Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y. 5th Ed.
Petroleum Extension Service, 1953. Oil Pipeline Construction and Maintenance. Univ. Texas, Austin, Tex.,
193 pp.
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pp. 3-121.
Standing, M.B. and Katz, D.L., 1942. Density of natural gases. Trans. SOC. Pet. Eng. AIME,
146: 140-149.
Szilas, A.P., 1975. Production and Transport of Oil and Gas (Developments in Petroleum Science, 3)
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 630 pp.
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'
systems. In: 47th Annu. Fall Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 8-11, SPE 4004.
Zaba, J. and Doherty, W.T., 1956. Practical Petroleum Engineers' Handbook. Gulf, Houston, Tex. 4th ed.
This
279
Chapter 9
DESIGN OF FLOWING WELL SYSTEMS
SANJAY KUMAR, KERN H. GUPPY and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
The design of production facilities necessitates familiarity with and an under-

standing of the basic concepts of flow in the overall system consisting of the
reservoir, subsurface equipment, and the surface flow configuration. It is imperative
that good judgement be exercised in designing these facilities to match the oil or gas
well’s production in order not to underdesign or overdesign the system.
Figure 9-1 is a schematic representation of the overall flow configuration in a
typical well as fluid flows frqm the reservoir to the surface separator. Each segment
of the flow configuration can be separated and treated individually. Equations can
be derived to predict pressure drops in each segment. In general, the entire system is
separated into the following flow segments:
(1) Reservoir or porous fluid flow.
(2) Vertical or directional flow in tubing or casing.
rCHOKE SEPARATOR
;AS +
i
-.,-.
. i c-FLOW ~HROUGHO POROUS MEDIUM
Fig. 9-1. The overall production system. (After Brown and Beggs, 1977, p. 68; courtesy of PennWell
Publishing Company.)
280
(3) Horizontal or inclined flow in surface flowlines.

(4) Restricted or choke flow.
The objective in the overall design is to minimize pressure drops in each portion
of the system. Hence, the type of flow, whether single- or two-phase flow, can have
a significant impact on the design criteria.
RESERVOIR FLUID FLOW
The ability of a reservoir to produce is influenced by several factors, such as

reservoir permeability, reservoir pressure, and the type of drive mechanism. To
predict this ability to flow, it is important that the relationship between flow rate
and pressure be described accurately. The pressures normally used are the flowing
bottomhole pressure and the average reservoir pressure. For any given flow rate, the
smaller the difference between these pressures, the more efficient is the ability of the
reservoir to produce fluids.
To compare different wells with different drive mechanisms quantitatively, a
parameter called the productivity index, J , is used, which is defined as follows:
J=q/(jR-Pwf) (9-1)
where q = flow rate, bbl/D; jR = average reservoir pressure, psia; and pwf= flowing
bottomhole pressure at the wellbore, psia.
Productivity index J , commonly expressed as PI, can be based on total fluid
production, or on individual oil, water, or gas production rate, as illustrated in
Example 9-1.
Example 9-1
Given: jR = 3000 psia, pwf= 2500 psia, q, = 200 bbl/D (bpd), water cut = 258,
and h = 20 ft.
Find:
(1) J based on oil production,
(2) J based upon total liquid production, and
(3) Specific J for (1) and (2) above.
Solution:
Water cut = 0.25 = q,/( q, + qo).
Hence, qo = 4,- q, = 3q, = 600 bbl/D and jR- pwf= 3000 - 2500 = 500 psi.
0.25
600
(1) J = qo/( jR - p W r )= -= 1.2 bbl/D/psi.
500
(2) = (40 + q w ) / ( P R - P w f ) = 6oo5002oo = 1.6 bbl/D/psi.
+
(3) Specific J , based upon oil production, J,,, is equal to:

J
J,, = - = 1.2/20 = 0.06 bbl/D/psi-ft.
h
281
00 q+
Fig. 9-2. Typical inflow performance curves. (Modified after Brown and Beggs, 1977, p. 1; courtesy of
PennWell Publishing Company.)
Specific Jst, based upon total liquid production, is equal to:
1.6
J,, = - = 0.08 bbl/D/psi-ft.
20
To properly design the 'correct production components, it is very important to
predict the flowing bottomhole pressure for any given flow rate. It has been found
that the drive mechanism in the reservoir has the greatest influence on this
relationship, called the Inflow Performance Relationship ( I P R ) . It is shown in Fig.
9-2 for water-drive, gas-cap-drive and solution-gas-drive mechanisms. A quantitative
measure of the I P R is the productivity index, the inverse slope of the IPR curve.
For the water-drive mechanism, J is constant. For the gas-cap and solution-gas-cap
drives, J is not constant and varies with flow rate as follows:
Figure 9-3 illustrates the J characteristics for the three different types of reservoirs.
It should also be noted that a combination of drive mechanisms can exist in many
reservoirs. In a newly discovered reservoir, the reservoir pressure is above the bubble
point. Below the bubble point, gas and oil segregate forming a two-phase oil and gas
mixture. Inasmuch as the IPR curve ranges from the maximum pressure (average
reservoir pressure) to the minimum pressure of zero, the system exhibits a
combination of linear J above the bubble point and a non-linear solution-gas-drive
J below the bubble point.
It is important to remember that the I P R curve represents the relationship
between the flowing bottomhole pressure and flow rate at a given reservoir pressure.
Thus, as the reservoir pressure changes, the IPR curve will become different. For
the water-drive system, the slopes will be the same, but the actual flow rate and
pressure values will be different.
Whereas in the water-drive system, IPR can be accurately predicted by testing a
well and assuming a linear relationship, in the case of the solution-gas-drive, IPR is
more difficult to predict. In 1968, Vogel offered a technique for describing the IPR
282
'0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

CUMULATIVE RECOVERY (MMSTBO)
Fig. 9-3. Relationship between productivity index, J , and recovery for different types of reservoirs. (In:
Brown and Beggs, 1977, p. 2; courtesy of Shell Oil Company.)
curve for solution-gas-drive reservoirs. In this paper, using different P YT data from
several reservoirs, he was able to dimensionally represent ZPR curve in a form
shown in Fig. 9-4. It was also found that a nonlinear equation can be used to
describe this relationship as follows:
2
qo/(qo)m, = 1 - 0.2 r
(3 (3 - 0.8 - (9-3)
where (qO)m, is estimated at pwr= 0. As in the case of water-drive system, testing a

well to determine pwfcorresponding to a flow rate qo enables one to determine the
IPR curve. In Vogel's equation, however, ( qo)ma'i is determined from substituting qo
and pwfin eq. 9-3.
Example 9-2
The following data were obtained from a well test:
-
p R= 3000 psia, pwf= 2500 psia, qo = 500 STB/D.
Find:
(1) (40)m,, i.e.9 40 at P w r = O .
(2) qo at pwf= 500 psia, using Vogel's method.
(3) qo at pwf= 500 psia, assuming a constant J .
Solution:
283
w
n
3
v)
v)
w
n
a
w
U
3
v)
v)
w
U
a
-0 0:20 0.40 0:60 0.80 l:oo

PRODUCING RATE (q,/(qo)max), FRACTION OF MAXIMUM
Fig. 9-4. Inflow performance relationship for solution-gas-drive reservoirs. (After Vogel, 1968. fig. 5 . p.
85; courtesy of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of A.I.M.E.)
Using eq. 9-3:
--4o - 1 - 0.2(0.8333) - 0.8(0.8333)2 = 0.2778

( 40 )"ax
40 500
. ' . ( q )max = 0.2778 = -
~
0.2778
= 1800 STB/D.
Pwr 500
= -
(2) r = 0.1667
PR 3000
284
40
As before,- = 1 - 0.2(0.1667) - 0.8(0.1667)2= 0.9444.
(40 )mu
Thus: qo = 0.9444(q0),, = (0.9444)(1800) = 1700 STB/D.
(3) J = - 40 = 500 = 1.O bbl/D/psi.

PR -Pwf (3000 - 2500)
Thus: qo = J( j R- p w r )= l(3000 - 500) = 2500 STB/D.

One shortcoming of Vogel’s equation is the assumption that the well does not
have a pressure drop around the wellbore due to the wellbore damage or to
fractures. Standing (1971) extended Vogel’s work to account for the so-called “skin
effect” in the vicinity of the wellbore. He defined a term known as the flow
efficiency ( F E ) as follows:
where J, = actual productivity index, Ji = ideal productivity index, pkf = ideal

bottomhole pressure, and pwr= actual bottomhole pressure ( = p i p- Ap,,,). Equa-
tion 9-4 can be redefined as folloisrs:
Equation 9-5 shows that if FE < 1, the well is damaged. If FE > 1, the well is
stimulated. When FE = 1.0, Standing’s correlation becomes Vogel’s equation. Fig-
ure 9-5 shows Standing’s curves for various FE values. One parameter in eq. 9-5
that needs to be determined is Ap,,,. The simplest method used is to test the well
and develop a Horner Plot in order to determine the skin effect, S . The Horner plot
yields slope m , whch enables determination of Ap,,,, i.e., Ap,,, = 0.87 Sm. Details
of this procedure are given in Chapter 10.
Example 9-3
The following information is available from a well test: qo = 500 bbl/D, jR=
3000 psig, pWr= 2500 psig, and FE = 0.7.
Find:
qo at pwf= 1700 psig, when
(a) FE = 0.7.
(b) The well is reworked to yield FE = 1.0.
(c) The well is fractured to yield FE = 1.3.
Solution:
Pwr - 2500
= 0.833
j R 3000
S8Z
Fig. 9-5. IPR curves for damaged wells producing by solution-gas-drive. (After Standing, 1970, fig. 2, p.
1400; courtesy of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of A.I.M.E.)
From Fig. 9-5, at FE = 1.0, qo/(qo)kk-l

= 0.19. Thus, (qo)cE1
= 500/0.19 = 2632
bbl/D. For a pwr of 1700 psig:
From Fig. 9-5:

(a) For FE = 0.7, qo/(qo)Lzl = 0.47
Thus, qo = (0.47)(2632) = 1237 bbl/D.
(b) For FE = 1.0, qo/(qo)k%=l = 0.65
Thus, qo = (0.65)(2632) = 1711 bbl/D.
(c) For FE = 1.3, qo/(qo);L*l = 0.77
Hence, qo = (0.77)(2632) = 2026 bbl/D.
The above example illustrates how to predict the flow rate at various values of
pwr.Hence, as long as FE is known, an IPR curve can be developed for a particular
well.
In summary, methods have been shown in this section for predicting the
relationship between flowing bottomhole pressure, pwf,and flow rate, qo. Once a
relationship is determined, the IPR curve is drawn. In many cases, it may be
required to design the tubing and flowline combination before the well is drilled. It
286
is useful to test an adjacent well in order to predict the inflow performance

relationship for the new well. An accurate estimate must be made of the relationship
between the flowing bottomhole pressure and flow rate for a given average reservoir
pressure.
VERTICAL FLOW
For oil reservoirs, the vertical flow in the tubing or casing requires accurate
methods for predicting pressure drop from the bottom of the wellbore to the
surface. Such calculations become very complicated when gas and oil are flowing
together, e.g., as a result of flashing that may take place due to the large reductions
in pressure as the fluid moves upward in the tubing.
As in the case of single-phase flow in vertical columns, prediction of frictional
loss in the case of two-phase flow requires estimating friction factors which are
dependent on viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluids. In two-phase flow,
viscosity and density are actually those of a mixture (liquid and gas). Determination
of the properties of mixtures requires introduction of a new parameter called the
liquid holdup factor, H L , defined as the volume fraction of liquid- in a vertical
column.
The holdup factor is usually determined from correlations based on experimental
work. It depends on the flow pattern, gas and liquid velocities, and the pipe
inclination. Frequently, it is taken as the no-slip holdup, A , which can be calculated
directly from the flow rates (see Chapter 11).
Vertical flow correlations
Various methods used for predicting pressure drops in vertical columns use
different empirical correlations for determining H , and the friction factor for the
two-phase mixtures. Following a pioneering paper by Poettmann and Carpenter
(1952), considerable amount of research work has been done in this area. Most of
these correlations differ only in (1) the way the liquid holdup is evaluated in the
computation of density; (2) the handling of friction losses; and (3) the distinction
made in flow regimes.
Correlations presented by Hagedorn and Brown (1965) and Beggs and Brill
(1973) are considered to be applicable over all velocity ranges of multiphase flow.
Hagedorn and Brown used a 1500-ft deep experimental well to develop their
correlation. Data was taken for liquids of varying viscosity using three different
tubing sizes (1-2.5 in.). They used the general energy equation to obtain the
equation for pressure loss in a two-phase system:
where A p = pressure drop in psi, through a vertical distance A h in ft; d = tubing

287
diameter, ft; w = mass flow rate, Ib,/D; V, = velocity of mixture, ft/sec; P, =

+
pLHL &(l- H L ) = average mixture density, lb,/ft3; pm = density of the mixture
at the reference point; g = gravitational acceleration = 32.2 ft/sec2; and g, = 32.2
lb, ft/lb, sec2.
They represented the mixture viscosity by the relation proposed by Arrhenius.
Thus, the Reynolds number, expressed in oilfield units for the two-phase flow
becomes:
(9-7)
where pL= liquid viscosity, cP; and pg = gas viscosity, cP.

Flow patterns were not considered. In the modified Hagedorn and Brown
technique, however, the Griffith modification for bubble flow has been incorporated
for use in the bubble flow regime. Another modification is in the use of mixture
density. The larger of the two values, one calculated by using the Hagedorn and
Brown holdup correlation and the other by assuming no-slip, is used. These
modifications render this correlation applicable quite accurately over a wide range
of flow conditions.
Beggs and Brill (1973) conducted experiments on scaled-down versions of the real
situation in the laboratory. They used 90-ft long pipe sections, 1 in. and 1.5 in. in
diameter. The singular advantage offered by such a setup was that the same pipe
could be manipulated at all angles, from horizontal to vertical. All other parameters
remaining the same, the variation in flow characteristics under the influence of any
one parameter could be studied. This correlation was developed primarily for
directional or inclined flow. It is quite accurate for horizontal and vertical flow.
The Duns and Ros (1963) method was developed through large-scale, carefully
controlled laboratory data, suitably modified using field data. Their mist flow
Fig. 9-6. Vertical flow patterns. (After Duns and Ros, 1963; courtesy of Halliburton Services.)
N
m
W
Fig. 9-7. Flow regime map. (After Duns and Ros. 1%3; courtesy ofWliburton Smites.)
289
correlation is the most widely accepted. An interesting aspect of this work is the
introduction of the flow regimes (Fig. 9-6) and the flow regime map (Fig. 9-7).
In Fig. 9-7, Ngv= gas-velocity number = Kg(~ , / g u ) ' / and
~ NLv= liquid-velocity
number = V,,( ~ , / g a ) ' / ~ ; Kg= superficial gas velocity, ft/sec; V,, = superficial
liquid velocity, ft/sec; pL = liquid density, lb,/ft3; and u = surface tension,
lb,,,/sec2.
The above-described correlations all require the use of complex programs and
computers to accurately predict pressure drop, and details can be obtained from the
original references.
Working pressure traverse curves for vertical flow
To avoid the use of large programs and computers for individual wells, a more
generalized approach has been made to predict pressure drops in vertical columns:
traverse curves, which are plots of depth versus pressure for selected oil and gas
properties at various gas/liquid ratios, are used. The most common traverse curves
used are prepared by using correlations of Hagedorn and Brown and are presented
in Figs. 9.1-1 through 9.1-16 in Appendix 9.1. These curves enable conversion of
pressures into equivalent vertical lengths and vice versa.
The technique of using the traverse curves can be described as follows:
(1) Select the applicable curve for the given tubing size, production rate, and
gas/liquid ratio.
(2) Locate the known pressure on the pressure curves, go vertically down to the
applicable gas/liquid ratio curve, and read off the depth on the vertical depth axis.
(3) Correct this depth as follows:
(a) Add the well depth to the depth value found in Step (2), if the known
pressure was the surface pressure.
(b) Subtract the well depth from the depth value found in Step (2), if the known
pressure was the bottomhole pressure.
(4) Read off the unknown pressure corresponding to the corrected depth.
Example 9-4 serves to illustrate this procedure.
Example 9-4
Given: qo = 800 bbl/D, G / O = 300 scf/bbl, z = 8000 ft, PR = 2800 psig, J = 1.0
(linear), tubing size = 2.5 in.
Find: the flowing wellhead pressure, Pwh.
Solution:
J = - qo =1.0
P R - Pwr
Therefore, p w p= 2800 - 800 = 2000 psig.
Using Fig. 9.1-9 for vertical flow, pwh at 1400 ft (= 9400 - 8000) is equal to 130
psig.
290
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN DIRECTIONAL WELLS
In the case of directional wells with deviations not exceeding 15-20' true vertical
depth can be used along with the vertical multiphase flow correlation to ascertain
the pressure traverse. This approximation, however, is invalid for deviations greater
than 20°, because (1) a directional well has a greater length than a vertical well for
the same depth, resulting in a greater frictional head loss, and (2) holdup differs and
may be greater than that for vertical flow.
Beggs and Brill (1973) introduced corrected holdup factors to account for
directional flow. Their results, however, have not yet been tested sufficiently to be
widely accepted.
Ney (1968) presented two new solutions, whereas Fuentes (1968) extended his
work. One of these solutions, which is presented here, combines the use of vertical
flow and horizontal flow correlations of Hagedorn and Brown. First the pressure
loss is calculated using only the true vertical depth in a vertical flow correlation.
Then the frictional pressure drop due to the extra length of the tubing (i.e., total
tubing length minus true vertical depth of tubing) is determined using a horizontal
flow correlation. The sum of these two pressure losses is the total pressure loss for
the deviated well. Ney (1968) and Fuentes (1968) have pointed out that this method
works fairly well. Example 9-5 outlines this procedure.
Example 9-5
In a directionally-drilled well, the true vertical depth is equal to 7000 ft; length of
2-in. tubing is equal to 9000 ft; Pwh = 100 psig; q = 1000 bbl/D (100% water);
G / L = 800 scf/bbl. Determine the flowing bottomhole pressure, p w f .
Solution:
Using the vertical flow correlation for a vertical depth of 7000 ft, p;, = 1760 psig.
A trial and error procedure is required to determine p w f .As a first approxima-
tion, pwr= 1800 psig.
+ +
Thus, the average pressure, j = ( pwh p w r ) / 2= (100 1800)/2 = 950 psig. On
locating this average pressure ( jj = 950 psig) on the horizontal flow correlation chart
in Fig. 9.1-19, and using additional length of 2000 ft (= 9000-7000), the down-
stream pressure is found to be 890 psig. The head loss due to friction in this extra
2000 ft of pipe, therefore, is equal to:
A p , = 950 - 890 = 60 psig
Thus pwf= pLf + A p , = 1760 + 60 = 1820 psig.

Second trial:
Assuming pwf= 1820 psig, j = (100 + 1820)/2 = 960 psig.
From the horizontal flow correlation, downstream pressure = 900 psig. Thus: A p , =
960-900 = 60 psig and pwf= 1760 + 60 = 1820 psig. Consequently, the second
assumption was correct and pwr= 1820 psig.
291
HORIZONTAL FLOW IN SURFACE FLOWLINES
The main objective in designing flowlines is to choose a flowline size that will not
cause significant back pressure on the well, restricting fluid flow from the well.
Usually, the separator pressure is predetermined and it is necessary to determine the
optimum wellhead pressure to produce at the allotted flow rate.
Horizontal flow correlations
As in the case of vertical flow, several correlations have been presented in the
literature for determining two-phase pressure drop in the horizontal lines. Unlike
the vertical flow, however, there is no elevation component. Only liquid holdup and
friction loss parameters are necessary for characterizing horizontal flow.
Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) were the first to present a correlation, which was
determined from laboratory-scale data. They, however, neglected flow patterns and
any acceleration. Thus, their method may result in large errors, especially in
designing large-diameter pipes.
Dukler et al. (1964) and Dukler (1969) collected laboratory and field data and
used these to develop correlations for liquid holdup and friction factor. They
studied two cases: (1) the case of no slip between phases and a homogeneous flow;
and (2) the case where slip occurs, but it is assumed that the ratio of the velocity of
each phase to the average velocity is constant. Flow patterns were not considered.
Their friction factor correlation is one of the most accurate for horizontal flow.
Eaton et al. (1967) developed correlations for friction factor and liquid holdup
from extensive field studies under controlled conditions. Flow patterns were not
considered. The liquid holdup correlation presented by them is very accurate and is
frequently used along with Dukler’s friction factor correlation.
Working pressure traverse curves for horizontal flow
The correlations cited are fairly complex and require the use of a computer to
accurately calculate the pressure traverse. It is recommended that the correlations of
Dukler’s Case I1 or the Eaton’s correlation be used if accurate predictions are
needed. For reasonable results, the workmg pressure traverse curves prepared by
Brown are sufficient. These curves are based on Eaton’s correlation and give
satisfactory results except for low rates and low G / L ratios.
Similar to the vertical flow curves, plots of pressure versus length of horizontal
pipe have been prepared for various G / L ratios. It should be pointed out that these
curves were prepared using water, but can be used interchangeably for oil, provided
the free-gas/oil ratio is used for the G / L parameter.
Horizontal flow pressure traverse curves are presented in Figs. 9.1-17 through
9.1-22. The steps involved in using them can be summarized as follows:
(1) Select the curve for the given line size, flow rate, and gas/liquid ratio.
(2) Enter the pressure axis using the known pressure and locate the length
corresponding to this pressure on the correct G / L ratio curve.
292
(3) Correct this length for the pipeline length by:

(a) Adding the pipeline length to the length in Step (2), if the known pressure is
the outlet pressure, and
(b) Subtracting the pipeline length from the length determined in Step (2), if the
known pressure is the inlet pressure.
(4) The unknown pressure is the pressure corresponding to this corrected length.
Example 9-6
A well is producing 800 bbl/D of oil with G/O=800 scf/bbl at a flowing
wellhead pressure of 400 psig. Determine the separator pressure for a 2.5 in. ID,
9000-ft long line.
Solution:
Assume that at a pressure of 400 psig there is no gas in solution. Hence
free-gas/oil ratio is 800 scf/bbl. Using Fig. 9.1-20 and the procedure described
above:
pSe, = 300 psig
INCLINED OR HILLY TERRAIN MULTIPHASE FLOW
Inclined flow implies flow through pipes that deviate from the horizontal, such as
flow over hills, etc. Flanigan (1958) and Beggs and Brill (1973) presented some
correlations. Flanigan’s method, however, is the only method available that can be
applied to field problems without the use of complex computer programs. He
calculated the effect of hills on pressure drop in pipelines by observing several field
tests for various inclined flowlines at different flow rates, and concluded that most
of the pressure drop occurred in the uphill section of the line.
Flanigan defined two main pressure drop components that influence the two-phase
flow in an inclined system and presented a method to determine each one of them:
(1) Pressure drop due to friction, which is the predominant component in
horizontal lines.
(2) Pressure drop due to the liquid head, which is the predominant component in
vertical and inclined flows.
The sum of these two components determines the total pressure drop (Fig. 9-8).
The uphill sections are treated as equivalent vertical columns containing an
equivalent amount of liquid. Inasmuch as in two-phase flow the pipe is not
completely filled with liquid, Flanigan introduced the term HF, which is the fraction
of the total static pressure drop that exists as the elevation component. The pressure
drop A p (in psi) due to elevation is determined by using the following equation:
PLHFXH
Ap= (9-8)
144
293
Gas flow rate
Fig. 9-8. Pressure drop components in two-phase flow. (After Flanigan, 1958; courtesy of the Oilund Gus
Journal.)
where pL = liquid density, lb,/ft3; HF = elevation factor, dimensionless; and C H =

the total uphill rises in the direction of flow, ft. The correlation between HF and the
superficial gas velocity, V&, as determined by Flanigan, is as follows:
1
H, = (9-9)
+
1 0.3264V,kOo6
Baker (1960) showed that for Kg> 50, the applicable formula is:
0.00967( 1)1'2
H, =
v0.7
(9-10)
sg
where I = length of the flowline; and
31,194qgTF
(9-11)
"= d'j(520)
Example 9-7
A flowline passes over 6 hills having the following vertical heights: 120 ft, 80 ft,
220 ft, 40 ft, 70 ft, and 180 ft. The flowline is 4 in. in diameter and 2000 ft long.
qL = 6000 bbl/D (95% water); Gg= 0.7 (with respect to air); G, = 1.07; gravity of
oil is 42" API; average pressure in line, j = 300 psia; and average temperature,
r= 120°F. Find the pressure loss due to the hills if the gas/liquid ratio G/L = 200
scf/bbl.
Solution:
E : H = 1 2 0 + 8 0 + 2 2 0 + 4 0 + 7 0 + 1 8 0 = 7 1 0 ft.
T= 120°F = 580"R, j = 300 psi, and Gg= 0.7.
294
Using Figs. 8-20 and 8-21 (Chapter 8), the compressibility factor, z=0.96. From
eq. 9-11:
qgz 7 (31194)(6000 X 200 X 10-6)(0.96)(580)

V = 31,194-- = = 8.35 ft/sec
sg dzjj 520 (16) (300) (520)
Using eq. 9-9:
1
H, = = 0.266,
+ (0.3264)(8.35)''w6
1
Go = (141.5)/(131.5 + OAPI) = (141.5)/(173.5) = 0.8156,

G, = O.95Gw+ 0.05G0 = (0.95)(1.07) + (0.05)(0.8156) = 1.06,
and yL = (1.06)(62.4) lbf/ft3.
Therefore, Aphills= (1.06)(62.4)(0.266)(710)/144 = 86.75 psi.
FLOW THROUGH CHOKES
All flowing wells utilize some kind of surface restriction, such as a choke, in order
to regulate the flowing rate. Chokes serve many useful functions: (1) maintaining
desirable flow rate; (2) maintaining sufficient back pressure to prevent sand entry;
(3) protecting surface equipment; and (4) preventing gas or water coning.
It is desirable to size a surface choke in a flowing well, so that flow through it is
critical. Critical flow implies a flow where change in downstream pressure (such as
separator pressure) does not affect the flow rate or the upstream pressure. This
situation is obviously highly desirable in field operations.
Critical flow is assumed to occur when the downstream pressure, p d , is ap-
proximately half of the upstream pressure, p u :
Pu/Pd = 2 (9-12)
The generalized equation for critical two-phase flow through a choke is:
(9-13)
where qL = liquid flow rate, STB/D; pu = upstream pressure, psia; d i = inside

diameter of choke, 6 4 t h ~in.; and R = producing gas/liquid ratio, scf/STB.
Various investigators have proposed different values for a, b and c. Most
commonly, however, Gilbert's (1954) correlation is used, where Q = 1.89, b = 10.0,
and c = 0.546:
qL = ( p u d ' . 8 9 ) / ( 1 0 R 0 . 5 4 6 ) (9-14)
295
Example 9-8
A reservoir having J = 1.0 and jTR = 2400 psig, is producing through 2.5-in.
tubing, 5000-ft deep at a rate of qo = 1000 bbl/D with G / L = 600 scf/bbl. This
well produces a large amount of sand when the oil production rate is above 1000
bbl/D; therefore, it is required to install a choke (“choke the well back”). Inasmuch
as hydrate problems have made it impossible to install a surface choke, a bottom-
hole choke must be designed. It is proposed that the choke be installed at a depth of
4000 ft, i.e., 1000 ft above the bottom of the tubing.
Determine:
(a) The choke size required.
(b) The flowing wellhead pressure, assuming that the flow through the choke is
critical with p, = 2pd.
Solution:
(a) pWr= jTR - qo/J = 2400 - 1000/1 = 1400 psig.
Using Fig. 9.1-10, the pressure at 1000 ft above the bottom of tubing is equal to
p, = 1175 psig.
The system is shown in Fig. 9-9. Using eq. 9-14:
d!.89= l o q , ~ 0 . 5 4 6- (10)(1000)(600)0’546
= 279.8 in 6 4 t h ~in.
PU 1175
Thus, di = (279.8)1/1,89= 19.71 = 20/64 inches.

(b) pd = i(1175) = 588 psig.
Using the vertical flow correlation of Fig. 9.1-10, Pwh= 100 psig.
1175 p r i g
P, = 1400psig
Fig. 9-9. Diagram of bottomhole choke for solving Example 9-8.

296
THE OVERALL PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Figure 9-1 illustrates the overall interconnected system. The inflow performance
(l),vertical flow performance (2), surface flowlines (3), and chokes (4) correspond,
respectively, to (1) flow in the reservoir (porous medium), (2) subsurface flow up the
tubing to the wellhead, (3) flow in surface lines, and (4) flow through the choke.
Figure 9-10 shows the graphical representation of this system. Typically, (1) the
pressure loss in the porous medium ( A p , =jR-pwf) is equal to 10-50% of the total
loss; (2) the pressure loss in the vertical tubing string, A p , , is equal to 30-80% of
the total loss; and (3) the pressure loss in the surface facilities, A p , , is equal to
5-30% of the total loss.
The pressure versus flow rate plot shown in Fig. 9-11 exemplifies a plot used by
an engineer in designing the production facilities for a given well. The procedure
can be briefly described as follows (Brown and Beggs, 1977):
(1) Plot the inflow performance curve.
(2) Knowing the depth of the well, G/L,tubing diameter, etc., determine the
values of the wellhead pressure corresponding to different flow rates and then plot.
(3) Plot the surface choke performance curve for different flow rates. Sometimes,
as shown in Fig. 9-10, a single curve is drawn corresponding to the flow rate desired.
tubing string =
A PZ
( P w f - PWh )
I
I
&@ ----
s u r f a c e facil i t i e s 1
\
Fig. 9-10. Relationship between pressure and flow rate. (After Juch, 1967; courtesy of PennWell Publ.
CO.)
297
I 1 I I 1
0 loo0 2000 3000 4000 SO00 WOO
TOTAL LIQUID FLOWRATE, qL, bbVD
Fig. 9-11. Tubing and flowline analysis for Example 9-9.
(4) The vertical line at the desired rate gives the values of pwf,4 , pwh,and choke
size required for optimum performance.
Example 9-9 below outlines the procedure used in the selection of correct
combination of tubing and flowline sizes.
Example 9-9
A well is ready to be completed with several different tubing and flowline
combinations. Determine the possible combinations, given the following informa-
tion:
J = 10.0, WOR = 1.0, length of tubing = 8000 ft, G/O = lo00 sc€/bbl,
flowline length = 4000 ft, average tubing temperature = 150°F, average flowline
temperature = 120°F, and Gg= 0.65.
The well should not produce above 2000 bbl/D of liquid because of sand problems.
The reservoir pressure is 3000 psig and the separator must be operated at 100 psig.
The tubing and flowline sizes available are:
(1) Tubing: 2 in. and 3 in. ID.
(2) Flowline: 2 in., 2.5 in., 3 in., and 4 in. ID.
Solution:
WOR (water/oil ratio) is 1 and the G/O ratio is 1000 scf/bbl. Hence: G/L
ratio = 500 scf/bbl.
40
J=10=
3000 - pwr
298
Therefore:
40
pwf= 3000 - -
10
qL
or pwf= 3000 - - (9-15)
20
where qL = qo + q, = 2q0 as given.

Now, assuming various values for q L , one can obtain pwrusing eq. 9-15 above.
Then the vertical correlation is used to determine the flowing wellhead pressure,
pwr.Also using a separator pressure of 100 psig, one can determine the wellhead
pressure, pwh,from the horizontal correlation; the flowline length is 4000 ft. The
results obtained on following the above-described procedure are as follows:
Vertical correlation
qL G/L Pwr pwhfor tubing size (ID) (in.)

(Psi@ 2 3
1000 500 2900 640 740
1500 500 2850 480 -
2000 500 2800 240 640
3000 500 2700 - 560
4Ooo 500 2600 - 440
Horizontal correlation
qL G/J- pwh for flowline size (ID) (in.)

2 2.5 3 4
600 500 220 160 - -
1000 500 350 200 - -
1500 500 540 300 - -
2000 500 720 400 250 160
3000 500 - 600 370 190
4000 500 - - 520 240
5000 500 - - - 280
The above data is plotted in Fig. 9-11. The intersections below q L = 2000 bbl/D
give the possible combinations as follows:
Tubing size Flowline size Total flow rate, q L Oil flow rate, q,,
(in.) (in.) (bbl/D) (bbl/D)
2 2 1375 687.5
2 2.5 1750 875
2 3 2000 1000
3 2 1850 925
299
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
(1) In a solution-gas-drive reservoir, PR = 3500 psi, FE = 1, pwf= 2800 psi, and

qo = 750 bbl/D.
(a) Determine the maximum oil production rate at a reservoir pressure of 3500
psi.
(b) Find qo when pwrdrops to 1800 psi.
(2) An oil well gave the following pressure response on January 2, 1982:
Rate, STB/D: 500 1000 1450

pwf, psis: 2600 2040 1500
The jR was 3000 psia on January 2, 1982. On January 2, 1983, a new test was run
and it was found that jR = 2550 psia, and that qo = 600 bbl/D for a pwfof 1620
psia. With respect to the new conditions:
(a) Determine ( qo),,,= (Hint: Plot qo versus drawdown on a log-log paper).
(b) Determine qo for a drawdown of 1500 psia using the graph drawn in part (a).
(c) Repeat (a) and (b) using Vogel's technique. Assume FE = 1.
(3) In a 2.5411. ID tubing, a well is making 200 bbl/D of water having specific
gravity of 1.08; G / L = 500. The specific gravity of gas is 0.65 and the average
temperature is 120°F. Assume no slippage and that no gas goes into solution
(because only water is being produced). At a pressure of 500 psia, find:
(a) The no-slip holdup, A.
(b) The (i) gas, (ii) liquid, and (iii) mixture velocities.
(4) Given: 2.5-in. flowline; 3-in tubing; separator pressure = 200 psig; wellhead
pressure = 650 psig; flowline length = 10,000 f t ; tubing length (depth) = 4000 ft;
G / L = 1500 scf/bbl; and 100% water. Determine: (a) the flow rate possible in the
flowline (assume all water) and (b) the flowing bottomhole pressure.
(5) Given: depth = 8000 ft, jR= 2500 psig, G/O = 350, pwh= 120 psig (100%
oil production). A safety valve was installed in this well at 3000 ft from the surface.
A flow test conducted later showed that J = 5.0 (assume linear relationship). If the
tubing is 4 in. in diameter and qo at the time of the test was 3000 bbl/D, is the
valve partially closed or not? If so, what is the pressure drop across the valve?
Assume qo is constant before and after valve installation (this is a simplifying
assumption and is not necessarily true).
(6) Given: length of pipeline 1 = 5000 ft, elevation of hills = 700 ft, upstream
pressure pup= 400 psi, downstream pressure pdn= 150 psi, qw = 3000 bbl/D (all
water), G, = 1.10, G / L = 800 scf/bbl, T = 120"F, and Gg= 0.65. Design the neces-
sary flowline over the hills.
(7) A production system is overdesigned in such a way that the separator
pressure of 100 psig cannot be maintained. The system consists of a 2.5-in. tubing
having a length of 5000 ft. The flowline is 2.5 in. in diameter and 4000 f t long.
The well produces 100%oil having 35" API gravity with GOR = 500 scf/bbl. The
reservoir has an active water drive and consists of three separate layers having
300
permeabilities of 310 md, 80 md, and 100 md. The net pay of these layers is 20 ft, 30
ft, and 80 ft, respectively. Reservoir pressure = 3000 psig, wellbore diameter = 6 in.,
B, = 1.22, and po = 8 cP. A 40-acre spacing is used.
It is proposed to install a surface choke. Find (a) the production rate for critical
flow across choke and (b) the necessary choke size.
(8) An oilwell stops flowing due to a low reservoir pressure. Tubing size = 2 in.,
water cut = 0.5, wellhead pressure = 160 psig, G/O = 200 scf/bbl, and tubing
length = 8000 ft. It is required to produce 400 bbl/D of oil. An orifice is located in
the tubing at a depth of 5000 ft (from the surface). It is possible to inject gas
through the casing at high pressures. Liner size = 8 in., spacing = 60-acre, net
pay = 95 ft, k, = 10 md, k, = 200 md, B, = 1.04, B, = 1.15, p, = 1.0 cP, p, = 8
cP, and reservoir pressure = 2700 psig (maintained by a water drive). What is the
required gas flow rate through the casing?
APPENDIX 9.1-HAGEDORN AND BROWN (1965) PRESSURE TRAVERSE CURVES. CORRE-

LATION AMONG PRESSURE, LENGTH OF PIPE, GAS/LIQUID RATIO, AND VERTICAL OR
HORIZONTAL FLOWING PRESSURE GRADIENT. (FROM TUBING SIZE SELECTION, BY
HALLIBURTON ENERGY INSTITUTE, 1976; COURTESY OF HALLIBURTON 'SERVICES,
DUNCAN, OKLA.).
See Fig. 9.1-1 through Fig. 9.1-22 (pp. 301-322).

301
PRESSUREIn 100 pslg

0 4 8 12 16
H
1-
r5
i
!!i
1
4
B
6
0
. .
8 Q
8
9 %
. ~ ..
.i I
10 ~
itt,
VERTICAL FLOWING PRESSURE GRADIENTS
(ALL OIL)
Tubing Size 2 in: ID G& specific Gravity 0.65
Producing Rate 600 B/D Average Flowing Temp. 14tP F
Oil API Gravity 35"API
Fig. 9.1-1. (Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company; all rights reserved.)
302
PRESSURE in 100 psig

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
5
I I T
B
e 5
I
i
Y
-1 I

(ALL OIL)
Tubing Size 2 in. ID Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Producing Rate 1000 B/D Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
303
0 4 12 16 20 24 28
%
/ $%% %% %2
(ALL OIL)
Producing Rate 1200 BID Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
Oil API Gravity 35" API
304
PRESSURE in 100 sig

0 4 12 18 20 24 28
1
1
Y
e-
c5
-- . I
I
43 1
6
..
I
10

(ALL OIL)
Producing Rate 1500 Bf D Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
305

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
I
-i
r 5
E
Pw
&
6
0
7
*?
6
8
B
9
%
10
%&+.g%%%% % %
VERTICAL FLOWING PRESSUREGRADIENTS
(50% OIL-%% WATER)
Tubing Size 2 in. ID Water Specihc Gravity 1.074
Producing Rate 600 BID Gas Spedfic Gravity 0.65
Oil API Gravity 35"API Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
306

0 4
H
i.-
c5
I
k2
6
10
xg$%%%%
%
(50% 01L-50% WATER)
Tubing Size 2 in. ID Water Specific Gravity 1.074
Producing Rate 800 BID Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Oil API Gravity 35"API Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
307

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
~-u-v-v-
(50% OIL-50% WATER)
Tubing Sire 2 in. ID Water Specific Gravity 1.074
Producing Rate 1000BID Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Oil API Gravity 35" API Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
Fig. 9.1-7. (Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company; all r i a t s reserved.)
a
Y
@-
c5
i!
6
10
-%vwe" " " v v "
(ALL OIL)
Tubing Size 2.5 in. ID Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Fig.9.1-8. (Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company: all rights reserved.)
Fig.
309
PRESSURE in 100 pslg

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
P
ia
E5
4
Y
6
10
%&$+g%% % % % % %
(ALL OIL)
310

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
-H
-
c5
I
li5
6
8
1
10 I

(ALL OIL)
Producing Rate 1000 B/D Average FlowingTemp. 140°F
Fig. 9.1-10. (Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company: all rights reserved.)
311
>$%3g%Qo % % %
(ALL OIL)
Fig. 9.1-11.(Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company; all rights reserved.)

312
B
PRESSURE In 100 prig
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28

(ALL OIL)
313

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
,
. I . .- -t
1
I
1
H
B
r 5
I
Ii
3
6
10
%%%% % %
(ALL OIL)
Producing Rate 2OOO B/D Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
Fig. 9.1-13.(Reprinted with permission of Halliburton Company; all rights resewed.)
314
PRESSURE in 100 pslg

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
I
1
.E 5
I
b
z
6
10
?$gg$%%%% 'ib %I

(50% OIL--509'0 WATER)
Tubing Size 2.5 in. ID Water Specific Gravity 1.074
Producing Rate 600 B/D Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Oil API Gravity 35" API Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
315
PRESSURE In 100 p i g
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
. '-t
1 -4- t--
. .-
. - r
2
5
i
c5
I
b
Y
10
VERTICAL FLOWINGPRESSURE GRADIENTS

(50% 011--50% WATER)
Tubing Size 2.5 in. ID Water Specific Gravity 1.074
Producing Rate 800 BID Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Oil API Gravity 3.5"API Average Flowing Temp. 1400 F
a
10

(ALL OIL)
317
PRESSURE In 100 prig

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
a
Y
s
-r l a
k!I
12
14
16
18
20
Flowline Size 2in. ID Gas k f i c Gravity .065

Producing Rate 600 BID Average Flowing Temp. 120°F
Water SpecificGravity 1.07
318

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
319
PRESSURE In 100 pslg

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
H
r
8-
c 10
4
w
4
12
14
16
.~.. --
._. .
. .. > ^
18
* . .
- , - ,
. . ,.. .
20
HORIZONTALFLOWING PRESSURE GRADIENT

[ALL WATER)
Flowline Size 2in. ID Gas Specific Gravity .065
Producing Rate loo0 B/D Average Flowing Temp. 120" F
Water Specific Gravity 1.07
320
%%%%%%% $ %
HORIZONTALFLOWING PRESSUREGRADIENT
% % %
(ALL WATER)
Flowline Size 2.5 in. ID Gas Specific Gravity .065
Producing Rate 800 BID Average flowing Temp. 120" F
Fig. 9.1-20. (Reprinted with permission of Hdliburton Company;all rights reserved.)

" U " U " = . a -0
HORIZONTAL FLOWING PRESSUREGRADIENT
(ALL WATER)
Flowline Size 2.5 in. ID Gas Speciri Gravity .m5
ProducingRate 1500 BID Average Flowing Temp. 140" F
Water Speclflc Gravity 1.07
322
PRESSURE in 100 paig

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
I!
'-c 10
E
0
3
12
14
16
18
20
% % % % %
HORIZONTAL FLOWING PRESSURE GRADIENT
(ALL WATER)
FlowlineSize 2.5 in. ID Gas Specific Gravity ,065
Producing Rate 2000 BID Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
323
APPENDIX 9.11-INTRODUCTION TO CHOKES
The purpose of a choke is to provide precise control of wellhead flow rates in

surface production applications involving oil, gas, and enhanced recovery. A choke
is a restriction in a flowline that causes a pressure drop or reduces the rate of flow
through an orifice. Chokes are capable of causing large pressure drops. For example,
gas can enter a choke at 5000 psi and exit at 2000 psi or less.
The use of the choke as a control device has found many applications in the
petroleum industry. Typically, in a flowing well, the choke is used to maintain a
back pressure in the reservoir while allowing an optimum flow of gas or oil. Such
control is often necessary to ensure cost effective production over the life of the
well.
There are two types of chokes that are commonly available, fixed and adjustable.
Figure 9.11-1 shows a cross-sectional view of a fixed or positive choke. The pressure
drop of the choke is determined by the flow of the medium through the internal
diameter of a fixed orifice, often called a bean. The fixed bean choke is generally
used where the flow conditions do not change over a period of time, because the
changing of the bean requires a shutdown of the flow through the choke.
Adjustable chokes are used where there is an anticipated need to change the flow
rate periodically. There are' several types of adjustable chokes with each design
offering several features. One of the varieties of adjustable chokes is the needle and
seat type as shown in Fig. 9.11-2. The pressure drop of this choke design occurs as
the flow is restricted through the area between the seat and the needle portion of the
stem.
The size or area of the opening is increased as the needle is moved farther away
from the seat. This allows a change in the flow rate without shutting in the well.
I
Fig. 9.11-1. Positive choke. (Courtesy of S.I.I. Willis, Long Beach, Calif., and Mr. Rick Floyd.)
324
Fig. 9.11-2. Needle and seat of a choke. (Courtesy of S.I.I. Willis, Long Beach, Calif.. and Mr. Pav
Grewal.)
Fig. 9.11-3. Multiple orifice valve. (Courtesy of S.I.I. Willis, Long Beach, Calif., and Mr. Matthew L.
Philippe.)
325
CLOSED
PARTIALLY
OPEN
FULLY OPEN
Fig. 9.11-4. Disc plate-multiple orifice choke. (Courtesy of S.I.I. Willis, Long Beach, California.)
Another type of adjustable choke is the Multiple Orifice Valve (MOV), as shown
in Fig. 9.11-3. This design uses two flat discs (Fig. 9.11-4) to control the flow. There
are two holes in each disc such that as one disc turns in relation to the other, the
area of the opening vanes.
Fixed and adjustable chokes are used in a variety of applications with surface
production equipment. When chokes are used for oil production, the major dif-
ference is the absence of a heater.
Chokes are also used to control the rate of flow in enhanced oil recovery
applications where fluids and gases are injected into the reservoir. Injection is used
to maintain reservoir pressure and an economic rate of production. This process can
be applied to flowing and pumping wells to improve the rate of recovery.
Because chokes must operate in a wide variety of corrosive and harsh environ-
ments, components need to be constructed of materials designed to provide maxi-
mum performance, such as stainless steel and tungsten carbide. Typically, chokes
can be customized to meet the requirements of any specific application. Trim
material and sizes, body materials and seal materials can all be selected to provide a
cost effective approach to controlling the rate of production.
326
In addition to tailoring a choke to perform in specific environments, an adjust-

able choke can be fitted with an actuator for remote operation. Actuators can be
powered by electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems and are normally used when
the application involves frequent changes in production rates. The use of actuated
chokes is increasing as computers are installed to manage production more effi-
cien tly.
REFERENCES
Baker, O., 1960. Designing pipelines for simultaneous flow of oil and gas. Pipeline Eng., Handbook
Section, Feb.: 67-80.
Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P., 1973. A study of two-phase flow in inclined pipes. J. Pet. Tech., 25(5):
607-617.
Brown, K.E. and Beggs, H.D., 1977. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methoh, Vol. 1. PennWell, Tulsa,
Okla., 487 pp.
Dukler, A.E., 1969. Gas-Liquid Flow in Pipelines. Vol. I, “Research Results”. Am. Gas Assoc., Am. Pet.
Inst., May.
Dukler, A.E., Wicks, M. and Cleveland, R.G., 1964. Frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow: a
comparison of existing correlations for pressure loss and holdup, B-an approach through similarity
analysis. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. J., lO(1): 38-51.
Duns Jr., H. and Ros, N.C.J., 1963. Vertical flow of gas and liquid mixtures in wells. Proc. Sixth World
Per. Congr., June 1963, Sect. 11, Pap. 22-PD6.
Earlougher Jr., R.C., 1977. Advances in Well Test Analysis. Monograph Vol. 5 Henry L. Doherty Series.
Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., Dallas, Tex., 264 pp.
Eaton, B.A., Andrews, D.E., Knowles, C.R., Silberberg, I.H. and Brown, K.E., 1967. The prediction of
flow patterns, liquid holdup and pressure losses occumng during continuous two-phase flow in
horizontal pipelines. Trans. SOC.Per. Eng. A.I.M.E., 240: 815-828.
Flanigan, O., 1958. Effect of uphill flow on pressure drop in design of two-phase gathering systems. Oil
Gas J., 56(10): 132-141.
Fuentes, A.J., 1968. A Study of the Mulfiphase Flow Phenomena in the Direcfional Well. Thesis. Univ.
Tulsa, Tulsa, Okla.
Gilbert, W.E., 1954. Flowing and gas-lift well performance. Drill. Prod. Pracr., A.P.I., p. 143.
Hagedorn, A.R. and Brown, K.E., 1965. Experimental study of pressure gradients occumng during
continuous two-phase flow in small-diameter vertical conduits. J. Pet. Tech., 17(4): 475-484.
Halliburton Energy Institute, 1976. Tubing Sire Selection. Halliburton Services, Duncan, Okla., 57 pp.
Juch, A.H., 1967. Natural Flow and Gas Lift. Oil Production Methods Course at the Zulia Univ.,
Maracaibo, March-June.
Lockhart, R.W. and Martinelli, R.C., 1949. Proposed correlation of data for isothermal two-phase,
two-component flow in pipes. Chem. Eng. Progr., 45(1): 39-48.
Ney, C., 1968. A Laboratory Investigation of Holdup and Pressure Loss in Directional Multiphase Flow.
Thesis. Univ. Tulsa, Tulsa, Okla.
Poettmann, F.H. and Carpenter, P.G., 1952. The rnultiphase flow of gas, oil and water through vertical
flow strings with applications to the design of gas lift installations. DrilJ. Prod. Pract., A.P.Z., p. 257.
Standing, M.B., 1970. Inflow performance relationships for damaged wells producing by solution gas
drive. JFT Forum. J. Per. Tech., 22(11): 1399-1400.
Standing, M.B., 1971. Concerning the calculation of inflow performance of wells producing from solution
gas drive reservoirs. J. Per. Tech., 23(9): 1141-1142.
Vogel, J.V., 1968. Inflow performance relationship for solution gas drive wells. J. Pet. Tech., 20(1):
83-93.
Wylie, M.R.T., Gregory, A.R. and Gardner, L.W., 1956. Elastic wave velocities in homogeneous and
porous media. Geophysics, 21(1): 41-70.
327
Chapter 10
WELL TESTING
SANJAY KUMAR AND GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
Well testing and analysis is a well established procedure and there are various
tests available for the evaluation of a formation. The interpretation of these tests is a
sophisticated and highly advanced subject. Fundamental understanding of the
procedures for the various types of tests, mathematical interpretations, and knowl-
edge of limitations of tests are of utmost importance.
The various tests on a flowing oil well can be summarized as follows:
(1) Drillstem test
(2) Drawdown test
(3) Buildup test
(4) Isochronal test and modified isochronal test (for gas wells)
(5) Flow-after-flow tests
(6) Special tests
(a) Interference tests for horizontal anisotropy
(b) Pulse tests
(c) Vertical interference tests
(d) Injection and falloff tests.
DRILLSTEM TESTING
Drillstem test (DST) is the most significant test available for the qualitative and
quantitative evaluation of a formation, because it simulates the conditions of a
completed well (see Lynch, 1962). It can be used (1)to determine the static reservoir
pressure; (2) to determine formation parameters like average permeability, and
extent of permeability damage around the wellbore due to drilling; and (3) to obtain
representative samples of the formation fluids. A drillstem test is usually run when
drilling has reached total depth and formation of interest has been evaluated by
samples, logs, and cores.
This test essentially consists of lowering a packer and a length of perforated tail
pipe (coupled to the end of the drillpipe) with valve to the level of the formation
(see Fig. 10-1). Setting the packer against the borehole wall seals off the test interval
from the drilling fluid column above. The valve is then opened, reducing the
pressure in the zone opposite the formation. Thus, the formation fluids can flow
328
Fig. 10-1.A conventional straddle drillstem test tool assembly. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.)
329
into the borehole and up through the drillpipe. In effect, this is a temporary well
completion and the produced fluids represent the well production upon final
completion.
By the addition of specialized devices to the test tool string, the test has been
improved with time and is capable of giving more information. Additional devices
in use include pressure recorders, the shut-in valve, and the choke. Other auxiliary
components are the disk valve, the safety joints, the hydraulic jar and the surface
control head. The arrangement of various tools for drillstem testing are presented in
Fig. 10-1. (See Lynch, 1962, for greater details.)
Component parts of a conventional drillstem tester
Anchor shoe
The anchor shoe supports the weight of the drillstem and the mud column. It is
generally made from heavy drillcollar stock and thus has a greater wall thickness.
Perforated anchor pipe

The perforated anchor pipe supports the weight of the drillstem and mud
column. It aids in setting the packer by holding the bottom part stationary, while
weight is applied to the upper part of the packer. The anchor pipe also serves as a
flow passage and allows drilling fluid communication through the perforations
between the open hole and the inside of the drillpipe. It is made from the same
material as the anchor shoe.
The anchor shoe, attached to the bottom of the perforated anchor pipe, should
rest on the actual hole bottom. It should not rest on loose debris in the hole, because
failure of the anchor shoe (or pipe) will cause the packer to slip, resulting in test
failure.
The anchor pipe can also be used when the test is run far above the hole bottom,
as is the case in a straddle DST. It is also possible in such cases to use a set of dogs
(or slips) below the lower packer. These slips provide enough support to set the
packers. An equalizing line is used to connect the mud columns above and below
the packers and equalize the hydrostatic pressure in these two zones.
Pressure recorders
The bottomhole pressure recorders are sophisticated versions of the bourdon type
or the spring piston type of pressure gauges. The variation of pressure with time
may be digitally recorded at the surface, or on cylindrical charts. The recorders are
usually placed inside a recorder carrier to protect them in the wellbore.
In order to safeguard against failure and for comparison purposes, it is necessary
to use at least two pressure recorders. Generally, the following are used:
(1) Below-straddle recorder. This recorder, placed below the bottom packer, can
indicate whether the packer has effectively sealed the bottom section of the wellbore
from the formation being evaluated. If the bottom packer holds, this recorder will
show hydrostatic pressure of the mud column above it. If the bottom packer does
330
Fig. 10-2. A conventional packer assembly. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc.. Houston, Tex.)
331
not hold, this recorder will indicate almost the same pressure as the recorders placed
in the potential production zone.
(2) Inside and outside recorders in the producing interval. The outside recorders
are exposed directly to the formation pressure. Usually two such recorders are used
in the test interval to safeguard against failure and also for checking and comparing
the results. Pressures reported by the outside recorders are also compared to those
recorded by the inside recorder, which is placed above (Fig. 10-1).
When the formation fluids enter the perforations and flow up inside the test tool
assembly (through the packers, safety joint, hydraulic jars, and past the inside
recorder on their way up to the drillstring), the inside recorder is exposed to the
formation pressure minus the hydrostatic fluid head between the formation and the
inside recorder.
A comparison between the pressures recorded by the inside and outside recorders
can thus reveal plugging or flow obstruction.
Packers
Packers serve as sealing devices. A conventional packer consists of a 20-60 in. (or
more) long rubber element mounted on a steel mandrel. The rubber is vulcanized to
two steel heads that are free to move relative to each other. The packer can be set by
allowing a part of the drillpipe weight to act on the upper head, keeping the bottom
head supported in a fixed position. This causes the rubber to be compressed and
squeezed against the borehole wall. A good testing procedure is to use a rubber size
within about 1 in. (25 mm) of the size of the borehole which has to be sealed.
Many variations of this basic design have been introduced over the years. One
such design is shown in Fig. 10-2. In this design, right-hand rotation of the drillstem
activates a downhole pump, which utilizes the annular fluid to inflate all the packers
in the test assembly simultaneously. Typically, the packer is inflated to approxi-
mately 1700 psi above the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid. (See Fig. 10-3.)
Equalizing valve
The purpose of the equalizing valve, which is normally open, is to allow drilling
OUTER COVER
STEEL BRAID
INNER BLADDER
Fig. 10-3.Cross-section of an expanded packer. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.)

332
fluid to bypass the packer through the inside of the drillpipe. It is closed only during
the test when the tester valve is opened. By opening the equalizing valve, the
pressure above and below the packer is equalized. This valve also relieves the
pressuring action when the packer is run into the hole and the swabbing action
when it is pulled out.
Tester valve
Tester valve is the main valve essential to the drillstem test. This valve, which is
normally closed, controls the flow of the formation fluids into the anchor pipe and
then into the drillpipe. It is opened by supplying the weight of the drillpipe string,
as in the case of setting the packer. Thus, a mechanical or hydraulic delay system is
required to delay the opening of the valve until the packer has been set. At the
completion of the test, an upward pull on the drillpipe relieves the weight on this
valve, closing it automatically.
Choke
The choke is a small flow restriction placed near the main valve to control fluid
flow rate from the test zone. The pressure changes are thus made more. gradual,
which protects the packer and other elements from the pressure shock caused by
suddenly opening the tester valve. The choke also maintains a back pressure against
the formation face, which has a sand control effect.
An accurate average production rate can be maintained during the test period by
choosing the proper size of choke. Commonly used sizes range from 3/16 to 3/8 in.
Shut-in valve
Shut-in valve is designed to close by the rotation of the pipe so that the shut-in
pressure at the end of the test can be recorded. It is located above the main tester
valve and is sometimes combined with the circulating valve in a single unit.
Circulating valve
The purpose of the circulating valve is to allow drilling fluid circulation in order
to remove the combustible test fluids from the drillpipe before withdrawing it from
the hole. This valve connects the drillpipe and the annulus a short distance above
the tester. Drilling fluid pumped down the annulus can then return through the
drillpipe, carrying the test fluids ahead of it.
A combination of circulating valve and shut-in valve is in common use. This
makes it possible to shut the shut-in valve and simultaneously open the circulating
valve simply by rotating the drillpipe through a specified number of turns.
Other components
Other minor components of the DST tool assembly include:
Safety joint-to enable retrieval of the top section of the tool if it becomes stuck
in the hole.
333
Hydraulic jars-to impart sharp impact blows to the drillstring if the test string
and drillstem become stuck in the hole.
Hydraulic valve-to keep the drillstem dry while the tester is lowered into the
wellbore.
Fluid sampler-to trap a sample of the formation fluid under flowing reservoir
conditions at the end of the last flow period.
Drillstem test procedure
Inasmuch as the drillstem test is a very hazardous operation, it is necessary to

observe the utmost care and caution (see Gatlin, 1960, p. 253). Before beginning the
test, the borehole and drilling fluid must be in good condition. In addition, drilling
fluid should be circulated to remove all cuttings and the circulation should be
continued until the test is started. The drilling fluid density must be carefully
measured in order to check the pressure that is indicated by the pressure recorders.
The choice of tools is dictated by the well size and depth, depth interval of test
zone, test duration, drilling fluid density, number and type of packers and pressure
recorders, and choke size. The assembled length of the tool assembly must be
determined for accurate setting in the hole.
The packer should be set along a hard, consolidated section of the formation,
because shales and unconsolidated sands may collapse (flow under) under the
pressures involved, leading to packer failure. A good packer seal against the
borehole wall is essential to the success of drillstem test.
Blowout preventers should be checked, as well as the standby equipment, which
is installed for use in case of test failure. During the drillstem test, the tools should
be lowered into the hole at a safe speed, usually 75% of the normal value. Level of
drilling fluid in the annulus should be carefully monitored while lowering the tool
string. Lost circulation, as seen by the sharp drop in the drilling fluid level, could
arise from the fracturing of a weak formation from the pressure-surges created
during the running-in process. Leakage in the drillpipe, which causes the air to issue
from the end of the drillpipe, would also register itself in a similar manner.
A slow drop in drilling fluid level indicates a leaking packer or fluid loss to
adjacent zones. In the latter case, fluid loss will continue even after closing the
shut-in valve.
When the bottom is reached, the control head is connected, the packer is set, and
the main test valve is opened. A high-pressure hose is connected to the control head,
the other end immersed in a bucket of water. As soon as the test valve is opened, the
blow of air from the drillpipe can be detected. The absence of a blow indicates a
malfunctioning tester, a non-productive formation, or a plugged tool.
As mentioned before, an appreciable pressure shock created on opening the main
test valve is reduced to some extent by the choke. An additional back pressure
against the formation is provided by a “water cushion”. This involves filling of the
drillpipe with water to a desired level, so that on opening the main test valve a back
pressure proportional to the hydrostatic pressure of this water column is exerted. It
334
may, however, have undesirable effects. In low-pressure wells, a water cushion may
inhibit production from the formation. If the recovery from the well is small, the
produced fluids may mingle with the water. High-pressure nitrogen gas, however,
can be used to avoid both of these complications.
Upon opening the main test valve and allowing the well to flow, an appreciable
length of time will pass before the fluids reach the surface. The blow of air from the
drillpipe, however, will indicate that the fluids from the formation are entering the
drillpipe.
The shut-in valve is closed when the desired test period is over. The pressure in
the wellbore opposite the formation, which falls due to the production, will then
buildup. If the shut-in time is sufficiently long, the pressure will approach the static
reservoir pressure. In general, the shut-in period should be kept at least as long as
TIME
AK-1 CHART
. TIME
Fig. 10-4. Typical drillstem test chart. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.) Kuster K-3 chart records
left to right, whereas Kuster AK-1 records right to left.
335
the production period. The pressure buildup with respect to time, as recorded by the
bottomhole pressure recorders, can be used for valuable quantitative evaluation of
the formation, e.g., permeability, extent of damage, reservoir pressure, presence of
faults, and reservoir limits. This aspect is discussed in the section on buildup and
drawdown tests.
A five-position valve, run directly above the tester valve, is the device employed
for the double shut-in pressure test. Initially, the main test valve is opened and the
five-position valve is set in the open position. It is closed again by a few clockwise
turns of the drillpipe, after an initial flow period of 5-10 min, to record the initial
shut-in pressure. This initial shut-in period varies from 20 min to 1 hr. Additional
rotation of the drillpipe reopens the valve for the usual flow period. At the end of
the test, this valve is again closed upon a few more turns of the drillpipe.
The circulation valve is then opened, after starting the mud pumps and establish-
ing mud circulation.
INFLATE @
INFLATE
Fig. 10-5. (a) DST chart showing packer seat failure-lost seat after tool opening. (b) DST chart showing
packer seat failure-communication from annulus to interval. Indicates a hydrostatic leak during the
ISI; this type of surging during the ISI cannot be caused by the formation pressure. (Courtesy of Lynes
Inc., Houston, Tex., and Bill Clark.) ISI = initial shut-in.
336
Fig. 10-6. Pressure chart indicating slight plugging during the final flow period. Shut-in pressures suggest
very low permeability. PF = 193 kPa; IS1 = 5460 kPa; IF = 586 kPa; FF = 579 kPa; FSI = 5536 kPa.
The test fluids are diverted into a portable tank through a suitable metering
device. If the production is small, it may be measured in the drillpipe itself. The
recovery is equal to the difference between the drillpipe volume and the volume of
the mud that was added to the annulus to bring the test fluids to the surface.
Because of the danger of a blowout and fire, the tools are pulled out at the end of
the test very carefully. Any sign of an upward flow of drilling fluid indicates
possibility of a blowout and necessitates emergency operations. As the drillpipe is
drawn up onto the surface, the oil-bearing sections are capped to avoid spills.
The drillstem test enables determination of the recovery and the composition of
the formation fluids. Considerable amount of qualitative information is also easily
available from the drillstem test pressure charts, as shown below.
Qualitative drillstem test interpretation
A typical pressure chart from a drillstem test is shown in Fig. 10-4. The diagonal
line up to A is the record of the hydrostatic drilling fluid pressure during the
@?I
Jm.
RESTIIC'ION
SURFACE
yp
Fig. 10-7. DST chart indicating surface restrictions. Buildup in pressures during VO is due to the fact
that orifice size was too small;as orifice size was increased, bottomhole pressure decreased, whereas flow
pressures at surface increased. The 6.35-mm choke was changed first to 12.7 mm and then to 19.05 mm.
PF = 4915 kPa; IS1 = 11,858 kPa; IF = 4460 kPa; FF = 6856 kPa; FSI = 11,872 kPa. (Courtesy of
Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.) PF = preflow, IF = initial flow, FF = final flow, FSI = final shut-in.
331
Typical Damage Curve
I7
'
HIGH DIFFERENTIAL
SHARP BETWEEN SHUT-IN
RISE /ANDFLOW \
Fig. 10-8. A typical DST chart in the case of wellbore damage. (Courtesy of Lynes-Inc.. Houston, Tex.)
lowering of the tools. The rough, jagged, or fuzzy appearance is attributed to the
surges associated with running-in the tools. Excessive vibrations, however, indicate
bad hole conditions. (See Lynes, 1980, for greater details.)
At point A , the tools are at the bottom of the hole. Pressure at this point is the
initial hydrostatic pressure ( I H P ) . Opening the main test valve leads to a sharp
pressure drop below the packer to point B. As the fluids are produced, the pressure
increases along line BC, the shape of which depends upon the properties of the
formation and fluids. The point C represents the end of the flow period, whereas
line CD shows the pressure buildup on shut-in. If the shut-in period is sufficiently
long, the pressure at point D will approach the static reservoir pressure.
Upon completion of the first shut-in, the tool is opened for the second and,
possibly, final flow period. As tool is opened, the pressure drops to point E and
'
then increases towards point F, similar to the initial flow period (line B C ) .
The final shut-in is recorded as line FG (Fig. 10-4). As the packer is pulled loose
on reaching point G , the recorder indicates an increase from the final shut-in
pressure to the hydrostatic drilling fluid pressure at point H . This final pressure,
FHP, must be equal to I H P .
Figures 10-5 through 10-12 show pressure charts that have been obtained under
various test conditions. From these and other charts it is possible to determine the
The pressure may increase, decrease, or remain constant depending upon the type and volume of
fluid(s) entering the wellbore.
338
1, Trace does not return to baseline. Possible Remedial Action

Possible Cause a) Prepressure before each use.
a) Over-relaxation of Bourdon tube. b) Utilize filter assembly.
b) Temp, expansion of fill fluid. c) Replace bellows (check length).
c) Gas leaking into bellows.
2. Trace returns below baseline.

Possible Remedial Action
Possible Cause
a) Replace Bourdon tube (check
a) Bourdon tube leaks resulting in bellows length).
shortened bellows.
b) Replace "0'-rings on all housing
b) Recorder housing leaked allowing
connections.
pressure into gauge.
3. Stairstepping on chart. Possible Remedial Action

Possible Cause a) Check and clean lead screw and
a) Friction due to dirt or improper bearing.
adjustment. b) Check chart holder bearing.
c) Check stylus tension.
4. Trace does not start or stop on base- Possible Remedial Action

line. a) Make sure all connections are
Possible Cause snug before drawing baseline.
a) Gauge was tightened after basi-
line was drawn.
5. Wavy baseline. Possible Remedial Action

Possible Cause a) Clean lead screw.
a) Dirty lead screw. b) Adjust stylus tension.
b) Improper stylus tension. c) Warm gauge to above freezing
c) Gauge too cold when baseline-
drawn.
6. Clock ran away. Possible Remedial Action

Possible Cause Clocks should be repaired by
Many possible causes. trained personnel.
7.Clock stopped.
Possible Causes
Many possible causes.
L Possible Remedial Action

Clocks should be repaired by
trained personnel.
Fig. 10-9.DST charts indicating pressure gauge malfunctions. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.)
339
Fig. 10-10. A DST run with water cushion inside the drillpipe. Point A indicates where the " trip-in'' was
halted to add the cushion. Point B is the point where tool was opened for the first flow period; the flow
pressure dropped to a point equal to the weight of cushion (hydrostatic head of water cushion) which had
been added. The actual amount of water (fresh) cushion was 1700 m. Assuming a gradient of 10.42
kPa/m for fresh water, the hydrostatic head should be equal to 10.42X 1700 = 17,714 kPa. Inasmuch as
the downhole gauge recorded a pressure of 17,744 kPa. the tools operated correctly. (Courtesy of Lynes
Inc., Houston, Tex.)
High Rate Gas Test
Fig. 10-11. Pressure chart from a high-rate gas well. Depth = 1155 m: pressures: I S f P = 7927 kPa.
F S f P = 7875 kPa, fFP = 422 kPa, and FFP = 319 kPa: times: 10. 60. 60 and 120 min: recovery: 169
m3/D gas, steady throughout final flow: 9 m-drilling fluid. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.)
340
Fig. 10-12. Pressure chart from a well with slugging fluid. On testing a gas zone on or near the gas-water
contact, there is a periodic pressure buildup as the gas chases water to the surface and then a pressure
drop as the fluid is unloaded. Depth = 1166-1191 m; pressures (kPa): PF = 7314.1, IS1 = 9713.6,
IF = 7342, FF = 8521.0, FSI = 9713.6; times: P F = 3. ISI = 75, FF = 90, and FSI = 90; blow: S I P on
PF-GTS in 1 min, VO-weak to strong blow surging with heavy water spray; recovery: 3 m of sulfurous
condensate; estimated 252,000 m3/D; high permeability. (Courtesy of Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex.)
recovery and whether or not the test was valid. In the case of test failure, the reason
for failure can be determined.
The quantitative aspects of DST interpretation are identical to the drawdown
and buildup test calculations presented in the next section.
BUILDUP AND DRAWDOWN TEST FUNDAMENTALS
In order to develop a mathematical model of what is actually happening in the

reservoir when a well is tested, many simplifying assumptions have to be made. A
simple model is illustrated in Fig. 10-13. A vertical well of radius r, intercepts a
homogeneous horizontal formation having constant thickness h , infinite extent,
constant and uniform porosity 9, permeability k, fluid saturations So, S,, and Sg,
and total compressibility ct. The gross formation fluid viscosity is p. It is further
assumed that the formation properties are not time dependent.
Fig. 10-13. A simple model of the reservoir.

341
Taking a mass balance across the infinitesimal volume element (see Fig. 10-13):
Mass-in - Mass-out = Accumulation
or
At[(pq)r- ( P q ) r + A r l =2Trh@At(pt+At-p,) (10-1)
where q = volumetric flow rate of the fluid, p = density of the fluid, and At =
infinitesimal time period. Dividing both sides of eq. 10-1 by ( A t A r ) and taking the
limit as A t + 0 and A r + 0, yields:
a ( p q ) = 2 ~ r h +aP-
- ( 10-2)
ar at
Equation 10-2 is the continuity equation for radial flow. The Darcy's law for radial
flow can be presented as follows:
(10-3)
Substituting eq. 10-3 in eq. 10-2, one obtains the following relation:
(10-4)
The compressibility of a fluid, c f , is defined as the change in fluid volume per unit
of total volume, per unit change in pressure:
(10-5)
where V is the volume and T is the temperature. This equation may also be written
as follows:
(10-6)
Assuming incompressible rock, cf represents the total compressibility and is as-

sumed to be constant. Thus:
(10-7)
Inasmuch as:
(10-8)
342
then:
(10-9)
Combining eqs. 10-4 and 10-9:
i a wIa p (10-10)
or:
(10-11)
Equation 10-11 is the diffusivity equation in terms of density. Inasmuch as accord-

ing to eq. 10-8:
aP aP
=P C f Z
then:
-
ar2
a
aZp = - ( ”)
ar p c f Z
= c --
a P aP
f a r ar
+ pc,-a 2P = C f ( pc, )(
ar2
S)+ a2p
PCIS (10-12)
In addition:
( 10-13)
Substituting eqs. 10-8, 10-12, and 10-13 into eq. 10-11:
or :
(10-14)
In order to obtain a linear equation, an additional assumption is required: either cf

is very small or the pressure gradient a p / & is small enough (even around the
wellbore) for cf ( a p / 3 r ) 2 to be negligible. Then eq. 10-14 becomes:
(10-15)
343
This is the familiar diffusivity equation in terms of pressure. The term k / + p c f is

known as the hydraulic diffusivity, q.
For pressure-dependent porosity (significant rock compressibility, c,) an ap-
proximate result is similarly obtained with the fluid compressibility cf replaced by
the total compressibility, c, (c, = c, + cf).
In multiphase flow, cf = coSo+ cwSw+ cgSg.
Generally, the rock compressibility is not negligible and it is, therefore, ap-
propriate to write the diffusivity equation as follows:
(10-16)
Solution to the diffusivity equation for infinite reservoirs

If the reservoir is initially at an equilibrium uniform pressure, p i , the well starts
flowing at a constant rate q at time t = 0, and the wellbore radius is negligible, the
“line source solution” first derived by Kelvin (1904) can be used.
The initial (Z.C.) and boundary (B.C.) conditions to be used are:
(1) I.C.: p ( r , 0) = p i ( r > 0). Thus, the pressure at all values of r at t = 0 is p i .
(2) B.C.: It p ( r , t ) = p i , t > O
r-+ w
(3) B.C.: For constant flow rate at the wellbore:
It
r4O [r (?)I- =-- ” =constant
277kh
The “line source solution” for the diffusivity equation using these conditions is:
(10-17)
where p is the pressure, psia; q is the flow rate, bbl/D; p is the viscosity, cP; B is
the formation volume factor, bbl/STB; k is the permeability, md; h is the
formation thickness, ft; c, is the total compressibility, psi-’; r is the radius, ft; t is
the time, hr; and $I is the porosity, fraction.
These sets of units are commonly referred to as oilfield units or practical units.
T o facilitate understanding and avoid confusion of different units, dimensionless
variables have been introduced:
rD = r/rw (10-18)
in particular:
rDe = re/rw
0.0002637kt
tD = (in practical units) (10-19)
344
and :
p, - p = 141.2-p,
4BP (in practical units) (10-20)
kh
In terms of these dimensionless variables, the solution (eq. 10-17) becomes:
p, = - i E i ( 2) (10-21)
where Ei is the exponential integral defined as:
Ei(-x) = -1 -du
x
e-u
u
(10-22)
which is shown in Fig. 10-14.

The Ei solution is valid for t,/r; 3 25, or when r , 3 20 and tD/rh 2 0.5. For
low values of I , , and t,/r;, the Ei solution does not hold because of the
assumptions made in the derivation.
Van Everdingen and Hurst (1949) presented the wellbore solution and Mueller
and Witherspoon (1965) gave the solution for intermediate values of r. These
solutions are shown in Fig. 10-14 for comparison.
For t D / r ; > 100, - Ei( - r6/4tD) [h(t,/rh) -t 0.809071 and eq. 10-21
becomes:
PD = 3 [In( tD/rA) + 0.809071 (10-23)
The error in using eq. 10-23 is only about 1%for tD/rh > 55 and about 2% for
t,/r; > 5. Thus, for practical purposes, the log approximation is satisfactory.
As a matter of convenience, the natural logarithm in eq. 10-23 can be converted
to the base-10 logarithm, malung eq. 10-23 more compact:
(10-24)
On converting p, to actual pressure drop using eq. 10-20:
162.6qBp
Pi-P(r, t) = (10-25)
kh
Pseudosteady state fjow

Inasmuch as no real reservoir is truly infinite in extent, after the initial infinite-
acting period, reservoirs will eventually either exhibit steady state or pseudosteady
state behavior.
10-2
10-2 10-1 I00 101 102 I 03
t / r D2
D
Fig. 10-14. Dimensionless pressure for a single well in an infinite system with no wellbore storage and no
skin. (After Mueller and Witherspoon, 1965, pp. 471-474; courtesy of the Society of Petroleum Engineers
of AIME.)
346
we1 I bore
Distance from wellbore +
Fig. 10-15. Pressure distribution in pseudosteady state flow.
In steady state flow, pressure at every point in the system does not vary with
time. For radial steady state flow:
0.00708kh ( p , - p , )
4=
BPln(r,/rw)
which is simply the Darcy's law.
In pseudosteady state flow, the pressure change with time, d p /d t, is constant
throughout the reservoir. Figure 10-15 illustrates the above and also clarifies the
nomenclature for the pressures p , p , and pi.
The dimensionless pressure during pseudosteady state flow was given by Ramey
and Cobb (1971):
(10-26)
where A =drainage area, ft2; tDA = t D r:/A; and c, = shape factor, which is a
characteristic of the system shape and the well location. Values for C,, which were
given by Brons and Miller (1961), Dietz (1965), and others, are presented in Table
10-1.
Radius of drainage and stabilization time
Stabilization time is defined as the time corresponding to the beginning of the
pseudosteady state flow in the reservoir. It can be determined easily, using Table
10-1. For example, for a well in the center of a square, according to Table 10-1, the
pseudosteady state flow begins at t D , = 0.1:
341
Solving for stabilization time, t,:
(10-27)
For a well at the center of most symmetrically shaped areas, (tDA)pss= 0.1 (Table
10-1) and eq. 10-27 can be used.
The radius of drainage, also known as radius of investigation, depends largely on
the criterion used to determine it. Some engineers define it as the radius at which q
is 1% of the flow rate at the well, whereas others define it as the radius, r , at which
( p i - p , ) is 1, 2 or 5% of ( p i - pWr).
In most definitions, the drainage radius defines
a circular boundary with a pseudosteady state pressure distribution from the well to
this boundary. The drainage radius, rd, is equal to:
r d = 0.029
/ -
tc:
(10-28)
as given by Van Poollen (1964), Gibson and Campbell (1970) and Kazemi (1970).
As the well is allowed to flow, the drainage radius, r,,, increases. Eventually,
reservoir boundaries or drainage regions of adjacent wells will be encountered and
rd will no longer increase further. Thus, eq. 10-28 applies only until the initiation of
pseudosteady state as given by eq. 10-27 (or the ( t D A ) p svalues
s in Table 10-1).
Drawdown test
In drawdown test, the well is allowed ideally to flow at a constant rate and the
bottomhole pressure is recorded at regular time intervals or continuously. The
greatest difficulty is in maintaining the constant flow rate. Fortunately, multiple
rate testing techniques are available today to analyze a variable flow rate test.
A well, which has been shut-in for a long time, is suddenly flowed at a given rate
q. In the constant flow rate analysis, it is assumed that the flow rate versus time is a
step function, i.e., the flow rate instantaneously jumps from zero for the shut-in
condition to q when the well is opened to flow. As the flow continues, the
bottomhole pressure starts declining. These pressure decline characteristics convey
valuable information about the reservoir and the condition of the well (storage,
damage, etc.).
The bottomhole flowing pressure, pwr,can be recorded either at the flowing well
itself or at an observation well located at some distance r . The latter case is known
as an interference test. When pressure is recorded at the flowing well, r = r, and
thus rD = 1. The recorded pressure p ( r D = 1, t ) is equal to p W r ( t ) ,the wellbore
flowing pressure. The following equation describes the relationship for such a
situation, when t , 2 5:
4
p D( rD = 1, t ) = [In( t D ) + 0.809071 (10-23)
where rD = 1 at the wellbore.

348
TABLE 10-1
Shape factors for various closed single-well drainage areas (after Earlougher, 1977, table C.1, pp.
203-204).
31 62 3 4530 -I 3224 01 0 06 0.10
31 6 3 4532 -1.3220 0.I 0 06 0 I0
27 6 3 3178 -I 2544 02 0 07 0.09
27 I 3 2995 - I 2452 0.2 0.07 0 09
21 9
(Q o.oe
3 0865 -I 1387 0.4 0 12
v3
0 098 -2 3227 *I 5659 0.9 0 60 0.015
El 30 8828 3 4302 - I 3106 0.1 0 05 0.09
I2 9851 2 5638 -08714 0.7 0 25 0 05
EB '2 I 5070 -03430 0.6 0 30 0.025
H 3 3351 I2045 -0 igr7 0.7 0 25 0.01
21 8 x 9 3 0836 - I I373 0.3 OJ5 0 025
I0 6374 2 3830 - 0 7870 0.4 0 I5 0 025
4 5141 I5072 -0 3491 1.5 0 50 0 06
2 0769 0 7309 +00391 1.7 0 50 002
3 1573 I 1497 -0 1703 0.4 0 I5 0 005

B l
349
TABLE 10-1(continued)
CP I n CA
E€€Ell
2
0.5813 -05425 *O 67% 2 .o 0.60 0.02
0.1 I09 -2. I991 +1.5041 3.0 0.60 0.005
5.3790 I6825 - 0 4367 0.8 0.30 0.0I
2.68% 0.9894 -00902 0.8 0.30 0.01
Ep 0.2310 -1.4619 t I. I355 4.0 2.00 0.03
Ep 0.1I55 -2.1585 *I4838 (.O 2.00 0.01
2.3606 0.8589 -0.0249 I.o 0.40 0.025
USE [ x , / x f ) * IN PUCE OF A/r: FOR FRACTURE0 SYSTEMS
0.9761 -0.0835 0.175 0.08 CANNOT US€
0.7104 t0.0493 0.175 0.09 CANNOT USE
0 6924 *00583 0.175 0.09 CANNOT USE
1.6620 0.5080 t 0.1505 0.I75 0.09 CANNOT USE
,a I
1
1.3127 0.2721 +02685 0.175 0.09 CANNOT USE
-0.2374 t0.5232 0.175 0.09 CANNOT USE
2.95 -1.01 - - -
322 -1.20 - - -
350
There is an additional pressure drop due to the wellbore damage. This can be
accounted for by using a skin factor, S , in the right hand side of the above equation
(Hurst, 1953; Van Everdingen, 1953) as follows:
4 +
p D = [In( t D ) 0.809071 + S = [In( t D )+ 0.80907 + 2S] (10-29)
Combining eqs. 10-19, 10-20 and 10-29 and rearranging, the familiar form of the
drawdown equation may be obtained as shown below (Matthews and Russel, 1967):
kh
PWf =Pi - 162'6qBp [log t + log( &) - 3.2275 + 0.86859s
1 (10-30)
Inasmuch as k , cp, p , c , , r: and S are constant for a given case, a plot of pwr
versus log t will theoretically yield a straight line, with a slope, m , which is equal to:
m = - 162.6qpB/kh (10-31)
This straight-line relationship is as follows:
Pwf = log + Plhr

where:
k
- 3.2275 + 0.86859s
1
Thus, the formation permeability can be determined by plotting pwr versus log t
(10-32)
and using eq. 10-31:
k = - 162.6qBp/mh (10-33)
The skin factor, S , can be determined by using eq. 10-32:
S = 1.151 + 3.2275 (10-34)
where plhrcan be determined from the extrapolation of the semi-log straight line to
a flow time of 1 hour (note that log 1 = 0).
Multiple-rate drawdown testing
As pointed out earlier, it is usually impossible or impractical to maintain a

constant flow rate long enough for a complete drawdown test. Multiple-rate test
analysis techniques are required for such cases, which may range from totally
uncontrolled variable rates to a series of step changes in rates.
351
Provided eq. 10-23 applies, the following analysis can be used (Earlougher, 1977):
(10-35)
a straight line with slope:
m ’ = 162.6Bp (10-36)
kh
and intercept:
k
- 3.2275 + 0.86859s (10-37)
is obtained. The qN signifies the last rate at any time r.

The permeability can be obtained from the following equation:
162.6Bp
k= (10-38)
m’h
and the skin factor is determined by using the following equation:
(10-39)
Example 10-1
(1) Compute the transmissivity ( k o h / p o ) from the following pressure data:
0.1 1569
0.3 1560
1.0 1550
3.0 1542
5.0 1539
10.0 1533
50.0 1521
100.0 1516
352
Giuen: Flow rate, qo = 100 bbl/D, B, = 1.2 RB/STB, r, =9 i in. = 0.41 ft, p o = 2
cP, c, = 200 x psi--', and C+ = 0.20.
Solution:
Slope, m , can be determined from the pwrversus t plot (Fig. 10-16):
m = - 17 psi/cycle
Using eq. 10-33:

k = - 162.6qBp/mh
Thus transmissivity is equal to:
kh/p = - 162.6qB/m = - (162.6)(100)(1.2)/( - 17) = 1148 md-ft/cP
(2) If h = 40 ft, as determined from the logs, compute (a) the reservoir permea-
bility. Also, (b) check the validity of the semi-log approximation.
(a) k = (kh/p)oil(po/h) = (1148)(2)/40 = 57.4 md.
(b) Semi-log approximation is valid for t , 2 100.
Thus, almost all the available data are in the range of validity of the semi-log
approximation method used.
t
1520
1510-
9
Fig. 10-16.Semi-log plot for Example 10-1.

353
Pressure buildup test
In a buildup test, the well is shut-in after a producing period and the downhole
pressure is recorded as a function of time. Downhole pressure is also recorded
immediately before shut-in ( A t = 0).
It is important to stabilize the well at a constant flow rate, q, before shut-in. The
simple analysis technique presented here also assumes that the well has produced
long enough to establish pseudosteady state flow conditions before shut-in, i.e.,
producing time, t,, is greater than the time for pseudosteady state, tpS:.
If the flow rate during the production period was not constant, as is usually the
case, the general practice is to use an “equivalent producing time”, t p e , determined
by dividing N, (the total number of STB produced) by q (the last flow rate before
shut-in):
(10-40)
where N, = STB produced; q = flow rate just before shut-in, STB/day; and t,, =
equivalent producing time, hr.
A shut-in well can be viewed as flowing at a rate q - q ( A t = 0). What this means
is that a well originally producing at a rate q for a time t and then shut-in at At = 0
(and kept in this condition for a length of time A t ) is equivalent to a well flowing at
a rate q, superimposed by a flow rate of - q for time A t .
If p,, is the shut-in bottomhole pressure, then using the principle of superposi-
tion:
or: p i -pWs = (162.6qBp/kh) log([ + A t ) + (162.6 ( - q ) B p / k h ) l o g ( A t ) .
Thus:
(10-41)
Equation 10-41 indicates that if the recorded shut-in pressure is plotted versus
+
log(([ A t ) / A t ) , a straight line having a slope -m would result, where m is equal
to:
m = 162.6qBp/kh ( 10-42)
This plot proposed by Horner (1951), is known as the Horner plot. The
straight-line portion of the Horner plot can be extrapolated to a shut-in time, A t ,
354
ii
S h u t -in
I \-at- I
tp T1rne.t
Fig. 10-17. Idealized rate and pressure history for a pressure buildup test. (After Earlougher, 1977, p. 45,
fig. 5.1; courtesy of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME).
equal to 1 hr. The pressure at this shut-in time, as indicated by the extrapolated line,
is called plhr.It can be used to determine the skin factor as follows:
S = 1.151 + 3.2275 (10-43)
The straight-line portion of the Homer plot may also be extrapolated to ( t p +

A t ) / A t = 1 to obtain the initial reservoir pressure p i for an infinite system.
Inasmuch as no real system is truly infinite, the extrapolated pressure is known as
p * and is used as a calculation parameter to estimate the average reservoir pressure.
1100
I-L
1000
I000
1 800
n
n
0
600
500 -
I I I
0 I 2 3 4
Time, months
Fig. 10-18. Production schedule ( q o versus time) used in Example 10-2.
355
TABLE 10-11
Buildup test data used in Example 10-2.
At PWS (tp +At)/Ar

(hr) (Psi4
0 2200 -
3 2350 1401
3.5 2370 1201
3.82 2375 1100.5
4.20 2400 1001
5.25 2410 801
10.52 2440 400.2
21.10 2470 200.1
42.40 2500 100.1
85.71 2530 50.0
221.0 2570 20.0
466.0 2600 10.0
600 2610 8.0
840 2620 6.0
1400 2630 4.0
2100 2635 3.0
The most widely used techniques are those presented by Miller et al. (1950),
Matthews et al. (1954) and Dietz (1965).
Example 10-2
An exploratory well was placed on production according to the schedule pre-
sented in Fig. 10-18. Then a long buildup test was conducted and the data shown in
Table 10-11were recorded. If 9 = 0.18, r,,,= 0.25 ft, h = 125 ft, p o = 10 cP, B, = 1.25
RB/STB, and ct = 20 X psi-', determine:
(1) Reservoir effective permeability to oil.
(2) Skin factor and the pressure drop due to skin effect.
Solution :
Using eq. 10-40:
+ + +
t , = Np/qlmt= (24 x 30)(1000 1100 800 600)/600 = 4200 hr.
The p,, is plotted versus log[(t, + A t ) / A t ] in Fig. 10-19 (Horner plot). Slope m
can be determined from this plot:
m = 162.6q,pB0/k,h = 100 psi/cycle
(1) k , = (162.6)(600)(10)(1.25)/(100)(125) = 98 md
(2) Using eq. 10-43, the skin factor, S , can be calculated as follows:
S = 1.151[(p l h r- p W r ) / m- log(k/+pctr2) + 3.231
= 1.151[(2340 - 2200)/100 - 10g(98/0.18 X 10 X 20 X X (0.25)2)+ 3.231
= -3.46
This answer indicates that the well has a higher permeability near the wellbore.
356
2200
104 103 10 2 101 I00
(%)
Fig. 10-19. The Homer plot, pws versus log[( 1, + A r ) / A 11. for Example 10-2.
The pressure drop due to skin, Ap,, can be calculated using the following
equation:
Apski,= (141.2qpB/kh)S = 0.87 m S = (0.87)(100)( -3.46) = -301 psi
Buildup following a long producing time
Wells that have been producing for a long time may also be subject to a buildup
test. In such wells, the buildup time At will be very short, even negligible, as
compared to the producing time t , . Miller et al. (1950) suggested an approximate
technique that saves considerable amount of time. For t, >> At, log[(t, + At)/At] =
log( t,/At). Thus eq. 10-41 becomes:
p,, = p i - 162.6(qBp/kh) log(t,) + 162.6(qBp/kh) log(At)
or: pWs= constant + 162.6(qBp/kh) log(At).
+
Thus, instead of plotting p,, versus log[(t, At)/At] as in the Horner plot, a
much simpler plot of p,, versus A t can be used. It must be remembered, however,
that this technique is only valid for shut-in times much shorter than the producing
time.
Equivalent producing time

The following equation gives the simplest approximation for equivalent produc-
ing time, as suggested by Horner (1951):
t,, = 24Np/9 (10-44)
This simplification, which corrects for small variations in the flow rate, is not
applicable if sudden rate changes occur a very short time before shut-in. In other
words, it is applicable only in the case of stabilized rate changes.
357
Odeh and Selig (1963) proposed a more general technique. They suggested that t:
and q* should be used in the Horner's plot as follows:
1
N
i= 1
t; =2 t, - (10-45)
and:
(10-46)
This method is very often used to analyze drillstem tests with no production at
the surface. The flow rate at the rockface, which may be estimated from the pressure
variations, does not stabilize in this case. The Horner plot can still be used to
analyze buildup data, provided t: and q* are used instead of t and -4, as suggested
by Odeh and Selig.
Drawdown and buildup tests in gas wells
Buildup and drawdown tests in gas wells may be analyzed using the same
relationships as for liquid oil. One simply needs to convert the gas rates in STB/D
and use the gas formation volume factor, Bg, instead of B, in the foregoing
equations. Wattenbarger and Ramey (1968) have shown that this method is reason-
ably correct at high pressures (above 3000 psi).
Gas viscosity and density vary significantly with pressure and, therefore, the
assumptions used in deriving the diffusivity equation (eq. 10-16) are not satisfied.
The most rigorous approach applicable to all pressure ranges is that of the real gas
pseudo-pressure, m( p ) , defined by Al-Hussainy et al. (1966) as follows:
( 10-47)
The pressure dependent p and Z are combined together with pressure and
integrated over the interval pb to p , where pb is any arbitrary base pressure and p
is the pressure of interest. Inasmuch as in pressure transient analysis one is only
concerned with the difference in pressures, the following relationship can be used:
.t(Pwr)= 2JPW'(P / P Z ) d P
Pb
m ( Pi) = P/~z)~P
Pb
358
and:
This relationship shows that the base pressure pb is automatically cancelled out
and does not enter into the calculation procedure.
The pseudo-pressure, m ( p ) , is used instead of the pressure, p , for gases as
follows:
where q is the flow rate in Mscf/day, T is the temperature in OR, and D I q I is the
additional rate dependent skin effect due to non-Darcy flow around the wellbore.
Examination of eq. 10-48 indicates that a plot of [ m ( p i ) - m ( p W f ) versus
] log f
would be a straight line having a slope b, from which kh can be computed:
b = 1.151 x 50,300( p s c / q c ) (q T / k h ) (10-49)
The total skin effect, [ S + D I q I ] , can be evaluated from the following equation:
S + D l q l =1.151([m(p,,,) - m ( p , , ) ] / b - l ~ g [ k / + ( p ~ ~ ) ~ r ~+3.2275)
Z] (10-50)
At low pressures, p Z is essentially constant for gases, whereas at high pressures it

is directly proportional to pressure. Thus, m ( p ) is proportional to p at high
pressures and is proportional to p 2 at low pressures. Equation 10-48, therefore, can
be simplified:
at high pressures ( p > 3000 psia) and:
at low pressures ( p .c 2000 psia). Equation 10-48 is recommended in the inter-

mediate pressure range: 2000 < p < 3000.
At high pressures, eq. 10-51 is similar to eq. 10-30 for liquid drawdown.
At low pressures, a plot of ( p ; - p $ ) versus log t should yield the familiar radial
flow straight line, having a slope b':
b' = 1.151 X 50,300( Zipgi)(p s c / q c ) (q T / k h ) (10-53)
The skin factor can be determined by using (p:,, -p,$)/b' instead of [m(plhr)-
m( p w f ) ] / bin eq. 10-50.
359
The non-Darcy skin coefficient D may be measured in a variable rate test by

plotting observed skin effect, S’, against the rate, q. Inasmuch as S’ is equal to
+
S D I q I, the slope of the straight line through the data point is equal to D.When
such an analysis is not possible, D can be approximated as follows:
(10-54)
where Gg is gas gravity with respect to air (air = 1).

Similarly, in the case of buildup tests for gas wells when the following relation-
ship is true:
m( pws)= m( p * ) - 1637(qT/kh) log[ ( 1 , +At)/At] (10-55)
an analysis analogous to that for oil wells can be used. At low pressures, when
m ( p ) is proportional to p 2 , one can plot p 2 versus log[(t, + A t ) / A t ] . On the other
hand, at high pressures, one can plot p versus log[(t, + A t ) / A t ] , because m( p ) is
proportional to p . The remaining analysis procedure remains as before.
Gas well testing
In addition to regular drawdown and buildup tests, the natural gas industry has
developed other tests based on the principles of drawdown and buildup. These tests,
which are essentially an elaborate combination of drawdown and/or buildup, are
intended to simplify the analysis, reduce the testing time, and gather more informa-
tion.
The two basic types of multipoint tests are (Fetkovich, 1973):
(1) “Flow-after-flow” test, which consists of producing the well at successively
increasing (normal sequence type) or successively decreasing (reverse sequence type)
flow rates, with no shut-in between the flows.
(2) Isochronal test and the modified isochronal test, which involve a shut-in
period between the flow periods.
These tests are based on the pseudosteady state form of eq. 10-52:
Substituting 14.7 psia for psc and 520”R for T,, the above equation becomes:
+ S + Dlql]
p~-p~r=1422(pgZ)i(Tq/kh)[ln(0.606re/rw) (10-56)
Instead of using the turbulence factor D,turbulence is accounted for by putting

an exponential, n , on the pressure drop term:
q = 7.03 X kh( p,‘ - p $ ) ” / [ ( pgZ)iT(ln(0.606re/rw) + S ) ] (10-57)

360
Taking the logarithms of both sides of eq. 10-57:
log q = log c + n log( p,‘ -p:J (10-58)
where:
C = 7.03 X k h / [ ( pgZ),T(ln(O.606r,/r,,,) +S)] (10-59)
Thus, if log q is plotted versus log( p,‘ - p;,), a straight line is obtained having slope
n and intercept log C .
Flow -after -flow tests

The “flow-after-flow” test consists of a series of increasing flow rates (normal
sequence) or decreasing flow rates (reverse sequence) on an originally shut-in well.
PWf,
___c
TIME
Fig. 10-20. Normal sequence for flow-after-flow test. (After Fetkovich, 1975; courtesy of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME.)
361
Shut-in periods are not allowed between the flows. Shut-in, however, may occur if it
is necessary to change the orifice plate for a new desired flow rate. Stable flow rates
are indicative of a good test. For practical purposes, constant bottomhole pressure
and rate of flow for a period of at least 15 min define stable conditions.
The procedure for the flow-after-flow test has been described by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines as follows:
(1) Obtain the static reservoir pressure p , from the pressure gauge.
(2) Flow the well for a period of 3 to 4 hours, which is sufficient to achieve
constant flow rate and flowing pressure. The rate is fixed by a choke of appropriate
size. Record pressure versus time.
(3) Repeat the above for different flow rates (at least 4).
(4) Plot flow rate q versus ( p,' - p;, ) on log-log paper. A straight line should be
obtained.
Pi
Fig. 10-21. Reverse sequence for flow-after-flow test. (After Fetkovich. 1975: courtesy of the Society of
362
(5) The absolute open flow potential is then obtained by reading q at pwr
=0 (i.e., at p,') (see Figs. 10-20 and 10-21).
Isochronal test
The isochronal test offers the only method of obtaining reliable performance
curves (Fetkovich, 1975). The name of the test stems from the fact that the flow
periods are of equal duration. If all the flow periods were not of the same duration,
only the data for flow periods of equal duration are plotted to obtain the correct
value of the slope n (see Fig. 10-24). It is necessary to plot the rates and pressures at
a particular time and not the average values.
The isochronal test is based on the principle that the drainage radius is indepen-
dent of the flow rate and is a function of dimensionless time only. This test can be
conducted on a constant rate or on a constant pressure basis, and a constant rate is
not essential to obtain valid results. The latter is required only for purposes of
superposition techniques to reduce testing time.
~ o r r n a i i y T, = T,=T,=T, ( T s Need not be equal )

T -
Normally A TI # AT,# AT,
Fig. 10-22. Normal isochronal test. (After Fetkovich. 1975: courtesy of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME.)
363
- PWf2
Fig. 10-23. Modified isochronal test. (After Fetkovich. 1975; courtesy of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME.)
Fetkovich (1975) recommended the use of bottomhole pressure gauges instead of

surface recorders, which are subject to response lag and the effects of friction and
flow temperatures. Surface pressures should be recorded with a dead-weight tester,
together with the flowing temperature. Early time data is critical for this analysis,
because the variations are more pronounced at this stage (see Figs. 10-22 and
10-23). Thus, the frequency of recording pressure and flow rate must be sufficient.
It is also very important to clean the well prior to conducting the test. Plotting of
the test data and analysis of the drawdown, buildup, and back-pressure curves
during the test in the field are essential for obtaining valid results (Brown and
Beggs, 1977).
The procedure for the isochronal testing of a well can be outlined as follows
(Brown and Beggs, 1977):
(1) Obtain p , as described above.
(2) Open the well to a specified choke size. Although a flow period of one hour is
preferred, periods as short as 10 min can sometimes be used. Record the flow rate
and pressure at specified time intervals.
(3) Shut-in the well until the static pressure returns to the original value, p,.
364
2-
-
1 1 I 1 I I I 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 I l l
Q, ~ c f da t 14.65 p s i a
Fig. 10-24.( p : - &) versus q plot for the isochronal test. (After Fetkovich, 1975: courtesy of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.)
(4) Repeat the procedure with different choke sizes for different flow rates.
These tests can be taken on the same or different days, months or, even, years.
( 5 ) Plot (p,' - p $ ) versus q as described before (see Fig. 10-24). A series of
parallel lines having the same slope n are obtained for the different time intervals.
( 6 ) In order to find stabilized conditions of pressure and flow rate, one flow test
can be conducted for a long period of time (up to 15 days).
Modified isochronal tests

The modified isochronal test was developed for low-permeability reservoirs in
order to reduce testing time. In this test the shut-in periods are kept equal to the
flow periods. Even after relatively short flow periods it may take several days to
obtain a final buildup pressure.
365
The difference between the pressure obtained on shutting-in the well for a short
period of time and the stabilized pressure obtained on shutting-in the well for a long
period of time (greater than or equal to the stabilization time) is determined for one
flow rate. This difference is then extrapolated for different flow rates. This method
has never been justified either theoretically or by field comparisons with true
isochronal tests (Fetkovich, 1975).
It has been assumed that the pressure is a function of the log of time, p = f(ln t ) .
In reality, the relationship varies from p = f(ln t ) to p = f ( h ) for linear flow in
fractured reservoirs (most low-permeability reservoirs have to be stimulated in order
to be commercial).
In order not to sacrifice the accuracy of test results, Fetkovich (1975) did not
recommend the use of modified isochronal test or any other method based on
superposition techniques for shortening test times for low-permeability wells. To
reduce test time, it is better to use the two-flow rate method of Carter et al. (1963).
Special tests
Interference tests
Interference tests are also known as multiwell or multipoint tests because they
require the use of at least two wells, with the producing (or injecting) well being
called the active well. Pressure is recorded at one or more observation wells. The
pressure response characteristic at the observation well(s) gives the average forma-
tion properties between the active and the observation wells. Interference testing is
considered to be superior to the single-well testing previously discussed.
If the distance between the active well and the observation well is much closer
than the distance to the nearest boundary (or to another active well) in the system,
the pressure response at the observation well can be described by the logarithmic
approximation to the Ei solution. Thus if ( t D / r i ) > 100:
The analysis techniques are the same as before (eqs. 10-42 and 10-43) with r,
replaced by r, which is the distance between the active and the observation well.
In interference testing, the reservoir porosity-compressibility product, which is
frequently important to know, can be determined by using the following equation:
+c, = k/r2p antilog[( pi -plh,)/m - 3.22751 (10-61)
This is simply a rearrangement of the plhr relationship (see eq. 10-32), assuming-no
skin effect:
p l h r = p i + m [ l o g ( k / + p c , r 2 ) - 3.22751
366
Interference tests for permeability anisotropy

Inasmuch as perfectly homogeneous reservoirs are rarely encountered, permeabil-
ity anisotropy (i.e., the variation of permeability with direction) is exhibited by
many reservoirs. This has an important effect on the efficiency of fluid injection and
oil recovery. A well-defined permeability anisotropy can be of great value in the
location selection for development wells and in the design of enhanced oil recovery
projects.
Based on the work by Papadopulos (1965), Ramey (1975) presented the tech-
nique described below.
In isotropic formations, pressure gradient is proportional to flow rate:
v p = akq'
where 4' is the flow vector. In anisotropic formations, this is not the case. Using any
x-y coordinate system, the pressure gradient becomes:
There is one particular system of coordinates where the permeability matrix

reduces to:
where k , , is the direction of the major and k , , is the direction of the minor
permeability axes (Fig. 10-25). There are three unknowns: k,,, k,,,, and k.".",or
k x x , k , , and 0 (the angle between the arbitrary coordinate system x-y and the
major-minor permeability axes X - Y ) . The following basic equations, which allow
type curve matching on the Ei function, have been presented by Ramey (1975):
= - fEi[ ( -@pct/0.00105t)( k,,y2 + k,x2 - 2 k , , x y ) / ( k,,k,, - k:,)] (10-62)
t
k x x = 0 4 k,, + k Y Y )+ J( k,, - k J 2 +4 4 = k,,, (10-63)
(10-64)
e = arctan[ ( k X x- kx,)/k,,,] (10-65)

367
Y Observation Well
at(x.y)
\ Major
\ permeability
\ ,/ axis
1
\
\
,/
\
kmin\\
Active well f Well pattern

/ \ coord i nates
/
/ \
/
/ \ Minor
/ \ \ permeability
/
\ axis
\
Fig. 10-25. Nomenclature for anisotropic permeability system. (After Ramey, 1975, p. 12; courtesy of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.)
If the cpct product is known, data from two observation wells are needed to
determine the permeability matrix. Otherwise, data from three observation wells are
needed.
A field example was reviewed by Ramey (1975). On the type curve, pressure
+
match yielded the value of [( k,, - k,y.,)2 4k:,], and the two time matches gave the
values of k,, and k,. Then principal permeabilities and their orientation may be
determined using eqs. 10-63, 10-64, and 10-65.
Pulse testing
Pulse test is an interference test where the active well is alternately produced and
shut-in for short periods of time. Its main advantage is the reduction in testing time.
Fig. 10-26.Schematic pulse-test rate and pressure history showing definition of time lag ( t L ) and
pulse-response amplitude ( A p ) . (After Earlougher, 1977, p. 112, fig. 9-14; courtesy of the Society of
368
-1 Flow p e r f o r a t i o n s
Casing packer
Pressure gauge
- Observation
perforations
Fig. 10-27. Vertical interference and pulse test nomenclature. (After Earlougher, 1977, p. 135, fig. 10-25;
courtesy of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.) h = formation thickness.
Kamal and Brigham (1975) presented a very simple technique for analyzing pulse
tests. They generated type curves that are easy to use in hand calculations. Many
other techniques require the use of computers.
Figure 10-26 illustrates a pulse-test rate and pressure history, and the standard
nomenclature used in characterizing the test.
Vertical interference tests
Vertical interference test was first proposed by Prats (1970) to investigate vertical
permeability. Earlougher (1980) reviewed two methods derived from Prats' tech-
nique to analyze vertical well tests taking into account wellbore storage effects.
Falade and Brigham (1974) proposed a simpler method which applies only to
situations with negligible wellbore storage. Figure 10-27 shows how the top part of
the formation is produced while pressure is recorded in the lower part of the layer.
The upper part is produced at a constant rate (simple vertical interference) or
production may be scheduled as pulses (vertical pulse test).
Injection and fall-off tests
A water injection test in a water zone is often analyzed as a production test using
a negative value of flow rate (and a fall-off test is analyzed as a pressure buildup
test). The basic underlying assumption in doing this is that mobility of the injection
fluid is the same as that of the reservoir fluid. If cold water is injected into a hot
water interval, water viscosities are not equal in the two zones created (hot and
'.
cold) If water is injected into a transition zone, or an oil zone, both relative
permeabilities and viscosities are different in the two zones created, causing a
change in mobility ratios and necessitating a more specific analysis.
The two zones are located on the two sides of the interface between the injected fluid and the reservoir
fluid.
369
Well test analysis in the presence of a gas phase

The various methods presented here for the interpretation of well tests are based
on the assumption that the reservoir contains a single fluid having a constant and
small compressibility and constant viscosity. These methods have been used (Per-
rine, 1956) to interpret well tests performed on reservoirs containing both oil and
gas by introducing the effective total properties of the multiphase system (corre-
sponding to the single-phase properties of the different fluids). This empirical
approach was examined by Weller (1966) and Earlougher et a]. (1967), who
, demonstrated that Perrine’s approach is valid in the presence of a very small gas
saturation. Analysis becomes less accurate, however, as gas saturation increases.
Interpretation of two-phase well tests enables estimation of single-phase perme-
ability rather than the effective permeability to each of the flowing phases. This is
done by incorporating changes in reservoir fluid properties and relative permeability
due to the presence of gas saturation in the reservoir.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
( 1 ) Show a log-log plot of pressure data for a test where the wellbore storage
coefficient goes through a continuous change: (a) increasing, and (b) decreasing.
( 2 ) Consider a general partial differential equation:
Discuss the solution to this equation for n = 0, n = 1, and n = 2. Fill in the

blanks below:
Case Flow regime Relationship between p , and t , (infinite system)

n=O -
n=l -
n=2 -
( 3 ) Determine the pressure drop at well A given the following information:

p o = 5 cP, c$ = 0.2, k = 300 md, Bo= 1.35, c, = lo-’ psi-’, and h = 60 ft. The flow
rates and,flow times for wells B, C , D, and E are as follows:
Well Distance from Rate, STB/day Duration of flow, days

well A, ft
B 2210 250 10
C 2037.08 150 20
D 901.39 300 5
E 1562.05 350 2
Well A at the center is not producing or injecting.

370
(4) Design a pulse test for injection into a watered-out reservoir. Estimated
conditions are as follows:
+
p = 1000 psi, B = 1.01, =0.2, ct = psi-', T = l0O0F, h = 50 ft, A q = 500
bbl/day, r = 660 ft, k, at So,= 300 md, p , = 0.8 CP at 100 O F , and A p , = 1 psi.
(5) The m( p ) versus p for a gas reservoir has been computed and is given below.
How would you plot pressure buildup or drawdown data for this reservoir if the
pressure range is from 1600 psia to 3000 psia? Also, for a pressure range of 500 to
1000 psia?
750 50 X lo6 562.5 X lo3

1000 86 X lo6 1000 x103
1500 192 X lo6 225 x104
2000 330 X lo6 400 x104
2500 468 x lo6 625 x104
3000 606 x lo6 900 x104
(6) A variable injection rate test produced the following data:
Time Rate before change, Bottomhole pressure

bbl/day before change, psia
8:OO a.m. 1320 375
8:lO a.m. 1240 324
8:20 a.m. 1145 262
8:30 a.m. 1042 193
8:40 a.m. 994 157
Given:
h = 50 ft, c, = 4 x psi-', cf = 3.5 x l o p 6 psi-', r, = 0.5 ft, p , = 0.75 cP, and
$I = 0.15.
Find formation permeability and skin factor.
REFERENCES
Al-Hussainy, R. and Ramey Jr., H.J., 1966. Application of real gas flow theory to well testing and
deliverability forecasting. J . Pet. Tech., 18(5): 637-642.
Al-Hussainy, R., Ramey Jr., H.J. and Crawford, P.B., 1966. The flow of real gases through porous media.
J . Pet. Tech., 18(5): 624-636.
371
Brons, F. and Miller, W.C., 1961. A simple method for correcting spot pressure readings. J. Pet. Tech.,
13(8): 803-805.
Brown, K.E. and Begs, H.D., 1977. The Technologv of Artificial Lifr Methods, Vol. I. Pennwell, Tulsa,
Okla., 487 pp.
Carter, R.D., Miller, S.C. and Riley, H.G., 1963. Determination of stabilized gas well performance from
short flow tests. J. Pet. Tech., 15(6): 651-658.
Dietz, D.N., 1965. Determination of average reservoir pressure from build-up surveys. J . Pet. Tech.,
17(8): 955-959.
Dolan, J.P., Einarsen, C.A. and Hill, G.A., 1957. Special application of drillstem test pressure data.
Trans. Soc. Pet. Eng. AJME, 210: 318-324.
Earlougher Jr., R.C., 1977. Advances in Well Test Analysis. Monogr. Henry L. Doherty Ser. Vol. 5. Soc.
Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas, Tex., 264 pp.
Earlougher Jr., R.C., 1980. Analysis and design methods for vertical well testing. J. Pet. Tech., 32(3):
505-514.
Earlougher Jr., R.C., Miller, F.G. and Mueller, T.D., 1967. Pressure buildup behavior in a two-well
gas-oil system. Soc. Pet. Eng. J . , 7(2): 195-204.
Falade, G.K. and Brigham, W.E., 1974. The unulvsis of single well pulse tests in a finite-acting slab
reservoir. 49th Annu. Fall Meet., SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, Houston, Tex., Oct. 6-9, 1974, SPE 5055B, 17
PP.
Fetkovich, M.J., 1973. The isochronal testing of oil wells. 48th Annu. Fall Meet., SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, Las
Vegas, Nev., Sept. 30-Oct. 3, 1973, SPE 4529, 15 pp.
Fetkovich, M.J., 1975. Multipoint Testing of Gas Wells. SOC. Pet. Eng. AIME kd-continent Sect.,
Continuing Education Course .Well Test Analysis, March 17. S.P.E., Richardson, Tex.
Gatlin, C.. 1960. Petroleum Engineering, Drilling und Well Completions. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 341 pp,
Gibson, J.A. and Campbell Jr., A.T., 1970. Calculating the distance to a discontinui(v from D.S.T. dutu.
45th Annu. Fall Meet., SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, Houston, Tex., Oct. 4-7, 1970, SPE 3016, 6 pp.
Homer, D.R., 1951. Pressure build-up in wells. Proc., Third World Pet. Congr., The Hague, Sec. 11, pp.
503-523. Also 1967, in: Pressure Analysis Methods, Reprint Ser., 9. SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas, Tex..
pp. 25-43.
Hurst, W., 1953. Establishment of the skin effect and its impediment to fluid flow into a wellbore. Pet.
Eng., 25(10): B-6-B-16.
Kamal, M. and Brigham, W.E., 1975. Pulse-testing response for unequal pulse and shut-in periods. Trans.
Soc. Pet. Eng. A I M E , 259: 399-410.
Kazemi, H., 1970. Pressure buildup in reservoir limit testing of stratified systems. J. Pet. Tech., 22(4):
503-51 1.
Kelvin, Lord Sir W.T., 1841-1904. Collected Mathematiml and Physical Papers. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
Lynch, E.J., 1962. Formation Evalution. Harper and Row, New York, N.Y., 422 pp.
Lynes Inc., 1980. Testing and Chart Interpretation. Lynes Inc., Houston, Tex..
Matthews, C.S. and Russel, D.G., 1967. Pressure Buildup and Flow Tests in Wells. Monogr. Henry L.
Doherty Ser., Vol. 1. SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas. Tex., 167 pp.
Matthews, C.S., Brons, F. and Hazebroek, P., 1954. A method for determination of average pressure in a
bounded reservoir. Trans. SOC.Pet. Eng. A I M E , 201: 182-191.
Miller, C.C., Dyes, A.B. and Hutchinson Jr., C.A., 1950. The estimation of permeability and reservoir
pressure from bottom hole pressure build-up characteristics. Trans. SOC. Pet. Eng. A I M E , 189:
91-104. Also 1967, in: Pressure Analysis Methods, Reprint Ser., 9. SOC. Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas, Tex.,
pp. 11-24.
Mueller, T.D. and Witherspoon, P.A., 1965. Pressure interference effects within reservoirs and aquifers.
J . Pet. Tech., 17(4): 471-474.
Muskat, M., 1937. Use of data on the build-up of bottom hole pressures. Trans. SOC.Pet. Eng. A I M E ,
123: 44-48.
372
Odeh, A.S. and Selig, F., 1963. Pressure build-up analysis, variable-rate case. J. Pet. Tech., 15(7):
790-794. Also in: Trans. SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, 228: 790-794. Also 1967, in: Pressure Analysis
Methodr, Reprint Ser., 9. SOC. Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas, Tex., pp. 131-135.
Papadopulos, I.S., 1965. Nonsteady flow to a well in an infinite anisotropic aquifer. Proc. Dubrounik
Symp. on Hydrology of Fractured Rocks, 1965. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol., 1: 21-31.
Penine, R.L., 1956. Analysis of pressure buildup curves. Drill. Prod. Pract. API: 482-509.
Prats, M., 1970. A method for determining the net vertical permeability near a well from in-situ
measurements. J. Pet. Tech., 22(5): 637-643.
Ramey Jr., H.J., 1975. Interference analysis for anisotropic formations-a case history. J. Pet. Tech.,
27(10): 1290-1298.
Ramey Jr., H.J. and Cobb, W.M., 1971.A general buildup theory for a well in a closed drainage area. J.
Pet. Tech., 23(12): 1493-1505.
Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation, 1959. Schlumberger Formation Tester, Supplement No. 1.
Van Everdingen, A.F., 1953.The skin effect and its influence on the productive capacity of a well. Trans.
Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, 198: 171-176. Also 1967,in: Pressure Analysis Methods, Reprint Ser., 9. SOC.
Pet. Eng. AIME, Dallas, Tex., pp. 45-50.
Van Everdingen, A.F. and Hurst, W., 1949. The application of the Laplace transformation to flow
problems in reservoirs. Trans. SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME, 186: 305-324.
Van Poollen, H.K., 1961. Status of drill-stem testing techniques and analysis. J. Pet. Tech., 13(4):
333-339.
Van Poollen, H.K., 1964. Radius-of-drainage and stabilization-time equations. Oil Gas J., 62(37):
138-146.
Wattenbarger, R.A. and Ramey Jr., H.J., 1968. Gas well testing with turbulence, damage and wellbore
storage. J. Pet. Tech., 20(8): 877-887.
Weller, W.T., 1966. Reservoir performance during two-phase flow. J. Pet. Tech., 18(2): 240-246.
373
Chapter I I
PRODUCTION LOGGING
SANJAY KUMAR and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
The subsurface measurements in production (or injection) wells which yield

information on the nature and movement of fluids within the well are referred to as
production logging. They are run after the production casing string has been
cemented and the well placed on production. Production logs are used for the
following purposes (Allen and Roberts, 1978):
(1) Evaluation of completion efficiency for production as well as injection wells.
(a) Flow profile.
(b) Productivity (or injectivity) index of each zone.
(2) Mechanical condition of the well.
(a) Casing, tubing, or packer leaks.
(b) Corrosion damage.
(3) Detection of anomalous fluid movements.
(a) Thief zones.
(b) Channeling behind casing due to poor cement job.
(c) Plugged perforations.
(d) Encroachment, breakthrough, coning, etc.
(4)Reservoir management.
(a) Initial fluid saturation in each zone.
(b) Changes in these saturations due to production and/or extraneous fluid
movement.
(c) Reservoir depletion pattern.
(d) Flow profile.
( 5 ) Design and evaluation of stimulation treatment.
Precise and reliable answers to these questions require careful design and applica-
tion of production logging techniques. Inasmuch as each one of the production
logging devices has its own limitations, multiple logs are run and data is evaluated.
LOGGING DEVICES
The most widely used through-tubing production logging tools are:

(1) High-resolution thermometer.
(2) Gradiomanometer.
374
cc L
- Electronic cartridge
Temperature-rensit ive..
resistor
Fig. 11-1. High-resolution thermometer. (After Allen and Roberts, 1978, p. 12, fig. 2-2; courtesy of Oil
and Gas Consultants International, Inc., Tulsa, Okla.)
Fullbore spinner flowmeter.

Continuous flowmeter.
Inflatable packer flowmeter.
Caliper.
Manometer.
Radioactive tracer survey.
Bottomhole pressure device.
High-resolution thermometer
High-resolution thermometer is used to record the subsurface temperature profile

in a temperature-versus-depth readout. The sensing element (metallic filament)
constitutes the fourth arm of a sensitive bridge circuit. This, in turn, controls the
frequency of an oscillator in the downhole electronic cartridge (Fig. 11-1). Absolute
temperatures are usually recorded. In addition, there are provisions for recording
the differential temperature ( A T ) curve that compares temperatures at two points, a
short distance apart, on a more sensitive temperature scale. The resolution is about
0.04"F and the range is 0-350°F.
Gradiomanometer
The gradiomanometer records the pressure gradient. The two sensing bellows
(Fig. 11-2) measure the difference in pressure over the provided spacing of 2 ft. This
pressure difference is the sum of the hydrostatic, friction, and kinetic heads between
the two points. At usual flow velocities, friction is negligible and the flow velocity
remains unchanged over the small vertical interval of 2 ft. The kinetic effect is also
nil. Thus, the pressure difference, as reported by the gradiomanometer, represents
315
-ELECTRONIC CARTRIDGE
--TRANSDUCER
- -UPPER SENSING BELLOWS
t
SPAC ING
2 FEET
-- -SLOTTED
-FLOATING
HOUSING
CONNECTING TUBE
LOWER SENSING BELLOWS
EXPANSION BELLOWS
Fig. 11.2. Gradiomanometer.(Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
the average fluid density difference only. This feature renders the tool most effective
for identifying gas entry and computing water holdup and, subsequently, locating
the standing water levels.
From dynamic (flowing well) gradiomanometer measurements, the apparent fluid
density pt is established at various depths. Then, after the production logs have been
run under dynamic conditions, the well is shut-in. After a short period of time, the
oil and water will segregate. The gradiomanometer is then run (under these static
conditions) again to determine the oil and water densities po and pw, respectively.
The water holdup' yw can be calculated at various depths from the following
equation:
PI - Po
Yw = - (11-1)
Pw - Po
where p, = density of produced fluid (water + oil). The slippage velocity us = uo - uw,
where uo = velocity of the oil stream, and u, = velocity of the water stream.
The total fluid volumetric flow rate, q t , is determined from a flowmeter measure-
ment. If A is the cross-sectional area of flow, then:
(11-2)
(11-3)
and
40 + 4 w = 4t (11-4)
' Water holdup is defined as the fraction of water in the total volume of fluid at a particular level.
316
E LECTRON It CARTRIDGE
YATERCUl METER
-D E N S l l l E l I R
__ PACKER SPRING
FLUID ENTRANCE PORT
Fig. 11.3. Inflatable combination tool. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
Using these relationships,
(11-5)
and
4w 'Yw[4t - 4 ( l -Yw>l (11-6)
The water cut, i.e, the fraction of water in the total flow stream moving past a
particular level in the wellbore, is equal to:
4W
water cut = - (11-7)
41
Thus, the zone contributing water can be identified.
Inflatable packer flowmeter
Inflatable packer flowmeter, which is used for recording injection and production
profiles, is a spinner type velocimeter. The packer is inflated by pumping well fluids
into it (see Fig. 11-3). The inflated packer forces all flow through the metering
section consisting of the spinner flowmeter, vibrating densimeter, and a capacitive
water-cut meter. The measurements have to be made step by step because the packer
must be inflated and deflated for each measurement.
311
The spinner response is essentially linear with the volumetric flow rate and the
viscosity effect is minimal, even in the case of gas. The range of the tool is about
10-1900 bbl/day (7-in. casing). At higher rates, the pressure drop across the packer
and the altered flow profile due to the restriction may force the tool up the hole. The
densimeter determines fluid density by measuring the resonance frequency of the
hollow cylinder containing radial blades as shown in Fig. 11-3, through which the
fluid stream is directed. Thus, densimeter differentiates between oil, water, and gas.
The water-cut meter, on the other hand, differentiates between water and hydro-
carbons through the measurement of the dielectric constant (80 for water and 2-6
for hydrocarbons). In case of formation of emulsions, only the continuous emulsion
phase is identified by this meter.
Although it is one of the most precise flow-measuring and fluid-differentiating
tools available, operational complications limit its use.
Continuous flowmeter
The continuous flowmeter is also a spinner-type velocimeter. Unlike the packer

flowmeter, however, it records a continuous flow profile versus depth. The lower
limit of the flow rate below which the tool will not operate is as follows (after
Schlumberger, 1980):
Casing and tubing size Monophasic flow
(in.) (bbl/day; viscosity = 1 cP)
5 100
7 150
9; 300
This tool is most effective for wells with high production rates and/or small-
diameter casing and single-phase flow conditions.
The spinner speed is significantly affected by the fluid viscosity. Decrease in fluid
viscosity causes increase in spinner speed, leading to recording of a higher rate at the
surface. It is, therefore, important to establish the relationship between the downhole
spinner speed and fluid viscosity.
Figure 11-4 illustrates the construction of a continuous flowmeter. In addition to
the requisite calibration, a correction factor has to be used to account for the flow
profile. (The velocity in a circular conduit is maximum at the center and decreases to
zero at the walls.) Experience shows that the average velocity is about 83% of that
measured at the center. Thus, provided the tool is precisely centered in the well, a
correction factor of 0.83 can be used to obtain the average velocity (after Schlumber-
ger, 1980).
Fullbore spinner flowmeter
The fullbore spinner flowmeter is very similar to the continuous flowmeter. It

consists of a collapsible blade spinner velocimeter that can be lowered through a 24
378
- CABLE CONDUCTOR
-MAGNET
/PICKUP COIL
WELL CASING
Fig. 11.4. Continuous flowmeter. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
in. (or larger) tubing to measure flow rates in the casing below, above the following
minimum flow rates (after Schlumberger, 1980):
Casing size Monophasic flow
(in) (bbl/day; viscosity = 1 cP)
5 20
7 30
95 60
Below the tubing, the spinner blades open (Fig. 11-5) and are exposed to a large
cross-section of the casing. This results in higher sensitivity, better response at lower
flow rates, and reduced viscosity effects on spinner speed.
The downhole calibration of the fullbore spinner flowmeter is similar to the
continuous flowmeter.
Caliper
A through-tubing caliper is presented in Fig. 11-6. The caliper essentially mea-

sures the borehole diameter and is particularly important for determining openhole
319
Fig. 11.5. Full-bore spinner flowmeter: left-tool closed for running through tubing: right-tool open for
logging flow in casing. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
Fig. 11-6. Through-tubingcaliper. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)

380
flow profiles. It is also used inside casing for evaluating damage and scale of
paraffin deposits that can seriously affect the flow-rate logs. The range of the
instrument is 2-12 in., accuracy is k0.2 in., and the resolution is 0.1 in. (see
Schlumberger, 1980).
Manometer
The manometer consists of a Bourdon tube that drives a potentiometer. The

accuracy of pressure measurements by the manometer (about 2%) is limited by the
accuracy of the potentiometer. The usual pressure ranges are 0-5 psi and 0-10,000
psi (see Schlumberger, 1980).
Radioactive tracer surveys
There are several different types of radioactive tracer surveys suited for specific
applications in fluid-flow determinations. On using a suitable radioactive isotope
and a well-planned tool combination and logging program, tracer surveys yield the
best possible records of (1)quantitative fluid movement in water injection wells, and
(2) the flow behind the pipe. Tracers, however, are not very effective for defining
multiphase flow.
The parameters to be evaluated are the radiation intensity, the half-life, bottom-
hole temperature, and compatibility with the wellbore fluid. As an example, radio-
iodine (13’1) in water solution is used for water injection well surveys, because this
isotope is water-miscible and has a very short half-life of 8.1 days. Similarly, ethyl
iodide or methyl iodide are used in surveying gas injection wells, because both are
liquids containing 13’1iodine isotope having a half-life of 8.1 days.
Radioactive (RA) tracer survey methods are listed below:
( I ) Velocity-shot method
In the velocity-shot technique, the velocity of the RA shot ejected into the flow
stream is measured, by recording the time necessary for the tracer to reach the
downstream gamma ray detector(s) from the injector. It is preferable to use two
detectors instead of one in order to establish a more accurate ejection time. The tool
is stationary and the log is a function of time. Figure 11-7 shows a two-detector
velocity shot. If h is distance between the gamma ray detectors, A is the cross-sec-
tional area, and t is the time recorded, then the flow rate, 4, is equal to:
hA
4=7- (11-8)
In a cased hole, A may be assumed to be constant.

This method is most suitable for water- or gas-injection wells. It is not
recommended for producing wells, because of the complications created by water
holdup and slippage velocity, and the problem of producing RA fluid at the top.
381
VELOCITY SHOT
Fig. 11-7. Radioactive-tracer survey: velocity-shot analysis. (Schlumberger, 1973, p. 21, fig. 2-13; courtesy
of Schlumberger.)
(2) Timed runs (controlled-time method)

In controlled-time method, a large amount of the RA tracer is ejected at the
bottom of the tubing. Subsequently, logging runs are made at definite time intervals,
with a gamma-ray tool recording the position of the slug. The times of the ejection
and of each run are carefully noted.
Figure 11-8 presents a Schlumberger example of a timed-run RA tracer survey.
The RA slug (points a, c, e , and h ) moves down the casing as shown. After entering
the perforations opposite sand No. 3, a part of the RA slug (points f, j , n, and u )
channels up the casing annulus to sand No. 4. After entering sand No. 2, part of the
RA slug (points i and p ) channels down the casing annulus to sand No. 1. Fluid
appears to be entering sand No. 3, because of the stationary readings at points i, m ,
and q. Finally, some RA material is also trapped in a turbulence pattern just below
the tubing as shown by points b, d , g, and k . Quantitative measurements in the
casing annulus are impossible because of variations in the cross-sectional area of the
flow path.
382
WELL SKETCH GAMMA RAY SURVEVS AT TIMED I N T E R V A L S
tI tz tr t4 ts
Fig. 11-8. Radioactive-tracer survey: timed-runs analysis. (Schlumberger, 1973, p. 22, fig. 2-14; Courtesy
of Schlumberger.)
The timed-run method only qualitatively detects the flow of fluids up or down the
hole, in either the casing or the annulus. The use of this method is thus limited to the
detection of any undesirable movement of injected fluid in the casing annulus.
383
Fig. 11-9. Radioactive-tracer survey: differential injection technique. (Schlumberger, 1973, p. 23, fig. 2-15;
courtesy of Schlumberger.) SR = slightly radioactive; 1 = 100 bbl/D; 2 = 200 bbl/D; 3 = 300 bbl/D;
4 = 400 bbl/D; TL = total.
(3) Differential injection method

Differential injection method is a special technique developed for openhole
completions where the hole size is unknown. In this method, the tubing is run to the
bottom of the openhole section and the water is then injected through both the
tubing and the tubing-casing annulus (Fig. 11-9). Keeping the total flow rate
constant, the individual rates in these two flow paths are varied. The water in either
one is made slightly radioactive to distinguish one flow path from the other. For
each combination of flow rates in the tubing and the tubing-casing annulus, the two
waters will form an interface in the well, determined by the rates at which the water
is being taken by the formations. These interfaces are detected by the gamma ray
tool and the complete injection profile is then plotted as shown in Fig. 11-9.
Miscellaneous tools
In very low-flow-rate wells, the inflatable combination tool (ICT) is used. This
tool combines a packer flowmeter, a densimeter, and a water-cut meter.
The production combination tool (PCT), which is used in high-flow-rate wells,
consists of: (1) continuous flowmeter, (2) fullbore spinner, (3) gradiomanometer, (4)
manometer, and ( 5 ) thermometer.
In limited areas, the fluid sampler is used for getting a depth-controlled and
pressure-sealed fluid sample for PVT analysis.
A casing collar locator is routinely used together with all production-logging tools
for providing positive depth correlations.
384
Fig. 11-10, Spinner in monophasic flow. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
INTERPRETATION OF FLOWMETER LOGS
Monophasic flow
In the spinner type flowmeter logs, the spinner responds to the velocity of the
fluid. As pointed out earlier, inasmuch as the tool is usually centered in the wellbore,
the spinner responds to the velocity at the center of the well (Fig. 11-10), which is
maximum. The measured fluid velocity, u,,,, therefore, is different from the
average fluid velocity. A correction factor, c, (Fig. 11-11)can be used to account for
this as follows:
uavg.
c=- (11-9)
urn,,,.
1.0
09
08
Lz
P0
2 07
z
Q MONOPHASIC FLOW
06
LL
5
0
0.5
lo3 lo4 lo5 106
REYNOLDS NUMBER N R ~
Fig. 11-11. Relationship between the correction factor, c, and Reynolds number, N R c , in monophasic
flow. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
385
CL
FLUID VELOCITY, V
"t
Fig. 11-12. Spinner response characteristics. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
Extensive field experimental studies show that c = 0.83 f 0.5% at usual flow regimes.
Figure 11-11,however, gives better results.
Figure 11-12 shows the spinner response (rotations per' second) to fluid velocity
for different theoretical cases (Schlumberger, 1980):
(1) Ideal response: frictionless spinner in ideal (non-viscous) fluid.
(2) With mechanical friction: real spinner in ideal fluid.
(3) With both mechanical and viscous effects: this describes the real case in the
presence of spinner friction and viscous fluid.
For the last case, the intercept of the asymptotic response, i.e., the threshold
velocity, u,, depends on the density and viscosity of the fluid. The velocity, u,,
increases with increasing viscosity, p, and decreases with increasing density, p .
Inasmuch as viscosity of the wellbore fluid at bottomhole conditions is unknown to
some extent, U , is also unknown, which leads to tool inaccuracy at low flow rates.
The in-situ calibration technique, however, overcomes this problem.
In-situ spinner calibration

The spinner responds to the relative velocity between the fluid and the tool. Its
rotation speed, therefore, increases when it moves against ihe flow, and decreases
when it moves with the flow, as shown in Fig. 11-13. When the tool moves with
increasing velocity along the direction of flow, the rotation speed of the spinner
continues to decrease. Eventually, a point is reached where the fluid and tool
velocities are equal and the spinner does not turn. If tool speed is incrr ised further,
the spinner will start turning again, but in the opposite direction.
The in-situ calibration is based on the above-described principles. The spinner
response is recorded over the whole of the producing interval (zone by zone if the
producing interval is not continuous) by moving the tool both along as well as
against the direction of flow of the fluid. The spinner speed is plotted versus cable
386
v, Cable speed
0) Flowmeter, in moving
fluid
lllllli
Frequency of
V, (Fluid v e l o c i t y )
A rototion
b ) F l o w m e t e r response
versus relative v e l o c i t y
V, v o + Vc Relative velocity
ROTATION
- VO
-
Fig. 11-13. In-situ calibration of a spinner flowmeter. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
speed (i.e., tool velocity). Upon establishing the response line of the spinner, ut and
the fluid velocity, uo, can be determined as shown in Fig. 11-13.
Polyphasic flow
Polyphasic flow is defined as the concurrent flow of immiscible fluids. In oil field
operation, this involves the flow of the following combination of phases: (1) oil and
gas, (2) water and gas, (3) oil and water, and (4) oil, water, and gas.
387
For quantitative evaluations of the flow rates of each phase, several measurements
are needed. Some important concepts are discussed below. It is important to note
that polyphasic flow is always turbulent. (See Schlumberger, 1980.)
Flow types
Liquid-liquid flow types

Diphasic liquid-liquid flow types include bubble flow and emulsion flow.
In the case of bubble flow (Fig. 11-14), the continuous phase is either the light or
the heavy one, both phases moving at different velocities. Emulsion, on the other
hand, implies the intimate mixing of two phases (on a macroscopic scale) to form a
single very viscous phase.
Gas-liquid flow types

Gas-liquid flow is usually a bubble type flow, i.e., gas bubbles dispersed in
liquid. In addition, slug flow and mist flow are also possible. Slug flow, which is the
alternate flow type of gas and liquid, is very heterogeneous and thus difficult to
measure. In the case of mist, flow, tiny droplets (mist) of liquid move with the gas,
the two having the same velocity.
Emulsion and mist flows can be considered as approximating monophasic flow
and can be easily handled by the logging tools. Bubble flow can be quantitatively
evaluated by use of correlation charts. Slug flow, on the other hand, is difficult, if
not impossible, to measure and the logging results can only be qualitatively interpre-
ted.
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
Bubble flow Emulsion
Slug Mist
Fig. 11-14. Flow patterns in polyphasic flow. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.) Bubble flow: liquid-liquid or
gas bubbles in liquid; emulsion: liquid-liquid; slug flow: gas-liquid; mist flow: tiny droplets of liquid
move with the same velocity as gas.
388
Triphasic flow types

An increased amount of complexity is introduced by triphasic flow and produc-
tion logging becomes more qualitative than quantitative. All the flow patterns
described previously are possible in this type of flow.
In some cases, it is practical to consider the liquid phases to be an emulsion, e.g.,
when the gas forms slugs.
Flow parameters
At least three flow parameters are usually required: (1) total flow rate, (2)
slippage velocity, and (3) phase concentrations. Alternatively, it is necessary to
know: (1)oil velocity, (2) water velocity, and (3) phase concentrations.
To date, however, production logging tools only provide the total flow rate
(flow-meter) and the average density (gradiomanometer). It is necessary, therefore,
to resort to experimental correlations.
Inasmuch as bubble flow is representative of polyphasic flow in many respects,
some features of this type of flow are discussed below. These concepts can be easily
extended to other flow types.
If uo=velocity of the oil bubbles and uw = water velocity, then the slippage
velocity us = uo - u,. Also, if qo = volumetric oil flow rate and qw = volumetric water
flow rate, then the total flow rate qt = qo + qw and the water cut = q w / q t .
The production logging tools (flowmeter and gradiomanometer) determine the
total flow rate, q t , and the water holdup, y,. The water cut and water holdup are
related, as previously described (eq. 11-6), through the slippage velocity as follows
(Schlumberger, 1980, p. 41):
(11-6)
This may be misleading, however, and presents the main problem in production
logging. Inasmuch as the slippage velocity cannot be measured, experimental corre-
lations have to be used to relate the measured holdup with the unknown slippage
velocity. The influence of slippage velocity is due to the product u,(l - y , ) in the
above equation.
The slippage velocity is relatively viscosity-independent and depends mainly on
the buoyancy forces arising from the density difference between the two phases. The
slippage velocity, us, and holdup, yw, vary inversely, i.e., one decreases when the
other increases, when oil bubbles move in water.
This is obvious from Fig. 11-15, which shows a typical correlation between the
slippage velocity and (1) the density difference and (2) water holdup. These charts,
which are established in the laboratory, should be valid for downhole conditions and
can be used for oil-water bubble flow. For gas-liquid flow, the slippage velocity for
large gas bubbles is almost always close to 60 ft/min, and from field experience, a
good approximation can be made.
389
0' I
I I I I
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Denslty difference, g/cc
Fig. 11-15. Slippage velocity versus density difference between water and oil at various water holdups.
(Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
The above-described discussion is true for bubble flow type only. Moreover, if the
well is inclined, the buoyancy forces tend to segregate the fluids. The lighter oil flows
through the upper part of the tubing. Thus, the flow is strongly perturbed and it has
to be dealt with differently.
Spinner response in diphasic flow
In diphasic flow, usually the two fluids move with different velocities. Obviously,
it is important to know which one of these two velocities govern the spinner
response.
Laboratory studies have shown that the spinner speed versus cable speed relation-
ship for diphasic flow is the same as for monophasic flow (Fig. 11-16). It was
observed that:
DIPHASIC F L O W OF
OIL AND WATER I / FREOUENCY OF
ROTATION
, qOr65o Bop0
Q,= 500 B W P D
pipe LO.= 5.9"
WITH FLOW
i 50 5c
AGAINST
100
FLOW
-
CABLE SPEED ( F P M 1
Fig. 11-16. In-situ calibration of the spinner flowmeter in diphasic flow. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
390
(1) The threshold velocity u, depends on the water holdup.

(2) The uf (Fig. 11-16) is related to the total flow rate as follows (Schlumberger,
1980, p. 54):
where A = cross-sectional area of the pipe and c = correction factor for flow profile
( = 0.83 as before).
(3) As far as the spinner response is concerned, the diphasic flow behaves as a
monophasic flow, but viscosity is different from that of either of the flowing fluids.
Inasmuch as the water holdup varies with depth in a well, diphasic flow spinner
calibration should be carried out over the whole producing depth interval.
INTERPRETATION OF THE GRADIOMANOMETER
The gradiomanometer measures the pressure difference across the 2-ft spacing of
the two sensing bellows, scaled in the terms of density (g/cm3). As mentioned
earlier, the gradiomanometer reading por is the sum of the average fluid density, pf,
and the friction and kinetic effects (Schlumberger, 1980, p. 49):
PGr = Pf (1 +K +F ) (11-10>
where K = kinetic term and F = friction term. In inclined wells,
where 8 = angle of inclination of the well with respect to the vertical axis. The
friction term includes: (1) pipe wall friction (can be accounted for by standard
charts); (2) friction at the tool-fluid interface, which can be estimated by moving the
tool at different speeds (similar to flowmeter calibration described earlier).
The kinetic term appears in the logs as noise. This is significant and can be
observed when the fluid velocities across the upper and lower parts of the
gradiomanometer are different from each other.
The average fluid density pf is related to the holdup y, as follows (in the case of
oil-water diphasic flow) (Schlumberger, 1980, p. 49):
Pf = P W Y W + P o 0 -Yw) (11-12)
or
Pf - Po (11-1)
Yw =
- Po
~
Pw
This is the relationship always used in gradiomanometer measurements.

391
TEMPERATURE SURVEYS
Temperature surveys are carried out using the high resolution thermometer under
static (shut-in well) as well as dynamic (flowing well) conditions. The subsurface
temperatures can be recorded downhole in the wellbore or at the surface. Subsurface
recording requires only a wireline to lower the instrument to the desired depth,
whereas surface recording necessitates an additional conductor cable to transmit the
data from the measuring device to the recorder at the surface.
Usually tools for spinner surveys or radioactive tracer surveys incorporate a
temperature measuring device. Temperature variations downhole are recorded versus
depth or time, by the recorder at the surface. A temperature-measuring instrument
can also be permanently installed at the bottom of the tubing in the wellbore. As
pointed out by Bogart and Woodruff (1969, p. 309), in order to run temperature
surveys with wireline equipment, it is necessary to enter the well through a lubrica-
tor. Fluid loss (water, oil, or gas) through the lubricator could invalidate the results
of the temperature survey. The temperature profile will be distorted and displaced
upward if water is lost through the lubricator in a water-injection well which has
been shut in to obtain equilibrium conditions (Fig. 11-17). Erroneous conclusions
from interpretation of temperature surveys are obtained if the fluid loss through the
lubricator is overlooked. On examining Fig. 11-17, the obvious and immediate
Fig. 11-17. Temperature survey showing the effect of fluid loss through the lubricator. (After Bogart and
Woodruff, 1969, p. 310, fig. 4; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co.,Inc., New York.)
392
conclusions would have been that water was moving upward behind the casing and
behind the blank section of pipe in the liner.
Calibration of the temperature-measuring element is necessary when correct
absolute temperatures are required. Differences in absolute temperatures recorded
during different temperature surveys may be attributable to utilizing different
temperature elements which were not calibrated just prior to the surveys.
Normal procedure with wireline equipment is to start at the bottom of the well (or
at the bottom of the interval) and to run the temperature survey coming out of the
well. Exact location of the instrument in the wellbore is known unless there is
considerable stretch of the wire. In this case the operator should note the depth and
the force needed to pull the instrument. Going down the wellbore, the instrument
can hang up; therefore, its exact location will be unknown (Bogart and Woodruff,
1969, p. 309). In the case of the bomb type of instrument, a time period from one to
several minutes is required for the temperature element to reach equilibrium with the
environment. A period of ten minutes may not be sufficient to reach temperature
equilibrium at the bottom of the wellbore (see Fig. 11-18; Bogart and Woodruff,
1969, p. 309).
Temperature surveys can be carried out under either dynamic or static conditions,
as described below.
STOP-TYPE SURVEY
STARTEDAT BOTTOM
xx OF EACH INTERVAL
X
RUN NO.2
X
ia, '!
u. .-
\.
X-
X-X-~_ \- RUN N O . ~
x-x.
\
ZURVES DUE TO 'xx, RUN No.3 RUN No. 2
-ACK OF TEMP.
CQUILIBRIUM
X
a
X
X
.\
" \
'X *
X
X RUN No. 1: TOO FEW STOPS "2
'1 AND LACK OF EQUILIBRIUM
DEPTH CONDITIONS DUE TO WIDE
x.x-fx VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE
Fig. 11-18. Temperature surveys showing the importance of reaching equilibrium with the surrounding
environment. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 312, figs. 5 , 6; courtesy of American Elsevier
Publishing Co., Inc., New York.)
393
Dynamic conditions
The temperature profile in a producing well depends on the production flow rate,
the geothermal gradient, system geometry, formation and fluid thermal properties,
size and depth of producing interval, and the producing time. In an injection well,
injection time and flow rate govern the profile, other factors being the same as
before. An additional factor here is the temperature of injected fluid.
Static conditions
Where large volumes of fluids have been injected over long periods of time, the
temperature anomalies persist for extended periods of time. Best results are obtained
by running the temperature log after the well has been shut in for at least twelve
hours.
The rate at which the temperature along the wellbore returns to thermal equi-
librium is a function of: (1) rate at which fluids were injected; (2) injection time; (3)
temperature of injected fluid or, alternatively, the temperature difference between
injected fluid and the formation; (4) system geometry; ( 5 ) thermal capacity and
thermal conductivity of beds; and ( 6 ) temperature variation during the injection.
For all the examples presented here, the geothermal profile is assumed to increase
linearly with depth. The geothermal gradient is normally obtained from a tempera-
ture survey in an idle well that has been shut in for some time. For best results, the
wellbore should be full of static fluid. Obviously, well conditions prior to, and
during, the survey determine the usefulness of the data. Presented below are some
specific applications of temperature surveys.
( I ) Lost circulation
Lost circulation may be defined as the loss of fluid to a formation during drilling.
The degree of fluid loss may vary from gradual seepage to complete loss; in the
latter case only a few feet of hydrostatic head can be maintained in the hole.
Spinner surveys have been used, but the tool may become jammed by the fibrous
or flaky materials commonly added to muds to restore circulation. Temperature
surveys complement radioactive tracer surveys.
As indicated in Fig. 11-19, the wellbore has been cooled by the mud. The two
points of deflection are the results of fluid loss at each interval. Below the last zone
of lost circulation, the temperature increases toward the normal geothermal gradient
(see Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 311).
(2) Cementing
Cementing operation is the process of displacing cement slurry down the casing,
tubing, or drillpipe to a predetermined point. The slurry is formed by mixing water
with cement or with cement blended with other materials. Squeeze cementing and
cementing the casing or liner are the usual purposes of cementing operations.
394
\ LOST CIRCULATION
-* ZONES O F
CIRCULATION
Fig. 11-19. Temperature surveys showing zones of lost circulation (cooled by the mud). (After Bogart and
Woodruff, 1969, p. 312, fig. 7; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York.)
1 CEMENTING OPERATIONS
\-
TOP OF
CEMENT
CHANGE IF
HOLE SIZE
Fig. 11-20. Temperature survey during cementation operation, showing height to which the cement rose
behind the pipe. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 312, fig. 8; courtesy of American Elsevier
395
The cement bond log, radioactive tracer survey, and temperature survey are used
to detect the top of the cement column and to measure the effectiveness of the bond
between casing and cement column.
The amount of heat evolved by the setting of cement placed behind the casing is
sufficient to be measured inside the casing. The temperature increase enables the
determination of the height to which the cement rose behind the pipe (Fig. 11-20).
The amount of heat given off is a function of the volume of cement, and changes in
this volume are caused by changes in hole size or by channeling of the cement (see
Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 311).
(3) Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing can increase the productivity of a well and may increase the
ultimate oil recovery. Fracturing is most effective in tight formations or when a
damaged zone exists uound the wellbore.
The effectiveness of a fracturing operation can be determined by taking a series of
temperature surveys after the fracturing operation. Radioactive tracers are also
useful in this regard.
According to Bogart and Woodruff (1969, p. 311), during hydraulic fracturing,
there is a considerable heat, transfer between the injected fluid and the formation
\ FRACTURING
WITH
HOT FLUID
INTERVAL
INTERVALS TAKING FLUID
TAKING
FLUID
Fig. 11-21. Temperature anomalies after fracturing: (a) fracturing fluid colder than the formation and (b)
fracturing fluid at a higher temperature than the formation. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 314,
figs. 9 and 10; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York.)
396
surrounding the borehole. The temperature change is greater for the formation
which breaks down and accepts fluid than for adjacent formations which do not
accept fluid. A quantitative interpretation can be made from the amplitude of the
anomaly. Temperature anomalies obtained with fracturing fluids colder than the
formation are indicated by Fig. 11-2l.a, whereas anomalies from fracturing fluids
with a temperature above the temperature of the formation are indicated by Fig.
11-21.b.
(4) Production
Temperature surveys will complement radioactive tracer surveys in determining
production profiles in oil wells. The points of deflection (Fig. 11-22.a) result from
fluid entry into the wellbore. At the bottom of the well, the temperature curve
deviates from the geothermal gradient when fluid (water and/or oil) enters the
wellbore and moves up. This fluid is warmer than the fluid in the intervals it is
flowing past and is cooled by fluid entering the wellbore at a lesser depth (Bogart
and Woodruff, 1969, p. 313).
In a gas well, the pressure in the wellbore is less than the pressure in the reservoir
and the gas cools as it expands due to the change in pressure. The degree of cooling
is dependent on the composition. of the gas and the extent of the expansion. A
1 I
I
I\
OIL PRODUCING WELL
I GEOTHERMAL\
I GRADIENT
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
d
G
Fig. 11-22. Temperature surveys in (a) an oil-producing well and (b) a gas-producing well. (After Bogart
and Woodruff, 1969, p. 314, figs. 11 and 12; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New
York.)
397
deviation from the geothermal gradient indicates that gas is entering the wellbore
(Fig. 11-22.b). A quantitative interpretation can be obtained from the amplitude of
the anomaly (Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 313).
Casing leaks, tubing leaks, and flow behind the pipe from one zone to another
can also be detected by temperature surveys.
(5) Fluid injection

Fluid injection occurs during pressure maintenance, secondary recovery, or
tertiary recovery. The purpose is to increase oil recovery by some means of artificial
stimulation.
In gas-injection wells, temperature surveys are used in combination with spinner
surveys or radioactive tracer surveys to determine the injection profile during
injection operations. The injected gas will be at a temperature higher than the
temperature of the formation (Fig. 11-23.a). The amount of gas injected will
influence the cooling of the gas. The increase of the temperature profile toward the
geothermal gradient indicates that gas is not flowing past the interval.
In a water-injection well, the temperature curve will be almost a straight line
during injection operations owing to the cooling effect of the cold water (Fig.
11-23.b). The deviation to,ward the geothermal gradient indicates that a small
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
Fig. 11-23. Temperature survey in injection wells. (a) Gas-injection well. (b) Water-injection well. (After
Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 316, figs. 13 and 14; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York.)
398
L WATER I \
8 HOUR AND
30 HOUR
SHUT-IN TIME
PRODUCED FLU,D
MOVING
.. DOWN
I 11- FLUID INJECTED
Fig. 11-24. Temperature survey under 'static conditions in a water-injection well (8-hr and 30-hr shut-in
time). (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 316, fig. 16; courtesy of American Elsevier Publishing Co.,
Inc., New York.)
amount or no water is passing through the interval. This temperature curve indicates
the injection profile at the time the survey was run and does not take into account
past performance.
A spinner survey or radioactive tracer survey indicates where the water is leaving
the wellbore in a water-injection well. The distribution of the water into the
formation can be determined from a temperature survey in a shut-in water-injection
well. Usually two surveys are run approximately 8-12 hrs and 24-30 hrs after the
water-injection well is shut in. The temperature curve will move toward the geother-
mal gradient in the intervals not taking water at the present time or in the past.
An anomaly might be detected during a temperature survey in a water-injection
well that is shut in (Fig. 11-24). Water from a sand with high pressure enters the
wellbore and moves down toward the low-pressure sand. Fluid leaves the wellbore
opposite the sand with the low pressure.
A leak of the casing shoe might be suspected if a spinner survey or radioactive
tracer survey indicates a large amount of water leaving the wellbore at the casing
shoe in a water-injection well. Only a temperature survey in a shut-in water-injection
well will definitely show when water is flowing past the casing shoe and behind the
pipe into another sand formation (Fig. 11-25). Usually two surveys are run ap-
proximately 8-12 hrs and 24-30 hrs after the water-injection well was shut in.
The advance of the flood front in a waterflood project can be followed by running
temperature surveys in a producing well that is under static conditions (Fig. 11-26).
399
WATER \
I INJECTION \
\ /
\
\\\
f
SHUT-IN TIME
I I LEAK O F
I I CASING SHOE
J \ -----
Fig. 11-25. Temperature survey showing leak around casing shoe at 12-hr and 30-hr shut-in times in a
water injection well. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 318, fig. 17; courtesy of American Elsevier
1-7-
SECOND SURVEY
SIX MONTHS AFTER
FIRST SURVEY
- BLANK PIPE
PRODUCING WELL
UNDER STATIC
CONDITIONS
Fig. 11-26. Temperature survey in a producing well under static conditions, for quantitative interpretation
of the flood front advance. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 318, fig. 18; courtesy of American
Elsevier Publishing Co.,Inc., New York.)
400
1 DAY SHUT-IN
TIME AFTER
STEAM INJECTION
,1 I
___j
6 DAY SHUT-IN
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I-
I
Fig. 11-27. Temperature survey during “soaking” and production periods at one day and 6 days shut-in
times after steam injection. (After Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 318, fig. 19; courtesy of American
Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York.)
The sand to be investigated has to be behind a blank pipe. A quantitative interpreta-

tion of the flood front advance can be made from the amount of water injected and
from temperature surveys at different time intervals.
Temperature surveys and sometimes spinner surveys are used to determine
profiles of steam injection in producing wells during the “huff-and-puff” method of
steam injection. A quantitative interpretation can be obtained from temperature
surveys at different time intervals. Usually steam is injected in a producing well for a
period of five to twenty days; then steam injection is halted and the well is allowed
to “soak”. During this soaking period, the pressure around the wellbore decreases
and heat is transferred farther into the reservoir. After the soaking period, which
lasts from one day up to ten days, the well is put back on production at a rate
sufficiently high to take advantage of the increased production capacity resulting
from increased oil mobility. Temperature surveys normally are obtained during the
soaking period and during the production period (Fig. 11-27). Immediately after the
steam injection is halted, the temperature profile becomes almost a straight line.
During the production period, the temperature profiles will indicate the intervals
which have been heated by large quantities of steam or hot water during the
injection period (Bogart and Woodruff, 1969, p. 317).
401
APPENDIX 11.1-PRODUCTION LOGGING (FIELD EXAMPLES) (Courtesy of Schlumberger Inc.)
Example lI.I-I-PCT survey in a gas well
The production continuous tool (PCT) was run during a multipoint test in this
high gas producer. The test was run on 48/64 in., 36/64 in., and 28/64 in. chokes.
A typical sequence of PCT surveys for each flow rate includes (see Fig. 11.1-1):
(1) A record of the bottomhole pressure from the moment the well is opened until
it is stabilized. In this example, the manometer log shows that the well is practically
stabilized in less than ten minutes. The bottomhole flowing pressure is also necessary
for conversion of downhole flow rates to surface production rates.
(2) Several flowmeter surveys at various cable speeds. This provides an “in-situ”
calibration of the flowmeter (seee Fig. 11.1-2). From this calibration and the
knowledge of the pipe inside diameter, the downhole flow rate can be computed at
each depth.
(3) A gradiomanometer survey. In this example, this survey is necessary to
evaluate the flow rate between the two lowest sets of perforations (depth = 400 ft),
where gas is bubbling through water. Under these conditions, the flowmeter is not
reliable.
(4) A temperature survey. It is necessary to know the flowing temperature and
pressure to convert the measured downhole flow rates to surface production rate.
Such logs provide a rough estimation of the producing capability of each
producing horizon. As an illustration, the figure shows the determination of the open
flow potential for that well deduced from log measurements: 55 MMcf/D. The
result obtained from conventional testing, including a test on 1-in. choke, was 50
MMcf/D (the PCT was not run during that test; see Fig. 11.1-3).
Example I I . I-2- Completion evaluation: initial flow profile
The well was drilled through a carbonate reservoir, as can be seen in Fig. 11.1-4
where the computer processed interpretation of the open-hole logs is reproduced.
A 7-in., 26-lb casing was set, cemented and one 90-ft long interval was perforated
in the oil zone as shown in Fig. 11.1-4.
The well was acidized and then produced.
Shortly after, PCT (production continuous tool) and TDT (thermal decay time)
surveys were performed while the well was producing. The gradiomanometer,
flowmeter and TDT logs are shown in Fig. 11.1-4.
An interpretation of the logs indicates that:
(a) Despite the apparent homogeneity of the reservoir, most of the production
comes from the upper five feet of perforations (3830-3835 ft) (see flowmeter log in
Fig. 11.1-4). The acid effect apparent in the TDT log proves that acid was injected
mostly in the upper part of the perforated interval.
(b) Between 3835 ft and 3920 ft, oil bubbles through water: the flowmeter
402
~ - ~~
CONTINUOUS FLOWMETER SRADIOMANOMETI THERMOMETEF MANOMETER
peed spinner velocity ( gm /cc ) ('F) at depth 510

in I ( r.p.s .)
1 ,2 11.7 12:
iurfoce
Iroduction r a t e :
!4.4 MMcf/D opened well
a t 03.00
22.7 MMcf / D
-!iz2
)
I
I
3,4MMcf/D
I
-
0 ;\ closed
a t 05.15
well
Logs run w;th we

flowing on 48/64'
choke
Fig. 11.1-1. Production continuous tool (PCT) survey in a flowing well with 2-in. choke. Example No.
11.1-1. (Courtesy of Schlumberger, Well Surveying Corp.)
frequency increases slowly on the way up, while the water holdup is around 40%
(downhole oil density = 0.45 g/cm3).
Conclusion
The completion is not very efficient. Only five feet of perforated interval out of
ninety contribute significantly to the production of oil.
403
spinner 100
100 200 300 400 500

I cable speed
( I t Irnin)
Fig. 11.1-2. In-situ calibration of the flowmeter. Example No. 11.1-1.(Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
This set of logs (CPI, PCT and TDT) form a sound reference for the control of a
re-stimulation, or for the analysis of future reservoir and well problems.
Example 11.I - 3 - Evaluation of completion: monitoring of acidizing
Figure 11.1-5 shows the result of acidizing in an oil well. Before the acidizing, the
well was producing 2660 bbl/D, and 8250 bbl/D (measured at the surface) after
acidization. A flowmeter was run before and after acidizing at the same logging
squired drawdown
(psi*)
--- -----------
Pwf2-patrn2
10). ----
los.
I
I
1 open flow
I potential
lo5
Fig. 11.1-3. Determination of the openflow potential of the well. pwr = flowing pressure measured by
manometer. Example No. 11.1-1. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
404
TOT-K G F
, 30 Dl
RATIO s/sm3 RPS
PO 41
490(
500(
PRODUCTION
3900 bbl/D
/OF OIL
(NO WATER I
Fig. 11.1-4.Flowmeter, gradiomanometer, and TDT logs for Example No. 11.1-2. (Courtesy of Schlum-
berger, modified.) FM CH = formation characteristics, average core density, g/cm3; TDT = thermal
decay time; neutron capture cross-section; G = gradiomanometer; F = flowmeter; S, = water saturation,
I; OHL = openhole log, April 1974.
speed (70 ft/min). After redrawing the two logs on the same paper, a scale in bbl/D
can be fitted so that the full flow is 2660 bbl/D for the first run and 8250 bbl/D for
the second run. Then the contribution of each producing zone can be read directly,
before and after acidizing.
Zero flow cannot be taken directly from the logs in Fig. 11.1-5. Below interval A ,
there is a fluid of different nature, probably completion water, having a lower
viscosity. Run No. 2 reads zero at the very bottom of interval A . Run No. 1 reads
below the zero line at the bottom. The shape of the log and this low reading are
typical of the response in oil bubbling up through a standing column of water.
Example 11.I-4- Evaluation of completion: monitoring the perforating of a two-stage

completion in a gas well
Figures 11.1-6 and 11.1-7 are PCT logs on a well which has been completed with
7-in. casing, filled with water, and flushed by perforating zone A (trigger zone) at the
405
Fig. 11.1-5, Flowmeter logs before and after acidizing. Example No. 11.1-3. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
Flowmeter reading is in rps.
base of the gas reservoir. Completion No. 1 was intended to open zones B and C by
perforating in gas. A series of production logs were then recorded at two different
flow rates, 240,000 m3/D and 1,000,000 m3/D, as well as with the well shut in. Final
completion No. 2 was achieved by opening zone D,known beforehand to be the
zone of the highest permeability. Another series of production logs were performed
with the well shut in and at flow rates of 500,000 and 1,400,000 m3/D (Fig. 11.1-7).
Comparison between logs recorded at the high flow rates for completions No. 1
and No. 2 makes it obvious that zones A and B are not going to contribute much to
the total production because a pressure drawdown of 49 kg/cm2 (700 psi) is
necessary to bring them alive (Fig. 11.1-9), whereas the final pressure drawdown is of
the order of 7 kg/cm2 (100 psi). This result suggests that another type of completion
could increase the well deliverability or at least that a stimulation of zones A , B , and
C is advisable before opening zone D (of course, the stimulation efficiency should
be determined with another series of PL logs).
From the data obtained from the logs (see Table 11.I-I), flow rates from in-situ
calibration of the flowmeter (Figs. 11.14 and 11.1-9), and pressure drawdown from
the manometer readings, it has been possible to determine with fair accuracy the
openflow potential for each stage of completion (Fig. 11.1-10).
406
F G T F 0 T
RPS OC RPS OC
100
2 3 0 2c I 2 62.6 66 '
!
I
i
,
II
!
f
+
I
:
Y)
B
MANOMETER
'DG
!.- MANOMETER
m
f
\
s
0
-m
Y)
WELL FLOWING 1000000 M3/d GAS

!EE
WELL FLOWING 1400000 M 3 / d GAS
Fig. 11.1-6. (Left) Production continuous tool (PCT)-A logs run after completion No. 1. Example No.
11.1-4. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.) I = tension device; 2 = speed; 3 = CCL (caliper log); F = flowmeter;
G = gradiomanometer; T = thermometer.
Fig. 11.1-7. (Right) Production continuous tool (PCT)-A logs run after completion No. 2. Example No.
11.1-4. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
TABLE 11.1-1
Flow rates, flowing pressure, drawdown and openflow potential for Example 11.1-4
Flow rate, q Flowing pressure Pressure Open flow

(m3/D) (kg/cm2 ) drawdown potential
(m'm
0 219 0
Completion No. 1 240,000 214 5 1,800,000
1,000,000 170 49
0 219 0
Completion No. 2 500,000 217.5 1.5 8,200,000
1,400,000 212 7
407
Fig. 11.143. In-situ calibration of flowmeter at several depths and different flow rates following comple-
tion No. 1. Example No. 11.1-4. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
so 100
CABLE SPEED (rn/min)
Fig. 11.1-9. In-situ calibration of flowmeter following completion No. 2. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
OPEN FLOW POTENTIAL
COMPLETION NO. 2 -
OPEN FLOW POTENTIAL
COMPLETION NO I-
PRODUCTION RATE OIM~/~.~)
Fig. 11.1-10.Relationship between ( p z - p : ) and production rate for determining openflow potentials.
Example No. 11.1-4. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.) pi = average reservoir pressure and p r = flowing
pressure.
408
(Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
Example 11.I-5- Diagnosis of a problem: oil well producing water
A well produces 6900 bbl/D of oil with a 7.5% water cut; the completion is open
hole: 5i-in. bit.
The PCT was run in order to determine the origin of water (only the bottom part
of the logs is reproduced here; see Fig. 11.1-11). Gradiomanometer indicates that at
point 1 only water is flowing. The flowmeter shows a flow rate of 540 bbl/D, which
is close to the surface flow rate of 520 bbl/D (= 6900 X 0.075). All the water,
therefore, is produced from the bottom part of the well. A cement plug set at a depth
of 5600 ft eliminated the water completely.
Example 1l.I-6-Diagnosis of a well problem: gas channeling behind liner
A well is completed with a 9$-in. casing, a 7-in. liner, a 5-in. liner, and a 4 i - h .
open hole. The PCT log could not reach the open hole because of obstructions in the
open hole. The well produces oil and gas, with no water.
With the well flowing, the gradiomanometer shows an important friction effect in
the small liner (see Fig. 11.1-12). The log was run down at 50 ft/min. The readings
are as follows:
(a) In the 5-in. liner: Density = 0.78 g/cc
(b) In the 7-in. liner: Density = 0.7 g/cc
(c) In the 9$-in. casing: Density = 0.64 g/cc
409
Fig. 11.1-12. Production continuous tool (PCT) for Example No. 11.1-6- flowing well. (Courtesy of
Schlumberger.)
According to the flowmeter calibration in the 5-in. liner, the flow rate is 12,000
bbl/D.
The friction effect for the gradiomanometer is (see Schlumberger, 1973, Chart
6-14):
1096 in the 5-in. liner

1012 in the 7-in. liner
nil in the 93-in. casing
where pGr= gradiomanometer reading, g/cm3, and p = average fluid density, g/cm3.
The corresponding densities are: 0.71 g/cc in the 5-in. liner, 0.69 g/cc in the 7-in.
liner, and 0.64 g/cc in the 9i-in. casing.
Consequently, the fluid density is around 0.7 g/cc and the decrease in the 9i-in.
casing is not due to a lower friction but to the presence of gas.
The temperature log indicates a fluid entry at the liner lap. A temperature log was
run just after shutting-in the well (see Fig. 11.1-13). It indicates very clearly a cool
sink some 550 ft below the liner lap, because the gas leaves the formation at that
410
Fig. 11.1-13. Production continuous tool (PCT) for Example No. 11.1-6-well is shut-in. (Courtesy of
Schlumberger.)
depth and enters the well after channeling behind the 741. liner. On the flowing
temperature log, there is a very slight change of slope at that depth. It might have
been overlooked if a shut-in log was not available.
Production tubing 9 5 0 m
Survey tubing 9 7 0 m
-
D 9 8 5 994 m
7-in,,2 6 - l b coring
C 1000-1009m
B 1045-1052m perfo - 4 in SC
A 1063- 1075m
Fig. 11.1-14. Well sketch for Example No. 11.1-7. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)
411
Example 11.I - 7
The well was rod-pumped and produced oil through four perforated intervals
A , B, C and D (see the well sketch in Fig. 11.1-14).
The production G/O ratio being very high, it was decided that a dual production
head and an additional tubing string would be installed in order to run production
logging surveys and determine the origin of the free gas.
Production logs
A packer flowmeter and PCT (thermometer-gradiomanometer combination) logs
were run.
TEMPERATURE (OC
66
m
II
A B
Fig. 11.1-15. Logs for Example No. 11.1-7. (Courtesy of Schlumberger.)

412
Figure 11.1-15.B is a composite log showing the thermometer and gradiomanome-

ter readings, and the flow profile as determined from the stationary readings of the
packer flowmeter.
Quick-look interpretation
The gradiomanometer shows that:
(a) There is a standing column of water up to 1029 m. Oil production from zones
A and B is bubbling through this water.
(b) Above 1029 m, the continuous phase is oil (no water); above 1010 m, gas
bubbles through oil. Zones C and D produce gas.
The temperature log indicates that below 1065 m, there is a natural geothermal
gradient. The sharp change in the temperature gradient at 1065 m confirms that oil
is produced at the top of the perforated interval A . Production from interval B is
not apparent on the temperature log. A small cooling effect around zone C confirms
the production of gas.
Quantitative interpretation
There are two types of two-phase flow:
(a) From 1065 m to 1029 m: oil and water two-phase flow.
(b) Above 1010 m: gas and oil' two-phase flow. The interpretation of the
flowmeter and gradiomanometer logs leads to the following results:
Total Oil Gas
production production production
(m3/D) (m3/D) (m3/D)
Zone A 25 25 small
Zone B 7 7 small
Zone C 52 small 52
Zone D 12 small 12
These results are summarized in Fig. 11.1-15.A where the flow profiles of oil and gas
are sketched.
Conclusion
Zones C and D produce most of the gas. They can be squeezed to suppress gas
production without reducing the production of oil.
The interested reader is referred for further information to excellent publications
by Schlumberger.
(1) Explain the operation of (1) spinner survey and (2) tracer survey in detail.
(2) List three uses of running temperature surveys and indicate how temperature
gradients would appear on the recording chart. Give the reasons.
41 3
(3) State the applicability of the logging devices described in this chapter for the
following cases:
(a) Openhole, (b) cased hole, (c) flowing injection well, (d) flowing production well,
(e) shut-in well.
(4) A gas well is completed with a 9 5/8-in., 47 lb/ft casing. A flowmeter survey
run above the perforations gave a fluid velocity of 300 ft/min. Calculate the
downhole flow rate in ft3/day.
(5) A 9500-ft deep oil well is completed with two zones A and B as follows:
top of zone A’= 7800 ft, bottom of zone A = 7950 ft, top of zone B = 9300 ft, and
bottom of zone B = 9350 ft.
The bubble point pressure for oil in zones A and B is 2200 psia and 2900 psia,
respectively. The viscosities are 0.7 CP for zone A, and 0.6 CP for zone B. Static
pressure at 8000 ft, measured before the production logging survey, was 3600 psia.
The PCT indicated a 3400 psia flowing pressure at 8000 ft, implying that there is no
gas in the wellbore. The flowmeter data obtained is as follows:
Cable speed, Spinner frequency (rps)

(ft’min) At station 1, at 7700 ft At station 2, at 8500 ft
Going 60 14.0 8.37
down 100 16.63 11.oo
Going 50 6.70 1.05
UP 100 3.35 0.88
135 1.o 3.13
(a) What is the fluid velocity at station 2, and the corresponding flow rate?
(b) Assuming a zero threshold velocity at station 1, what is the fluid velocity and
flow rate at station l?
(c) What is the % error in flow rate at station 1 if it is assumed that the threshold
velocity at station 1 is the same as that at station 2?
REFERENCES
Agnew, B.G., 1966. Evaluation of fracture treatments with temperature surveys. J. Per. Technol., 18(7):
892-898.
Allen, T.O. and Roberts, A.P., 1978. Production Operations, Vol. 11. Oil and Gas Consultants Interna-
tional, Tulsa, Okla., pp. 11-52.
Bogart, A.J. and Woodruff, W.E., 1969. Technical services-wireline services. In: G.V. Chilingar and
C.M. Beeson (Editors), Surface Operations in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New York, N.Y.,
pp. 307-338.
Champion, C.A., Schaller, H.E. and Jackson, B.R., 1965. Some recent applications of radioactive tracers in
determining subsurface flow behauiour. In: 40th Annu. Fall Meet., SOC. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., Denver,
Colo., Oct. 1965, SPE 1246, 12 pp.
Clavier, C., Hoyle, W. and Meunier, D., 1971. Quantitative interpretation of TDT logs. J . Pet. Technol.,
23(6): 743-763.
414
Cooke Jr., C.E., 1978. Radial differential temperature (RDT) logging- A new tool for detecting and treating
flow behind casing. In: 53rd Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition, Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., Houston,
Tex,. Oct. 1-3 1978, SPE 7558, 5 pp.
Curtis, M.R. and Witterholt, E.J., 1973. Use of temperature log for determiningflow rates in producing wells.
In: 48th Annu. Fall Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., Las Vegas, Nev., Sept. 30-Oct. 3, 1973, SPE 4637,
12 PP.
Dale, J.R., 1965. Temperature surveys pinpoint steam-injection problems. Pet. Eng., 37(12): 67-70.
Doering, M.A. and Smith, D.P., 1974. Locating extraneous water sources with the gamma ray log. In: 49th
Annu. Fall Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., Houston, Tex., Oct. 6-9, 1974, SPE 5116, 3 pp.
Hammack, G.W., Myers, B.D. and Barcenas, G.H., 1976. Production logging through the annulus of
rodpumped wells to obtain flow profiles. In: 51st Annu. Fall Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., New
Orleans, La., Oct. 3-6, 1976, SPE 6042, 4 pp.
Johnson, W. and Morris, B.P., 1964. Review of radioactive tracer surveys. Prod. Mon., 28(12): 20-24;
29(1): 13-17.
Loeb, J. and Poupon, A., 1965. Temperature logs in production and injection wells. In: 25th Meet., Eur.
Assoc. Explor. Geophys., Madrid, May 5, 7, 9, 1965.
Meunier, D., Tiuier, M.P. and Bonnet, J.L., 1971. The production combination tool-a new system for
production monitoring. J. Pel. Technol., 23(5): 603-613.
Peacock, D.R., 1965. What you can learn from temperature logs. Pet. Eng., 37(10): 96-111.
Schlumberger, 1973. Production Log Interpretation, pp. 21-23.
Schlumberger, 1980. Cased Hole Services Seminar, Production Logging, 77 pp.
Smith, R.C. and Steffensen, R.J., 1970. Computer study of factors affecting temperature profiles in water
injection wells. J. Pet. Technol., 22(11): 1447-1458.
Smith, R.C. and Steffensen, R.J., 1975. Interpretation of temperature profiles in water injection wells. J.
Pet. Technol., 27(6): 777-784.
Wade, R.T., Cantrell, R.C., Poupon, A. and Moulin, J., 1965. Production logging-the key to optimum
well performance. J . Pet. Technol., 17(2): 137-144.
Witterholt, E.J. and Tixier, M.P., 1972. Temperature logging in injection wells. In: 47th Annu. Fall Meet.,
Soc. Pet. Eng. A.I.M.E., San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 8-11, 1972, SPE 4022, 11 pp.
415
Chapter 12
GAS LIFT
JOHN 0. ROBERTSON Jr., GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN,

WILLIAM G. CARTER and SANJAY KUMAR
INTRODUCTION
The first recorded use of an air lift system was in 1782 to remove water from a
flooded mine shaft in Hungary. Subsequently, the air lift technique was further
developed for similar use in the mining industry to lift large volumes of fluids from
flooded mine shafts. In early 1864, air was used in the oil industry to lift water along
with some oil from shallow wells located in Venango County, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
The air lift technique was used in 1899 for lifting oil in the Baku oil fields,
Azerbaijan S.S.R., U.S.S.R. In California, U.S.A., air lift was introduced around
1909 to lift fluids out of stripper wells in the Kern River Field, Kern County,
California, U.S.A.
When applied to lifting hydrocarbons, three major problems were encountered by
an operator using air lift: (1) oxygen in the air was corrosive and attacked all
downhole iron; (2) a mixture of air and natural gas (hydrocarbons) was explosive
and represented a fire hazard; and (3) when air was mixed with the produced gas,
the heating value (Btu content) of the gas dropped and the gas was often unsaleable.
Natural gas lift was introduced later because of these problems with the air lift. Gas
lift gained widespread popularity in the U.S.A. in the early 1900s due to the
successful application of the method in lifting fluid from wells in the Gulf Coast
area, U S A .
The percentage of wells put on gas lift has increased since the end of world war
11. This popularity is due both to improvements in equipment and a better
understanding of the process. A considerable amount of research work was done
during the 1952-1965 period on determining the pressure losses occurring in
two-phase vertical flow. Research was also done for many types of flow occurring in
vertical tubing strings. This has changed the application of gas lift from an empirical
approach to a blend of practical experience and science.
The efficiency of this system was improved with the increasing value of gas. At
the present time, the engineer cannot afford to simply cycle the gas; instead
economics dictate that one should sell the produced gas which is not required for gas
lift or injection. Economics also force operators to carefully design all gas lift
operations to insure that gas is not tied up in a lift system when it could be sold to
help the cash flow of the project.
416
Brown (1973, p. 182) has summarized the following periods of development for
gas lift:
(1) Prior to 1864: Laboratory experiments performed with possibility of one or
two practical applications.
(2) 1864-1900: Lifting of fluids with compressed air, which was injected through
the annulus or tubing.
(3) 1900-1920: Gulf Coast “air for hire” boom. For example, the Spindletop
Field in U.S.A. was produced by air lift.
(4) 1920-1929: Straight gas lift utilizing natural gas, e.g., the Seminole Field,
Oklahoma, U.S.A.
(5) 1929-1945: Development of a multitude of flow valves. More efficient rates
of production and proration acted as a stimulus for the development of the flow
valves.
(6) 1946-1967: Development of pressure-operated valves which resulted in prac-
tical replacement of all other types of gas lift valves. The concentric gas lift valve,
developed since 1953, was popularized by slim-hole and dual completions.
REVIEW OF GAS LIFT FUNDAMENTALS
Pressure gradients
Inasmuch as knowledge of liquid pressure gradients is required in gas lift studies,

specific weights of various liquids are compared to that of fresh water in Table 12-1.
For example, if a brine is 1.04 times heavier than fresh water, its specific gravity is
1.04 and the pressure gradient is equal to 0.45 psi/ft (= 1.04 X 0.434). The relation-
ship between the pressure gradient and salt content in water is presented in Fig.
12-1. If the API gravity of an oil is given, its specific gravity at 60°F can be
determined as follows:
sp. gr. at 60°F = 141.5/(131.5 + “API) (12-1)
For example, the specific gravity of a 37”API oil is equal to: sp. gr. = 141.5/
+
(131.5 37) = 0.84.
Derivation of pressure at bottom of gas column
The pressure at point 2, p 2 , in psi in a gas column is equal to:
P2 =P 1 + (Y x AL)/144 (12-2)
where point 2 lies distance AL below point 1; p 1 is the pressure at point 1 in psi;
and y is the specific weight of gas in lb/cu ft.
On using the equation of state and considering 1 lb of gas:
pv = ZNRT (12-3)
417
TABLE 12-1
Fluid weight conversion table (modified after Zaba and Doherty, 1956; courtesy of Gulf Publishing Co.)
Gravity Specific Specific weight Fluid head Buoyancy

(OAPI) Height factor
gravity (Ib/gal) (Ib/cu ft) (Ib/bbl) Pressure
(SG) (Ib/sq in/ft) (ft/lb)
immersed)
60.0 0.739 6.16 46.1 259.0 0.320 3.13 0.906
59.0 0.743 6.20 46.4 260.0 0.322 3.11 0.905
58.0 0.747 6.23 46.6 262.0 0.324 3.09 0.905
57.0 0.751 6.26 46.8 263.0 0.325 3.08 0.904
56.0 0.755 6.30 47.1 265.0 0.327 3.06 0.904
55.0 0.759 6.33 47.4 266.0 0.329 3.04 0.903
54.0 0.763 6.36 47.6 267.0 0.330 3.03 0.903
53.0 0.767 6.40 47.9 269.0 0.332 3.01 0.902
52.0 0.771 6.43 48.1 270.0 0.334 2.99 0.902
51.0 0.775 6.46 48.3 271.0 0.336 2.98 0.901
50.0 0.780 6.51 48.7 273.0 0.338 2.96 0.901
49.0 0.784 6.54 48.9 275.0 0.340 2.94 0.900
48.0 0.788 6.57 49.2 276.0 0.341 2.93 0.900
47.0 0.793 6.61 49.5 278.0 0.343 2.92 0.899
46.0 0.797 6.65 49.8 279.0 0.345 2.90 0.898
45.0 0.802 6.69 50.0 281.0 0.348 2.87 0.898
44.0 0.806 6.72 50.3 282.0 0.349 2.87 0.897
43.0 0.811 6.76 50.6 284.0 0.351 2.85 0.897
42.0 0.816 6.81 50.9 286.0 0.354 2.82 0.896
41.O 0.820 6.84 51.2 287.0 0.355 2.82 0.896
40.0 0.825 6.88 51.5 289.0 0.357 2.80 0.895
39.0 0.830 6.92 51.8 291.0 0.359 2.79 0.894
38.0 0.835 6.96 52.1 292.0 0.362 2.76 0.894
37.0 0.840 7.01 52.4 294.0 0.364 2.75 0.893
36.0 0.845 7.05 52.7 296.0 0.366 2.73 0.892
35.0 0.850 7.09 53.0 298.0 0.368 2.72 0.892
34.0 0.855 7.13 53.3 299.0 0.370 2.70 0.891
33.0 0.860 7.17 53.6 301.O 0.372 2.69 0.891
32.0 0.865 7.21 53.9 303.0 0.375 2.67 0.890
31.0 0.871 7.26 54.3 305.0 0.377 2.65 0.889
30.0 0.876 7.31 54.7 307.0 0.380 2.63 0.889
29.0 0.882 7.36 55.1 309.0 0.382 2.62 0.887
28.0 0.887 7.40 55.4 311.0 0.384 2.60 0.887
27.0 0.893 7.45 55.7 313.0 0.387 2.58 0.886
26.0 0.898 7.49 56.0 315.0 0.389 2.57 0.886
25.0 0.904 7.54 56.4 317.0 0.392 2.55 0.885
24.0 0.910 7.59 56.8 319.0 0.394 2.54 0.884
23.0 0.916 7.64 57.2 321.0 0.397 2.52 0.883
22.0 0.922 7.69 57.5 323.0 0.399 2.51 0.883
21.0 0.928 7.74 57.9 325.0 0.402 2.49 0.882
20.0 0.934 7.79 58.3 327.0 0.405 2.47 0.881
19.0 0.940 7.84 58.7 329.0 0.407 2.46 0.880
18.0 0.946 7.89 59.0 331.0 0.410 2.44 0.879
17.0 0.953 7.95 59.5 334.0 0.413 2.42 0.879
16.0 0.959 8.00 59.8 336.0 0.416 2.40 0.878
418
TABLE 12-1(continued)
Gravity Specific Specific weight Fluid head Buoyancy

(OAPI) gravity (lb/gal) (lb/cu ft) (Ib/bbl) Pressure Height factor
(SG) (lb/sq W f t ) (ft/lb) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e
15.0 0.966 8.06 60.3 339.0 0.419 2.39 0.877

14.0 0.973 8.11 60.7 341.O 0.421 2.38 0.876
13.0 0.979 8.16 61.0 343.0 0.424 2.36 0.875
12.0 0.986 8.22 61.5 345.0 0.427 2.34 0.874
11.0 0.993 8.28 61.9 348.0 0.430 2.33 0.874
10' A.P.I. or} l.OO 8.34 62.4 350.0 0.433 2.31 0.873
Pure Water
1.01 8.4 62.8 353.0 0.436 2.29 0.872
1.03 8.6 64.3 361.0 0.447 2.24 0.869
1.06 8.8 65.8 370.0 0.457 2.19 0.866
1.08 9.0 67.3 378.0 0.468 2.14 0.862
1.10 9.2 68.8 386.0 0.478 2.09 0.860
1.13 9.4 70.3 395.0 0.488 2.05 0.856
1.15 9.6 71.8 403.0 0.499 2.00 0.853
Salt Water} 1.154 9.625 72.0 404.0 0.500 2.00 01853
1.18 9.8 73.3 412.0 0.509 1.96 0.850
1.20 10.0 74.8 420.0 0.519 1.93 0.847
1.22 10.2 76.3 428.0 0.530 1.89 0.844
1.25 10.4 77.8 437.0 0.540 1.85 0.841
1.27 10.6 79.3 445.0 0.551 1.81 0.838
1.29 10.8 80.8 454.0 0.561 1.78 0.835
1.32 11.0 82.3 462.0 0.571 1.75 0.832
1.34 11.2 83.8 470.0 0.582 1.72 0.829
1.37 11.4 85.3 479.0 0.592 1.69 0.826
1.39 11.6 86.8 487.0 0.603 1.66 0.823
1.41 11.8 88.3 496.0 0.613 1.63 0.820
1.44 12.0 89.8 504.0 0.623 1.61 0.817
1.46 12.2 91.3 512.0 0.634 1.58 0.814
1.49 12.4 92.8 521.0 0.644 1.55 0.810
1.51 12.6 94.3 529.0 0.655 1.53 0.808
1.53 12.8 95.8 538.0 0.665 1.50 0.804
1.56 13.0 97.3 546.0 0.675 1.48 0.801
1.58 13.2 98.7 554.0 0.686 1.46 0.798
1.61 13.4 100.0 563.0 0.696 1.44 0.795
1.63 13.6 102.0 571.0 0.706 1.42 0.792
1.65 13.8 103.0 580.0 0.717 1.39 0.789
1.68 14.0 105.0 588.0 0.727 1.38 0.786
1.70 14.2 106.0 596.0 0.738 1.36 0.783
1.73 14.4 108.0 605.0 0.748 1.34 0.780
1.75 14.6 109.0 613.0 0.758 1.32 0.777
1.77 14.8 111.0 622.0 0.769 1.30 0.774
1.80 15.0 112.0 630.0 0.779 1.28 0.771
1.82 15.2 114.0 638.0 0.790 1.27 0.768
1.85 15.4 115.0 647.0 0.800 1.25 0.765
1.87 15.6 117.0 655.0 0.810 1.23 0.762
1.89 15.8 118.0 664.0 0.821 1.22 0.759
419
0.36
-... 0.38
g 0.40
F
0.42
E
5 0.44
W
3 0.46
In
In
W
g 0.48
0'500 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT SALT WATER
Fig. 12-1. Relationship between pressure gradient and percent of salt water in water-oil mixtures. (After
Thrash and Brown, 1965, p. 8, chart 1.) If sp.gr. = 1.07, then the pressure gradient = 1.07 (0.434) = 0.465.
+
Pressure gradient of oil salt water mixture = [(% salt water/lOO)X(water gradient)]+[(% oil/lOO)x(oil
gradient)]. For example, in the case of 50-50 oil-water mixture, if oil is 42' API (0.354 psi/ft gradient)
and sp. gr. of water is 1.07 (0.465 psi/ft pressure gradient), then the pressure gradient of a mixture =
(0.50)(0.354)+ (0.50)(0.465) = 0.41 psi/ft.
where p = absolute pressure in lb/sq ft, u = specific volume in cu ft/lb, Z =

compressibility factor, N = number of moles of gas, R = universal gas constant, and
T = absolute temperature in OR. Thus:
u = ZNRT/p (12-4)
Inasmuch as:
u=l / y (12-5)
y =p / Z N R T (12-6)
On substituting eq. 12-6 in eq. 12-2:
p2= p l +(p/l44ZNRT)AL (12-7)
Rearranging:
(p2- P I ) =(p/l44ZNRT)AL (12-8)

and
( d p / p )= (dL/144ZNRT) (12-9)
In integral form, eq. 12-9 becomes:
j P b c d p / p= j 0L ( 1 / 1 4 4 Z N R T ) d L (12-10)
PS
420
Thus:
(12-11)
and
( P bc/Ps) = exp( L/144zav NRTav (12-12)
or
P bc 'Ps exp( L/144zav NRT,v ) (12-12.a)
where Z,,= average compressibility factor computed at T,, and pa,; N = number of
moles of gas; R = universal gas constant, which is equal to 10.7 for one mole of gas;
ps = pressure at surface, psia; pbc = pressure at bottom of gas column, psia; L =
depth of gas column, ft; and T,, = average temperature in column, OR.On simplify-
ing the exponent and considering one lb of gas:
(12-13)
where Gg= gravity of gas as compared to that of air (sp. gr. air = 1).
The average temperature in the gas column can be computed from the following
equation :
T,, = T, + [( D/2)(dT/dL)] + 460" (12-14)
where T, = temperature at the surface, O F ; D = vertical depth of well, ft; and

dT/d L = geothermal gradient, which is around 2OF/ft. Geothermal gradient, how-
ever, varies with locality.
Energy utilized in lifting fluids
The following energies are utilized in lifting fluids from an oil well: (a) reservoir
energy, which is equivalent to the working submergence; (b) energy of the gas in the
well fluids; and (c) supplementary energy contained in the compressed gas intro-
duced at the surface.
Types of gas expansion
The types of gas expansion and the energy derived therefrom can generally be
classified as: (1) isothermal, (2) adiabatic, and (3) polytropic.
Isothermal expansion
Isothermal expansion ( pv = constant) is applicable to cases where gas/oil ratios
421
are low and the heat necessary to maintain approximate isothermal conditions is
supplied by the oil. If the initial pressure (bottom of tubing) is p 1 and the discharge
pressure (top of tubing) is p 2 (both in psia), then the work, W , in ft-lb done by 1 cu
ft of gas (measured at pressure p 2 ) on expanding from p 1 to p2 is equal to:
Adiabatic expansion
Adiabatic expansion ( p v k = constant) is applicable to open flows where the gas
velocity is so great that little or no heat is transferred to the gas from the oil and,
consequently, there is a drop in gas temperature due to expansion. The work, W , in
ft-lb/cu ft gas is equal to:
(12-16)
where k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume. The value of k for natural gas with a gravity of 0.7, compared to
air, is about 1.26.
Polytropic expansion
Polytropic expansion ( p u n = constant) is the most applicable to practical gas lift
situation, because there is usually isothermal expansion at the lower end of the
tubing and practically adiabatic expansion at the upper end. Thus:
(12-17)
where n is around 1.20 in most cases.
Volume of gas necessaty for gas lift
Assuming 100%efficiency, the volume of gas, 6 ,generally corrected to standard

conditions in cu ft, necessary to lift one barrel of oil to the surface at a discharge
pressure, p2,can be calculated from the following equation:
6 = 349G0L,/ W (12-18)
where Go = specific gravity of oil; L, = working lift in ft; W = work of expansion of

1 cu ft of gas, calculated from eqs. 12-15, 12-16, or 12-17; and the constant 349
lb/bbl (= 42 gal/bbl x 8.33 lb/gal) is for water.
Gas lift efficiencies
The gas lift efficiencies [(theoretical G/O)/(actual G/O)] are low and range from
2 to 30% (average is about 12%). Energy losses occur in the following ways:
422
(a) Leakage
Leakage can occur in either the casing or tubing; however, it can usually be
prevented or remedied.
(b) Entrance and discharge losses

These losses, which are usually small, occur when fluids enter pipes of different
diameters.
(c) Slippage losses

Slippage losses occur in the lower portion of the eductor tube, caused by the
fluids dropping back through the ascending gas. The slippage losses can be reduced
by the use of foot pieces, which can be attached to the lower end of the eductor tube.
The use of foot pieces results in the attainment of .a more thorough or intimate
mixture of the circulated gas with the liquid to be lifted. This method, however, is
not very common now. Another method of controlling slippage losses is the
maintenance of high velocities in the lower end of the tubing (2 to 40 ft/sec).
(d) Friction losses

The greater portion of the friction’losses occur in the upper part of the eductor
tube. These losses ( hf ) can be controlled by changing the velocity of the fluid and
gas. The friction factor, f, is a function of the Reynolds number ( V d p / p ) , where
p = mass per unit volume, i.e., y / g , and p = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Velocity
in the upper end of the tube is about ten times greater than that at the lower end.
The head loss due to friction, h,,, is equal to f ( l / d ) ( V 2 / 2 g ) ,where 1 = length of
flowline in ft, d = diameter of flowline in ft, V = velocity of fluid in ft/sec, and
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec-sec). As greater velocities give lower
slippage but greater friction, slippage and friction losses should be balanced in order
to give a minimum total loss.
(e) Back pressure at discharge

Losses can occur when there is excessive high back pressure in the flowlines and
surface facilities.
Kick-off pressure (without valves)
Two important pressures in a gas-lift operation are: (1)kick-off pressure, and (2)
working pressure.
Kick-off pressure is the pressure (measured at the input gas line at the surface)
necessary to start the flow in a gas-lift well. It is the pressure required to “kick-off‘’
the well and begin movement through the flowline, when gas pressure alone is used
(no rocking). The kick-off pressure is a function of the method used to start flow. A
schematic of the pressure-time relationship for a typical gas lift well is presented in
Fig. 12-2.
423
Fig. 12-2. Pressure-time relationship for kick-off through tubing (without rocking). (1) Gas is first
introduced into annulus (any pressure). (2) Gas enters bottom of tubing. It begins to escape up the tubing
and consequently the pressure does not rise as fast from (2) to (3) as it does from (1) to (2). (3) Liquid
reaches the surface (kick-off pressure). (4) Oil standing in the well has been discharged and sufficient oil
has not yet entered the wellbore from the formation to attain working fluid level. ( 5 ) Steady state-con-
stant working pressure is achieved.
The kick-off pressure required for gas lift through tubing can be derived as
follows: Assuming that both tubing and casing are of constant cross-section:
S, x ~ / 4 (d: - d: + d 2 )= h ( 7774)d 2 (12-19)
and thus:
(12-20)
where S, = starting submergence in ft; d = i.d. of tubing in inches; d , = 0.d. of
tubing in inches; d , = i.d. of casing in inches; and h = height of the fluid without
gas in tubing in ft.
The pressures at the bottom of the casing, Pbc, at the top of the casing, p t c , and
at the top of the tubing, p t t , are related as follows:
Pbc +
= p t c A p , = p t t + 0.433Gh + A p t + A p , (12-21)
Assuming that the pressure of the column of gas in the casing, Ap,, is offset by the
sum of pressures due to the column of gas introduced into the tubing, A.pt, and the
pressure loss caused by the friction in the tubing, A p , , then the kick-off pressure,
P k o , is equal to:
Pko = P t c ' p a + 0.434Gh (12-22)

or
p k o = [0.434S,G(d:-d,Z+d2)]/d2 (12-19)
where G = specific gravity of well fluid, and p a = atmospheric pressure.
424
The kick-off pressure for gas lift through the casing, on the other hand, can be
calculated from the following formula:
p k o =[ 0 . 4 3 4 S s G ( d : - d : + d 2 ) ] / ( d : - d : ) (12-23)
The following methods were used to reduce the kick-off pressure: (1) Lowering
the head of the liquid in the tubing with a swab. (2) “Rocking” the well by applying
pressure alternately to the tubing and casing. As a result, the inertia of moving liquid
may allow gas to enter the tubing. (3) Utilizing a “stage kick-off” whereby the gas is
introduced into the eductor tube at progressively lower levels by surface activated
valves. (4) Kicking off through the casing. The common range of kick-off pressures
is around 300-1000 psig.
Gas volumes necessary for gas lift
The gas volumes necessary in gas lift operations are commonly around 1000-2000
cu ft/bbl, and range up to 12,000 cu ft/bbl. The volume input necessary to maintain
flow is a function of: (1) amount of formation gas produced with oil, (2) amount of
fluid to be lifted, (3) physical properties of fluids, (4) desired level of back pressure
on the formation, and (5) length and diameter of the eductor tube. Figure 12-3
shows the relationship between the pressure at the bottom of tubing and the gas
volume. If the volume of the introduced gas is too small, then the greater density of
the oil in the eductor tube and the slippage losses cause heading, resulting in higher
average operating pressures and lower efficiencies. On the other hand, if the volume
of gas introduced is too large, the friction losses can increase the operating pressure
and reduce production due to higher pressure at the rockface.
Greater gas volumes, higher operating pressures, and higher kick-off pressures are
required when the tubing is lowered and the submergence is increased. As the
diameter of the tubing is decreased, the friction loss and the operating pressure
increase, whereas the slippage and the required gas volume decrease.
-Effective
R a n g e-I ,
‘-Increase
to
in Pressure d u e
Friction
GAS VOLUME __t
Fig. 12-3. Relationship between pressure at bottom of tubing and gas volumes required to lift fluids
425
.
I-
LL
3
0
Gas O u t p u t
for Maximum-
3
n Production
\,Gas Output for M a x .

Liftin Efficienc
PRODUCTION, B B L 1 DAY
Fig. 12-4. Relationship between gas output and production.
Figure 12-4 illustrates the' relation between the output gas and oil lifted in gas-lift
operation of a well. Such a graph permits the choice of gas output for either the
maximum production or maximum lifting efficiency. Production would go to zero if
the bottom tubing pressure were equal to the formation pressure, and the density of
fluid were the same in the wellbore as it is in the formation. The tangent through the
origin would give the minimum slope in [(cu ft/min)/(bbl/day)]. Competition or
present value considerations may require maximum production rates, whereas a lack
of competition or proration may offer a choice between the maximum lifting
efficiency and maximum oil recovery. The maximum oil recovery is probably
obtained with a minimum gas/oil ratio, which is controlled by regulating the back
pressure on the formation (Fig. 12-4).
Fluid velocity in eductor tube
The fluid velocity in the eductor tube can be calculated from the following
formula:
where Vx= velocity in eductor tube at point x , ft/sec; qo = volume of oil produced,
cu ft/day; q,=volume of produced gas (measured at pressure p 2 ) , cu ft/day;
p 2 = discharge pressure, psia; p x = pressure at point x where velocity is measured,
psia; and A = area of flow tube, ft2.
426
Average density offluid in eductor tube
The average specific weight of fluid in the eductor tube, ya (lb/cu ft), can be
computed from the following formula:
ya = [(349G0) +(0.0029R’Gg(p, +p2))]/(5.61 + R’) (12-25)
where Go = specific gravity of oil at average well temperature; R’ = cu ft of gas

produced per bbl of oil at average pressure pa [ = 1/2( p1 + p z ) ] ; p1 = pressure at
bottom of tubing, psia; p z = discharge pressure, psia; and G,=gravity of gas
(referred to air = 1.0) at the discharge temperature and pressure.
Paraffin accumulation in wells operated by gas lift
Certain crude oils leave waxy deposits (paraffins) in the tubing or casing owing to
the gas expansion resulting in cooling. Inasmuch as most of the gas expansion occurs
in the upper portion of the well, most of the paraffin deposition occurs in this area.
More paraffin is deposited in the gas lift wells than in the flowing wells because of
the introduction of cold gas, as well. as extra gas expansion. Commonly, suspended
particles of inorganic silt serve as the nuclei around which the oil and water emulsify
to form a waxy deposit.
The methods of removing paraffins include the following: (a) intrpduction of gas
solvents, such as benzol, gasoline, and heavier distillates (frequently the solvent is
preheated in order to increase the solubility of the wax); (b) direct application of
heat in order to melt the wax; (c) preheating of the input gas; (d), use of scrapers to
mechanically remove the wax; and (e) use of explosives.
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF GAS LIFT
The mechanism used in the earliest air lift application (1864 in Pennsylvania) was
that of a two-pipe system, in which air was injected down one pipe and returned
through the second pipe at a shallower depth. The air returned to the surface
pushing some fluid ahead of it in the second pipe. The first United States Patent for
an “oil ejector” was issued in 1864 (Fig. 12-5). The use of gas lift in the U.S.A.
gained popularity in the Gulf Coast area, where it was necessary to lift large volumes
of fluid from shallow wells. Later, it was used in Louisiana and east Texas for
shallow wells, where large volumes of gas were available. Successful development of
many fields has been attributed to gas lift, such as the Evangeline Field in Louisiana
and the Smackover and Spindletop fields in east Texas.
Initially, gas lift was used as an intermediate production lift system after
termination of the natural flow period of the well and up to the time of sucker-rod
pump installation. The early method of gas lift was often referred to as “U-tube”
technique (see Fig. 12-6): a short string of tubing was inserted into the well and
427
FLOW LINE
-1
TUBING
CASING
Fig. 12-5. First United States patent (No. 47,793) for an “oil ejector” issued to A. Brear, May 23, 1865.
(After API, Vocational Training, 1965, p. 2, fig. 1-1; in: Brown, 1973, p. 182, fig. 8.1.)
higher-pressure gas was introduced either down the casing or down .the tubing. The
fluid level in the casing-tubing annulus was displaced to the bottom of the tubing,
when the gas was injected through the casing, and the gas escaping up the tubing
lifted fluid both by carrying it in the gas stream and as a result of “lightening” of the
fluid column with dispersed gas above the bottom of the tubing. If gas was injected
through the tubing, the fluid level would also be at the bottom of the tubing and the
FORMATION
OIL. WATER,
AND GAS
Fig. 12-6. U-tube type of gas lift. (a) Open-end tubing with gas being pumped down tubing and fluid
being produced through the casing. (b) Open-end tubing with gas being pumped down the casing annulus
and fluid being produced through the tubing.
428
moving fluid column in the annular space between the casing and tubing would be
lightened.
Although simple, this system was very inefficient and initially required a high
pressure to initiate the flow (" kick-off" pressure). The system pressure was lowered
after the beginning of the flow and lightening of the fluid column above the bottom
of the tubing. The problem of high "kick-off" pressure was solved by the develop-
ment of gas lift valves, which were placed in the tubing string at various levels
(successively lower injection points). They were successively uncovered by the
lowering of the fluid level in the annulus. The differential pressure between the
tubing and the annulus (through the valve) or the flow of gas through the valve
(depending upon the type of valve) causes each valve to close as flow begins through
the valve directly beneath it (Fig. 12-7).
In the middle thirties, the intermittent gas lift method was introduced as a
production method from a reservoir having relatively lower pressures. Initially, the
intermittent-type valve was operated by using a lever on the surface connected to a
wire extending to the valve on the tubing string. A timing device at the surface
activated a gas-driven piston, which pulled the lever arm and the wireline, opening
the particular valve. Usually, the valve in the tubing string was designed with a rod
that could pass in and out of the valve to control the open and closed positions. The
valve in the tubing consisted of one or two balls and seats, with the ball protruding
into the tubing as shown in Fig. 12-8. On passing into the valve, the rod forced the
ball off its seat, thus opening the valve. Disadvantages of this type of valves were:
(1) wireline could wear a hole in the tubing, (2) wireline was subject to corrosion and
frequently broke, and (3) the problems of unloading the fluid in the tubing. The
wireline-operated valve system became less popular with the advent of pressure-op-
erated valves, which are easy to operate.
-c FLOW LINE
CASING f GASIN
TUBING 4
DISK
VELO
CLOS
VA LV
OIL L E V Y .
STAN DIN G
VALVE
Fig. 12-7. One of the first types of kick-off valves developed in the 1930s. This type of valve is referred to
as " velocity-controlled". As the gas and liquid stream velocity increases, the valve is closed. (After Brown,
1973, p. 184, fig. 8.10.)
429
SECTION A - A
Fig, 12-8. Mechanically controlled valve. This valve was opened and closed by use of the wireline that
extends to the surface. (After Brown, 1973, p. 186, fig. 8.18.)
Gas lift terminology
The following terms are encountered in gas lift operations (refer to Fig. 12-9):
Gas lift: A method of lifting fluids which utilizes energy contained in compressed
gas to lift well fluids through an eductor pipe from a lower to a higher level. The
lifting of fluid using gas is achieved by one or a combination of the three following
processes: (1)work of expansion of the compressed gas, (2) aeration (lightening) of
the fluid column, and (3) displacement of the oil by compressed gas.
Lift, L: Vertical distance between the fluid level and level of discharge at the
surface.
Static fluid level: The level to which the fluid will rise in a wellbore under
conditions of pressure equilibrium.
Vertical static head, H,: Vertical fluid column distance between the static fluid
level and midpoint of perforations. It can be expressed in pressure units, e.g., psi.
Static submergence, S,: Vertical distance between the static fluid level and the
bottom of the tubing.
Working fluid level: Theoretical fluid level which is used in computing working
submergence and working lift, defined as the level to which the oil column would
rise behind the production string owing to the working pressure at the bottom of
tubing. It is assumed that the annulus behind the production string is connected by a
gas column to the surface discharge (Chilingar and Beeson, 1969).
430
(FLUID DISCHARGE
fi<h ,WATER
^..
STRING
^S _I K_I.N. .C_,
UIL
ST AT IC F L U I D L E V E L
W E
Fig. 12-9. Schematic diagram illustrating gas-lift terms (theoretical).
Working head, H,: Distance between the working fluid level and the midpoint of
perforations in the bottom producing interval of the well. It can be expressed as
pressure in psi, corresponding to the height of fluid column H,.
Working lift, L,: Distance between the working fluid level and the fluid discharge
point.
Working submergence, S,: Vertical distance between the working fluid level and
the bottom of the tubing ( L ,- L,). It is equivalent to the height of a column of well
fluid which would exert a pressure equivalent to the working bottom-tubing pressure
less the surface-discharge pressure and weight of the connecting gas column.
43 1
Total lift, L,: Sum of the working submergence ( S , ) and the working lift ( L,):
+
L, = ( L , S,).
Percentage working submergence: Working submergence ( S , ) divided by the total
lift ( L , )expressed as a percentage: [ ( S , / L , ) X 1001.
TYPES OF GAS LIFT
Generally, the subsurface gas-lift installations can be divided into three types: (1)
fluid discharge occurs up the tubing with gas being injected into the annular space;
(2) fluid discharge occurs up the annular space with gas being injected down the
tubing; and (3) there are two connected tubings, with gas being injected down one
and fluids being lifted in the other.
Fluid discharge up the tubing, as shown in Fig. 12-10.c, has the advantage of
higher lift efficiencies, and uses lower volumes of gas per barrel of fluid lifted. This
system requires a higher surface gas injection pressure than classes 2 or 3. Thus,
there is a higher back pressure on the producing formation with resultant reduction
in fluid flow from the formation. This system should not be utilized where the gas
injected down the tubing can be lost to low-pressure thief zones in the formation.
If the gas is injected down the tubing and fluids are lifted up the annulus (Fig.
12-10.d), larger volumes of 'injected gas are required compared to method 1, but the
surface injection pressures are lower. This method is discouraged in the presence of
H,S or air, because corrosion can occur in the casing. Corrosion problems are more
serious in this case, because it is much more difficult to repair casing than it is to
repair or replace tubing.
Fig. 12-10.Types of gas lift.

432
The method of utilizing two pipes, as shown in Fig. 12-10.e, is advantageous in

cases (1) where the downhole formation pressure is near the downhole injection
pressure, and (2) where holes in the casing or “thief zones” exist (above the bottom
of the tubing) that would take a large percentage of the injected gas. The gas, which
is injected down one tubing and lifted up the other, does not come in contact with
the formation.
Straight gas lift
Brown (1973) pointed out that the early methods of gas lift, which were com-
monly referred to as “U-tubing”, involved insertion of a short string of tubing into
the wellbore and injecting gas at a pressure exceeding that at the bottom of the
tubing. As the column of the fluid above the bottom of the tubing became lighter,
the required gas injection pressure became lower. Inasmuch as high pressures were
initially required to “kick-off‘’ the well, an operator had to install larger and more
costly compressors than required by later methods. After development of gas lift
valves (inserted in the tubing), the high “kick-off” pressures were no longer required.
A smaller compressor was required during production as the fluid was aerated in the
tubing in stages rather than in ope step. Due to its inefficiency, the “straight gas lift”
or “U-tube” system required large volumes of gas for lifting fluids.
The advantages of the U-tube system included: (1) few moving parts in the well;
(2) the compressors and other machinery were located on the surface so that all
repairs to the well equipment could be made on the surface; (3) handling of large
volumes of produced fluid; (4) the system was readily adaptable to automation; (5)
well cleanout work was seldom necessary because produced solids were carried to
the surface; ( 6 ) the system was adaptable to directionally-drilled (“crooked”) wells;
and (7) means of controlling back pressure under which the well is produced.
Disadvantages of gas lift include: (1)a large capital outlay for initial expenditures
for compressors and other surface equipment (however, salvage values also tend to
be high); (2) the creation of oil-gas-water emulsions which required more effort to
break; (3) aggravation of corrosion tendencies when H,S, water, or oxygen are
present; and (4) deposition of paraffins and/or asphalt in flowlines, due to cooling
effect of expanding gas.
As a result of gas injection in a continuous flow gas lift system, the density of the
fluid from the point of injection to the surface is reduced due to aeration. There is a
lightening of the flowing pressure traverse or gradient as shown in Fig. 12-11. The
pressure gradient is dependent upon the gas/liquid ratio ( G L R ) . With increasing
GLR, the pressure gradient for a given fluid becomes lighter. Upon reaching a
certain limit, however, any additional increase in gas injection results in a heavier
gradient because of head loss to friction caused by higher velocities. This limiting
gradient is called the “minimum gradient”.
Shaw (1949) studied the relationship between the gas injection rate and fluid
production rate (Fig. 12-12; see also Fig. 12-4). He noted that there was little or no
flow until the pressure of gas injected was sufficient to lift the wellbore fluids. The
433
Static Fluid
L e v e l , S.F.L.
Flowing Wellhead Tubing P r e s s u r e
C- Operating Casing P r e s s u r e . P,
PRESSURE -
- Flowing Gradient T r a v e r s e Above
The Paint of Injection
\\ \
Point of Injection
A/ Static Gradient, G s
Differential
Preasure
A c r o s s The
Valve
SBHP
Drawdown
Fig. 12-11. Example of static and flowing pressure gradient curves for a continuous flow gas lift.
(Courtesy of Macco, 1966a, p. 3, fig. 1.)
6, I I 1 1
I
NO FLOW
s’c----,
---.‘-. -
FLOW RATE, b b l / d a y
Fig. 12-12. Relationship between the gas output and production for a continuous-flow gas lift system.
(After Shaw, 1949; courtesy of Texas Eng. Exp. Star.)
434
maximum capacity represents the maximum amount of fluid that can be produced
per volume of gas injected. Beyond this point the efficiency lost due to increasing
friction is greater than that gained by a further reduction in slippage. After reaching
maximum capacity, further increase in gas injection reduces the fluid flow rate until
the point of no flow as shown in Fig. 12-12. This occurs when the flowing gas
pressure at the bottom of the tubing becomes equal to the reservoir pressure
(corrected for the static head differential between the bottom of the tubing and the
perforations).
Design of straight gas lift system
The initial steps in the design of continuous flow gas lift systems include
determination of (1) the point of gas injection, (2) gas volume required, and (3) the
injection pressure. The gradient curve is then prepared using the following data: (1)
desired fluid producing rate, BFPD (bbl/day); (2) size of tubing; (3) water/oil
ratio, W O R ; (4) gas/liquid ratio, GLR (cu ft/bbl); ( 5 ) flowing tubing pressure at
the surface, pwh(psig); (6) static bottomhole pressure, SBHP (psig); and (7) the well
productivity index, J (bbl/day/psig of drawdown; the latter is equal to the static
pressure minus the flowing pressure). In preparing the gradient curve, the flowing
gradient traverse is plotted below the point of injection using the flowing bottomhole
pressure, FBHP; production rate, BFPD; gas/liquid ratio, GLR; and water/oil
ratio, W O R (Fig. 12-13). The flowing gradient traverse above the point of injection
is plotted next starting with the flowing wellhead tubing pressure, using a reasonable
GLR. The point of injection is where this traverse intersects the traverse below
PRESSURE -
b
1 Flawing Gradient Traverse Below The

Point o i l n p c t i a n ( B a s e d o nthe Formation
0
FBHP SBHP
Fig. 12-13. Pressure gradient curve. This gradient is dependent upon the gas/liquid ratio of the well.
(After Macco, 1966a, p. 4, fig 3.) SBHP = static bottomhole pressure.
435
Flowing Tubing Wellhead Pressure, P,h

PRESSURE
r R e q u i r e d Injection G a s P r e s s u r e
1- T r a v e r s e Above The Point of Injection

( T o t a l G L R = F o r r n a t i o n t InjeCtiOnGaS)
Point a i Injection
T r a v e r s e B e l o w The P o i n t o f l n j e c t i o n
Diiie rential ( F o r m a t i o n Gas Only)
Press"*=
A c r o s s The
0
FBHP SBHP
I
Fig. 12-14. Plot of injection gas pressure gradient. (Courtesy of Macco, 1966a, p. 5, fig. 4.)
(Macco, 1966a). In Fig. 12-14, the injection gas pressure gradient is plotted, using a
sufficient pressure differential from casing to tubing to provide the injection gas
required. Normally, this differential varies from 40 to 60 psig, depending upon the
type of valve used. The following information can be obtained from Fig. 12-14: (1)
injection gas pressure at the surface, (2) point of gas injection, and (3) injection
GLR.
Valve spacing is determined next. It is necessary to keep in mind that productivity
index, J , data are not always reliable and, thus, the point of injection is better
determined from previous field experience in many cases. The second method
assumes a percentage drawdown (e.g., 50%), taking into consideration the bottom-
hole pressure decline, increase in water cut, and fluid load. The maximum point of
injection and/or deepest point of lift is influenced by these three variables.
Spacing between gas lift valves
The spacing between the gas lift valves is determined by a pressure balance
between casing and tubing:
DBV = Ap/Gr,, (12-26)
where DBV = distance between valves, ft; A p = differential pressure between casing
P
OI
W
w PRESSURE ____)
Producti
Casing Pressure
Fluid Being Transferred Into

Tubing Through Second Valve
Second V a l v e
Fourth Valve
-
Productio
PRESSURE
Casing Pressure
-*.
Gradient Shortly After Gas Begins

t o Enter Tubing at the Second Valve
( ~ r r o w h d i c a t s sDirection Curve
will shirt)
Second Valve
Third Valve
Fourth Valve
Fluid Being Transferred
Through Third
\
Fig. 12-15. Unloading operations. (a) Above the top valve. the fluid in the tubing is being aerated to the surface by injection gas a s the fluid in the annulus
continues to be transferred into the tubing through lower valves. (b) Injection gas is entering the tubing through the top and second valve. The gradient
becomes heavier (dotted line) immediately after the second valve is uncovered. The gradient lightens and shifts to the left (dark line), as more gas enters the
tubing. (Courtesy of Macco, 1966a. p. 7.)
P
W
4
438
and tubing at the valve, psig; and Gr,, = static fluid gradient, psi/ft. The schematic
diagram illustrating the uncovering of the second valve is presented in Fig. 12-15.
In order to derive the valve spacing equation (fluid-operated valves), it is assumed
that the injection gas pressure is equal to the tubing pressure at the moment of
Fig. 12-16. Illustration for spacing equations for tubing pressure operated valves. (Courtesy of Macco,
1966b, p. 21, fig. 7.)
439
uncovering of the valve. The general equation for determining the location of the gas
lift valve is as follows (see Fig. 12-16):
where DBV = distance between two valves, ft; pc at La = injection gas pressure at
the valve above, psig; P w h = wellhead tubing back pressure, psig; DVA = depth of
valve above, ft; SF = spacing factor, psi/ft; and Gr,, = fluid static gradient, psi/ft.
Generally, with increasing opening pressure of the valve for any given injection gas
pressure, the valves must be placed closer. Although with increasing wellhead back
pressure a smaller liquid column is required to operate the valve, this pressure does
not affect the valve spacing calculations. Spacing equations are derived on assuming
that the tubing pressure at the valve above will not decrease below the opening
pressure (OP)of the valve.
If a fluid is unloaded with no inflow of fluids from the formation, the following
method for determining spacing was proposed by Thrash and Brown (1965) to
obtain a wider spacing of valves: Distance between valves is equal to 1 ft per
increment of 1 psi of injection pressure. For example, if 600 psi injection pressure is
available, valves are spaced 600 ft apart. The test block opening pressures are
increased by an amount equal to the increase in casing pressure due to the weight of
the gas column, in order to keep a constant differential pressure across each
successively deeper valve. This method does not take into consideration the inflow
from the formation and/or liquid fallback. These can supply the added pressure
necessary to trip the top valve. The fallback, which is approximately 10% at the top
valve, increases with depth. Inasmuch as this is usually enough to open the valve
above, the system continues to unload. When the bottomhole pressure can deliver a
fluid head into the tubing sufficient to open the fluid valve at its proposed depth, all
remaining valves may be spaced by using the 1 ft/psi rule (Thrash and Brown,
1965). To compensate for the fallback and feed-in from the formation, it is also
possible to increase the tubing pressure to open the upper valve and unload the well.
Continuous flow gas lift (unbalanced valves) graphical design
After establishing the feasibility of gas lift, to design a continuous flow installa-
tion, the following information is required: (1) well depth; (2) tubing and casing
size; (3) required wellhead pressure (determined by the surface flowline size and
length-the produced fluids should be able to flow to the separators); (4) desired
producing rate and percent water cut; (5) injection gas gravity; (6) injection gas
pressure (operating gas pressure) and/or maximum volume of gas available; (7) well
inflow performance relationship and static bottomhole pressure, BHP;(8) bottom-
hole temperature, BHT,and geothermal gradient (or surface flowing temperature);
(9) oil, water, and solution gas gravities; (10) amount of solution gas; (11) formation
gas/liquid ratio, G/L,and formation fluid gradient; (12) kick-off pressure, p k o ;and
440
PRESSURE. D s i a
TEMPERATURE, 'F
Fig. 12-17. An example of graphical design for continuous flow gas lift (unbalanced valves). (See Example
12-1.)
(13) static kill-fluid gradient (minimum fluid gradient for the reservoir fluid plus gas
to stop flow).
The flowing bottomhole pressure is determined for the desired flow rate using the
inflow performance relationship. The formation fluid pressure gradient is plotted
using the flowing bottomhole pressure. The maximum operating gas pressure at the
surface, p,,, is then plotted and, using the gas gravity, the flowing injection pressure
in the casing is drawn (Fig. 12-17). The point of gas injection may then be
determined as the depth where a difference of about 100 psi exists between the
formation-pressure gradient line and the casing flowing injection-pressure gradient
line.
The actual well flowing-pressure gradient line can be drawn by connecting the
wellhead pressure to the point of gas injection on the formation-pressure gradient
line. Knowledge of the surface wellhead pressure, tubing size, well flow rate, depth
to the point of gas injection, and water cut enables the computation of the required
gas/liquid ratio, G / L , using the applicable vertical flow correlation (as described in
Chapter 9).
The injection gas rate, qig, required for the system is then computed by:
qig= [(G/L)vfc-(G/L)flql (12-28)
where ( G / L )vfc = G / L determined from the vertical flow correlation, scf/bbl;

(G/L),= formation G / L , scf/bbl; and q, = well liquid (oil plus water) flow rate,
bbl/day.
The casing static-pressure gradient line is drawn using the gas-pressure gradient
and the surface kick-off pressure. The design tubing-pressure gradient line represents
441
a safety factor on the actual flowing-pressure gradient line. It is drawn from the gas
injection point on the formation-pressure gradient line to a single surface pressure of
+
( P w h + 200) or ( Pwh 0.2pc0), whichever is greater.
The valve spacing determinations are then made by plotting the static kill-fluid-
pressure gradient lines on the graph beginning at the pwhand extending down the
hole (Fig. 12-17). The first line is drawn from Pwh to the casing pressure gradient
line, whereas all the successive lines are drawn from the tubing design pressure
gradient line to the flowing injection pressure gradient in the casing. The valve
depths are determined as the points of intersection with the flowing (or static, in the
case of the first valve) injection-pressure gradient in the casing.
At the valve depth, the pressure read on the tubing design-pressure gradient line
is the valve opening pressure in the tubing, pvt0,whereas the pressure on the casing
flowing injection pressure gradient line is the valve opening pressure, p v 0 , in the
casing. The valve can be selected for the desired spread or valve sizes can be
DEPTH, f t
OPENING PRESSURE OPPOSITE VALVE
Fig. 12-18. Dome pressure determination. (Modified after Thrash and Brown, 1965, p. 8, chart No. 2;
courtesy of Otis Engineering Corporation, Dallas, Tex.)
Determination of operating pressures (average) of Otis balanced gas-lift valves. Assumptions: (1)
natural gas charge = 0.60; (2) deviation is considered; (3) sp. gr. of lift gas (SG air = 1) = 0.65; (4)
wellhead temperature = 100OF; (5) effective temperature = [70°+(1.6 xdepth/100)]; (6) average tempera-
ture in the casing = (T, + T v ) / 2 = (100+ T.,)/2.
Sample calculation: Given dome setting at 80”F= 700 psig and well temperature at the valve = 200”F,
determine charge in the dome at 200OF.
(1) Select temperature on the right-hand vertical side (ZOOOF), (2) select dome setting at 80°F on the
diagonal lines (700 psig), (3) move horizontally to the left from the temperature (200°F) until intersecting
charged dome diagonal line (700 psig), (4) move vertically downward from this point to the bottom of the
chart, and (5) read the opening pressure opposite the valve - 903 psig. (Note: this chart should not be
used for a valve having a “spread”.) (Alsosee Kirkpatrick, 1955a.)
442
specified in some instances due to non-availability of other sizes or because of other

limitations such as casing-tubing clearance. A low spread is generally desirable.
The dome (or bellows) charge pressure at the valve depth, P d , , can be calculated
using the following relationship:
(12-29)
where R ( = A J A , ) , can be determined from Table 12-11 for different valve and port
sizes. The dome pressures at 60°F rack conditions can be determined using Fig.
12-18. The examples below serve to illustrate this procedure. The extra pressure
exerted by a gas column in a well can be determined from Fig. 12-19.
PRESSURE, psi/lOOO f t
Fig. 12-19. Estimation of the weight of gas column. (Modified after Thrash and Brown, 1965, p. 13, chart
No. 3; courtesy of Otis Engineering Corporation, Dallas, Tex.) Based on gas column weight/1000 ft
depth; wellhead temperature = 100'; geothermal gradient = 1.6°F/100 ft; surface temperature = 70'F;
effective temperature = 70°F+depthx 1.6°F/100; average temperature = [100+(70+(1.6 xdepth/100))]
: 2; A p (corrected) = A p (chart) [(chart avg. temp., 'R)/(actual avg. temp., OR)]. Pressure at the
valve = surface operating pressure+ gas column weight.
Procedure: (1) obtain SG of gas column; (2) mark surface pressure on the ordinate and proceed
horizontally to the right to the proper SG line; (3) proceed vertically downward from this intersection to
obtain the gas column weight in psi/lOOO ft; and (4) multiply the value obtained in (3) by the valve depth
in thousands of ft. (Note: also see Brown and Lee, 1968.)
Example 12-1
Given:
Static BHP = 2000 psi; oil production desired = 400 bbl/day with a 50% water
TABLE 12-11
Macco gas-lift valve specifications: a = fluid operated, b = casing pressure operated (courtesy of Macco Oil Tool ~nc.)
1-0..
Lks i g na t r o n
I I Bellows
Pvrt Sizes
Area -
onvenlmnal Rerrievabls sq. In. N ~ ~
port ~ ~
CaSl"8 ~ I Nominal Port Casing Nominal Port Casing
Port Area Efiecr (l -A p / A b ) Snee Area Effecl (I-Ap/~b! SIZC Area Effect ( l -A p / A b l
Slze(ln.) 2)
(1" Factor(%) (i",) (in.2) laclor(%) (&".I (1n.Z) Fa ct o r( % )
Fl ui d
Ope r a t e d CMO-FS CMOFS-AK 0.1246 118 0.0123 10. 8 0. 9013 118 0.0123 LO. 8 0.9013 '-10164 0.020 0.8393
CMOFS- BK
CM1-FS CMLFS-CK 0. 3189 3/16 0. 0302 10. 5 0 9053 118 0.0123 4.0 0.9614 . 114 0. 0554 0.8263
5/32 0.020 0.9373
CM2-FS CMZFS-RC 0.7096 114 0 0554 8.5 0. 9217 118 0.0123 1. 7 0.9826 . 5/16 0.0797 12.7 0.8877
5/32 0.020 0.9718
7/32 0.0394 0 9443
Mi"irn"rn I Other I:Maxirnurnl
Nominal Port Tubing

Apl Ab (l-*,/nb) Ap/Ab Port Area illcct (I-Ap/Ab)
- Size(&".) (m.2) Factor(%)
0.0947 0.9774 0.0226 > 9/32 0.0652 25.7 0.7957 0.2043

118 0.0123 4.0 0.9614 0 . 0386
10164 0.020 6.7 0.9373 0.0627
I3lbl 0.0340 11.9 0.8913 0 . Lob7
11/64 0.0394 14. I 0,8765 0. 1235
114 0.0554 21.0 08262 0.1718
0. 1123 0.9899 0.0101 318 0.1142 19.2 0 8191 0 1609
7/61 0.0098 1.4 0.9862 0.0138
8/64 0.0123 1.77 0.982b 0.0174
9/64 0,0161 2. 36 0.9770 0.0210
10164 0.020 2.9 0.9718 0. 0282
11/64 0.0243 3.55 0.9658 0.0142
12/64 0.0302 4.45 0.9571 0.0426
13/64 0.0340 5.05 0.9520 0.0480
14/64 0.0394 5.9 0.9444 0.055b
114 0.0554 8.48 0.9218 0.0782
1
-
444
cut; depth of perforations = 6500 ft; static kill-fluid-pressure gradient = 0.5 psi/ft;
J = 5.33 (based on total production); B H T = 160'F; flowing temperature at the
surface = 110'F; kick-off pressure = 1500 psi; maximum operating gas pressure =
1350 psi; gas gravity = 0.65; flowing wellhead pressure = 200 psi; formation G / L =
25 scf/ bbl; pressure gradient of reservoir fluid at G / L ratio of 25 (= 0.44 psi/ft);
tubing size = 2 in.; casing size = 4.5 in.; specific gravity of water = 1.04; and oil
gravity = 35'API. Assume 1-in. O.D. valves with 3/16-in. ports.
For a continuous flow gas lift system design, determine the following for this
well:
(a) Valve depths assuming 1-in. valves.
(b) Opening pressure in the casing for the valves.
(c) Opening pressure in the tubing for the valves.
(d) Dome pressures at the valve depths.
(e) Dome pressures at 60°F rack conditions.
(f) Gas injection rate required for the gas lift system.
Solution:
Thus, pwf= p R- q , / J = 2000-800/5.33 = 1850 psi. Using eq. 12-13, for p k o = 1500
psi at the surface, the kick-off pressure at a depth of 5500 ft (any depth less than
well depth can be taken) = 1680 psi.
For pco = 1350 psi at the surface, the operating gas pressure at a depth of 5500 f t
is equal to 1510 psi. The solution steps are as follows (see Fig. 12-17):
(1) Draw the formation fluid-pressure gradient of 0.44 psi/ft parsing through the
flowing BHP of 1850 psi.
(2) Draw the casing static column-pressure gradient and the flowing injection-
pressure gradient in the casing.
(3) Place the gas injection point at the depth where a difference of 100 psi exists
between the formation-pressure gradient line and the flowing injection-pressure
gradient in casing line. This occurs at a depth of 5500 ft. The tubing pressure at this
point is 1410 psi (as read on the formation-pressure gradient line).
(4) Use Fig. 12-20 to get a match for G / L ratio in the section of the tubing above
the point of gas injection. Iterate for G / L to satisfy the condition of pwh= 200 psi,
and pwf= 1410 psi at a depth of 5500 ft. On doing this, the best fit is obtained for a
G / L = 400 scf/bbl.
+
(5) pwh 200 = 400 psi
and
p w h + 0.2pco= 200 + (0.2)(1350) = 470 psi.
Use the greater value, i.e., p w h = 470 psi. Draw the tubing design-gradient line from
p = 470 psi at the surface (zero depth) to p = 1410 psi at a depth of 5500 ft.
(6) Draw top valve line from p w h = 200 psi with a gradient of 0.5 psi/ft.
(7) Draw further lines having a pressure gradient of 0.5 psi/ft between the design
445
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
VERTICAL F L O W I N G
PRESSURE G R A D I E N T S
-
(50% OIL 50% WATER)
Tubing Size 2 in. I.D.
Producing Rate 400 BblsJDay
Water Specific Gravib 1.074
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 120°F
Fig. 12-20. Vertical flowing pressure gradient for Example 12-1. (After Brown, 1973, fig. C-178; courtesy
of Petroleum Publishing Company.)
446
TABLE 12-111
Dome valve pressure data for Example 12-1
(a) (b) (C) (4 (el

Temp. Valve Open. press. Open. press. Dome press. Dome press.
(OF) depth in csg in tbg at BHT at 60°F
( ft) (Psi) (Psi) (Psi) (Psi)
131 2800 1430 950 1385 1202
140 3800 1460 1120 1428 1218
145 4500 1480 1250 1458 1232
148 5000 1490 1320 1474 1240
151 5400 1500 1390 1490 1246
152 5500 1510 1400 1500 1253
tubing-pressure gradient line and the casing injection operating-pressure gradient

line.
(8) Stop when next valve is below the injection point.
(9) Determine the valve depth, pvto, pvco, and temperature for each valve from
Fig. 12-17. For example, for the first valve, the depth to the valve= 2800 ft,
p,,(, = 950 psi, pvco= 1430 psi, and temperature from the temperature gradient
line = 131°F.
(10) From Table 12-11, for a l-in. O.D. valve with a port size of 3/16-in.,
R = A , / A , = 0.0947 and (1 - R ) = 0.9053. For valve No. 1, using eq. 12-29, the
dome pressure at the valve depth is equal to:
pd,= 1430 (0.9053) + 950 (0.0947) = 1385 psi

Similar calculations are performed for the other valves (No. 2-6).
(11) Use Fig. 12-17 to determine the dome pressures at 60°F rack conditions. The
answers (a) through (e) are listed in Table 12-111.
(12) Total liquid production = 400 bbl/day oil + 400 bbl/day water = 800 bbl/
day. G / L = 400 scf/bbl was obtained for the actual tubing flowing-pressure gradi-
ent line and the formation G / L = 25 scf/bbl. Therefore, the gas injection rate
required is 300 Mscf/day [ = (400 - 25) X 8001.
Example 12-2
Gioen:
Gas lift is proposed in a 7300-ft deep well with a formation G / L = 50 scf/bbl. A
wellhead pressure of 160 psig is to be maintained for allowing flow through surface
lines. The maximum amount of gas available is only 750 Mscf/day. Because of
existence of sufficient compressing capabilities, gas operating pressure is not a
limiting factor. The productivity index, J , of this well is 2.5 (based upon total liquid;
assume linear relationship) and the static bottomhole pressure = 2200 psig. Ad-
ditional data available is as follows:
441
PRESSURE, psig
400 000 12QO 1600

I l l
pco&
-TI
'
- 2000 -
c
3000-
I-
!i
w
0 4000-
5000t
6000
8000'
100 120 140
TEMPERATURE, O F
Fig. 12-21. Graphical solution for Example 12-2.
Kick-off pressure at surface = 1400 psig; oil production required = 500 bbl/day,
50% water cut; gas gravity (air = 1) = 0.65; surface temperature = 100°F; bottom-
hole temperature, BHT, at a depth of 7300 ft = 160°F; reservoir fluid-pressure
gradient (with G / L = 50) = 0.40 psi/ft; static kill-fluid-pressure gradient = 0.5
psi/ft; tubing size = 2 in.; casing size = 4.5 in.; valves are 1-in. O.D. with 3/16-in.
port size; specific gravity of water = 1.05; oil gravity = 35"API.
For an optimum continuous flow gas lift design for this well, determine:
(a) The valve depths.
(b) Opening pressure in the casing for the valves.
(c) Opening pressure in the tubing for the valves.
(d) Dome pressures at the valve depths.
Solution (refer to Fig. 12-21):
pWr= jjR - q / J = 2200 - (1000/2.5) = 1800 psi
(1) Draw a line for the formation fluid pressure gradient of 0.4 psi/ft, passing
through pwr= 1800 psi at a well depth of 7300 f t ( G / L = 50 scf/bbl).
(2) Use vertical flow correlation for 2-in. tubing and 1000 bbl/day liquid
production rate. Maximum gas available = 750 Mscf/day, or 750 scf/bbl. Plan to
use all this gas to maximize economics, i.e., to use the least number of valves.
Inasmuch as formation G / L = 50 scf/bbl, the flowing tubing G / L = 750 + 50 = 800
scf/bbl. Thus, G / L = 800 must be used on vertical flow correlation. pwh= 160 psig.
At any depth, e.g., 6500 ft, pressure = 1400 psi from correlation. Using this, draw
the actual flowing gradient line. The formation-pressure gradient and the actual
flowing-pressure gradient lines intersect at a depth of 6100 f t (at 1320 psi).
448
TABLE 12-IV
Example 12-2 data on valve opening pressure in the casing and tubing
Valve No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A. Valve depth (ft) 2700 3750 4550 5150 5600 5975 6100
B. Opening pressure
in casing (psig) 1310 1340 1370 1390 1405 1415 1420
C. Opening pressure
in tubing (psig) 805 965 1085 1175 1250 1300 1320
(3) At 6100 ft, flowing injection gas pressure = 1320 + 100 = 1420 psig or 1435
psia. This pressure, p,,, is equal to: p v = p s exp[(0.01875GgD)/(2T)] (see eq. 12-14),
where p\ = pressure at the surface. Use Gg = 0.65, pc = 668 psia, and = 375"R.
Assuming pa\ = (1435 + 1315)/2 = 1375 psia and T = (100 + 150)/2 = 125°F or
585"R, then pr = 1375/668 = 2.06; Tr= 585/375 = 1.56; and 2 = 0.84. Thus p s =
1435 exp[( - 0.01875 X 0.65 x 6100)/(0.84 X 585)] = 1233.5 psia or 1219 psig ( = pco).
(4) pko= 1400 psig. Assume p = (1415 + 1535)/2 = 1475 psia, pr = 1475/668 =
2.21; and 2 = 0.83. pdeplh = 1415 exp[(0.01875 X 0.65 X 6100)/(0.83 X 585)] = 1649
psia or 1634 psig. The casing static column-pressure gradient line and flowing
injection in casing pressure gradient line can now be drawn (Fig. 12-21).
(5) P u h + 200 = 160 + 200 = 360 p i g . puh + 0.2pc0 = [160 + (0.2)(1219)] = 404
psig. Inasmuch as the larger value is to be selected, the design pressure would be 404
psig. Then the design pressure gradient can be drawn (Fig. 21-21) and the system
design completed (see Table 12-IV).
TABLE 12-V
Example 12-2 data on dome valve pressure
A B C D
Valve depth Opening pressure Opening pressure Dome pressure
(ft) in casing in tubing at valve temperature
(psig) (PSM (PW
2700 1310 805 1262
3750 1340 965 1304
4550 1370 1085 1343
5150 1390 1175 1370
5600 1405 1250 1390
5975 1415 1300 1404
6100 1420 1320 1411
449
For a 1-in. O.D. valve and 3/16-in. nominal port size, R = 0.0947; (1 - R ) =
0.9053; pdt= p,,,(l - R ) +pvtoR= 0.9053p,,, + 0.0947 pvto.Table 12-V can then be
prepared.
Intermittent gas lift
The intermittent gas lift system involves expansion of a high-pressure gas bubble
or slug ascending to a low-pressure outlet (5ee Fig. 12-22). Complete pressure and
volume expansion control of gas entering the tubing is handled by a valve with a
large port. It either regulates the lift of the accumulated fluid head above the valve
with a maximum velocity to minimize slippage, or controls liquid fall back by fully
ejecting it to the tank with minimum amount of gas. Intermittent gas lift is often
used in conjunction with a surface time controller (intermitter).
In general, the intermittent gas lift method is used on wells producing low volume
of fluid and having high productivity index ( J ) and low bottomhole pressure
( B H P ) , or low productivity index and high bottomhole pressure. As pointed out by
Neely et al. (1981), intermittent gas lift is an excellent choice when an adequate,
good-quality, low-cost gas supply is available and it is intended to lift a relatively
shallow, high GOR, low J , or low BHP well with a bad dog-leg and, possibly,
producing some sand.
The efficiency of the intermittent gas lift system depends primarily on the degree
of injection gas breakthrough and liquid fallback, which should be minimal. A
greater drawdown pressure can be achieved using an intermittent gas lift system.
Production rates below 250 bbl/day and J values of 0.5 bbl/day-psi are considered
to be in the range of intermittent gas lift (Thrash and Brown, 1965).
Design of intermittent gas lift system
Maximum production rate by intermittent gas lift is affected by the following

factors: (1) injection pressure; (2) depth of lift; (3) tubing capacity; (4) injection gas
volume; (5) injection gas breakthrough and liquid fallback; (6) wellhead tubing back
pressure; (7) productivity index; (8) bottomhole pressure buildup characteristics; (9)
well conditions, such as presence of emulsions and paraffins; and (10) gravity of
crude oil. Productivity index, bottomhole pressure buildup, the characteristics of
intermittent lift system (cycles/day, and volume of fluid lifted per cycle) determine
the maximum producing rate for the intermittent well. Injection cycle time can be
calculated as follows: (1) size load of gross liquid, L, in bbl/cycle; (2) cycles/day =
(bbl/day)/(bbl/cycle) = cycle frequency; (3) 1440 min/day: cycle frequency =
operating cycle, min/cycle = 1.5 minutes (L)/lOOO ft, where L = depth of lift, ft.
For determining the maximum volume of fluid produced per cycle, Macco
(1966b) proposed the following empirical method:
(1) The starting slug volume (in bbl) at the top valve, V,, is equal to:
V, = [<poi- ~ h ) ( Q t ~ ) / G r s W ] (12-30)
e
0
(A) Fluid F r o m Formation Has (B) P r e s s u r e Due To Fluid (C) Liquid Slug Being Lifted (D) Liquid Reaches The Surface A s
Built Up Above The Bottom Head Opens The Bottom By Injection G a s Entering Injection Gas E n t e r s The Tub-
Fluid Operated Valve. Valve And G a s Is Injected The Tubing Through T h r e e ing Through Open Valves.
Under The Slug. Valves Below The Slug.
Fig. 12-22. Intermittent gas lift cycle of operation for tubing-operated valves. (Courtesy of Macco. 1966b. fig. 1 , p. 4.)
451
where I/, = starting slug volume, bbl; Q,, = tubing capacity, bbl/ft; Gr,, = static
gradient of well fluid, psi/ft; and pol = opening pressure of the first valve, psi.
(2) The produced slug volume, V, (in bbl/cycle) may be estimated from the
following relationship:
Vp = 0.90V, (12-31)
(3) The estimated maximum production rate, Q,, in bbl/min is equal to:
Q, = VpFc, (12-32)
where c,= cycle frequency, min/cycle.

The produced slug volume, V,, calculated using eq. 12-31, is used as the
producing slug volume attainable at each succeeding depth. The basic assumption is
that all formation gas is produced between cycles and the gradient is essentially that
of the fluid alone. The starting slug volume, V,, increases with depth owing to an
increase in valve operating pressures, p,,. The difference between the starting and
produced slug volumes is assumed to be the volume of “fallback” (Macco, 1966b).
Gas is injected at regular intervals by the intermitter in the case of intermittent
gas lift. The intermitter is a motor valve which operates by a connecting timer device
that permits selective cycling with controlled gas injection into the casing annulus.
The cycle time is adjusted in accordance with the fluid fill-in rate from the
producing formation into the wellbore.
When the surface intermitter is not used, a valve is required that is somewhat
more fluid sensitive than the surface valve and requires a built-in “spread”.
Sensitivity of the valve can become a disadvantage in some cases. For example,
problems arise when the wells must be lifted into restrictive flowlines or against
surface chokes. In some other cases, however, this valve has definite advantages, e.g.,
in some rotative compressor systems.
The main difference between the intermittent lift and continuous flow system is
that in the former a liquid slug must build up before gas is injected underneath the
slug. The slug is thus propelled to the surface. There is a great variation in the
flowing bottomhole pressure during the period between the injection of gas under-
neath the slug and delivery of the slug at the surface.
The use of one large-ported valve to accomplish the lift cycle may result in
minimum amount of required gas and maximum fluid recovery. This operating valve
is usually the deepest valve exposed to gas in the casing annulus. The valves above,
whch are referred to as the unloading valves, enable unloading of well fluids using
the existing gas pressure. In the case of intermittent gas lift in water-drive reservoirs,
the lowest valve is not always the operating valve. Other valves are also installed for
future use, because the point of operation moves down as the well pressure declines.
The increase in water cut may also necessitate working further down the well
(Macco, 1966b).
452
PIoTURN
N TUBING TO CLOSE
e
43-43 -TUBING
Fig. 12-23. Jet collar. (After Brown, 1973, fig. 8.8, p. 184; courtesy of the Petroleum Publishing
Company.)
GAS LIFT EQUIPMENT
Jet collars and orifice inserts
Two types of artificial chokes were developed in an effort to reduce the high
initial “ kick-off” pressures, required in “straight gas lift” systems: (1) orifice chokes,
whch could be placed in tubing; and (2) jet collars, which could be opened and
closed by turning the tubing from the surface.
The jet collar (Fig. 12-23) consists of two tight-fitting concentric tubes, with a
hole drilled through each one of them. On “lining-up” the holes, the system is
opened and fluids (oil, water, and gas) flow from inside the tubing to the outside.
Upon closing, the holes are not “lined-up’’ and gas cannot communicate or pass
through the openings to the tubing-casing annulus. Jet collars, however, often stick
and cannot be completely closed. When this occurs the tubing has to be pulled and
the valve repaired.
In order to reduce the kick-off pressures, holes were placed in the tubing string at
selected intervals. This method was workable; however, the holes in the tubing could
not be closed or plugged later and, thus, there was a loss of injected gas at each
opening. Using a tool which was run on wireline down the tubing string, the holes
were shot (or punched) at the desired depths. Inasmuch as after the fluid level was
lowered below a certain point the orifice would only circulate the gas without
helping to lift the fluids, it was important to keep the holes small. As a result, large
volumes of gas were required to lift the fluid and the gas usage was inefficient. The
backflow and turbulence created at each orifice aggravated erosion and corrosion,
which enlarged the orifice further. This resulted in the additional reduction of the
efficiency.
453
---c FLOW LINE

t GAS I N
-TUBING-
FLAPPER TYPE
SPRING
\
Fig. 12-24. Flapper type spring valve. (After Brown, 1973, fig. 8-11, p. 185; courtesy of the Petroleum
Kick-off values
With the development of kick-off valves, the upper holes in the tubing string
could be closed and the volume of required cycled gas was reduced. The upper holes
could also be reopened in the case where it was necessary to lift the fluid again at
that level or kick-off the fluid again if the well was shut-down. After an initiation of
flow, the valve was designed to close. The principle of operation of velocity-con-
trolled valves, which were popular in the 1930s, is that the increased flow velocity of
gas and liquids would close the valve (Fig. 12-7). As the upper valve was closed, the
lower valve exposed to low fluid velocities remained open until reduction in velocity.
The valve was not retrievable by wireline and was generally set in the middle of the
tubing string.
A second type valve developed during the same period was the flapper type
(spring) valve (Fig. 12-24). This valve incorporated a flapper type spring that
operated under a differential pressure of 15-20 psi. Although, in general, these
valves operated well in the case of continuous flow, they often experienced mechani-
cal problems that resulted in their replacement by the flow type valves.
Flow type values
The flow type valve (Fig. 12-25) is similar to the orifice valve, but the valve closes
as it is uncovered by fluids and remains closed until fluids again cover it. This type
of valve reduces the volume of circulating gas that does not contribute to the lifting
of fluids. The flow valves gave a greater control over “kick-off‘’ pressures than the
previously-designed valves. Flow valves include (1) spring-loaded differential valves
(Fig. 12-25), (2) mechanically-controlled valves, and (3) pressure-operated valves.
454
FLOW LINE
Fig. 12-25. Spring-loaded differential valve. (After Brown, 1973, fig. 8-15, p. 186; courtesy of the
Petroleum Publishing Company.)
Wireline retrievable valves have been continuously improved since the 1930s. Ini-
tially, the valves were set in center of the tubing and replacement of the valve
necessitated a costly tubing pulling. Tubing with offset mandrel pockets were
developed later to hold these valves. This allowed replacement of the valves in the
tubing string by a much less costly wireline pulling job.
Differential valves
According to Brown (1973) spring-loaded differential-pressure valves (Figs. 12-25

and 12-26) were introduced in 1934. This type of valve incorporates a
differential-pressure spring to hold the mechanism in an open position (Fig. 12-26).
The differential-pressure for each valve can be set individually and ranges from 100
to 150 psig. When the pressure falls below the set value, the valve closes. Brown
(1973) pointed out that due to mechanical problems of sticking, etc., this type of
valve requires a great deal of attention. The initial operation of the lift system can be
erratic until the proper valve settings are determined from experience. This type of
valve is best suited for continuous flow systems and is not applicable to intermittent
lift.
Mechanically-controlled valves
A mechanically controlled valve was developed in the mid-1930s (see Fig. 12-8)
for wells that did not need continuous help in lifting fluids, but rather only periodic
assistance. A timing device activates the mechanism which pulls the wireline oper-
ated from the surface and, thus, opens the valve down in the tubing. Often, a
gas-driven piston at the surface is connected to the wireline. A rod is positioned at
the bottom of the wireline so as to pass in and out of the valve. On entering the
valve, this rod pushes against the seated ball, and opens the valve to fluid flow. As
455
Fig. 12-26. Bryan differential valve. (After Brown, 1973, fig. 8.16, p. 186; courtesy of the Petroleum
the rod is pulled back, the ball is reseated and the valve closes. Brown (1973) pointed
out that although this type of valve was efficient, the wireline would often break due
to corrosion or metal fatigue. The wireline also could cause other problems such as
wearing a hole in the tubing. Development of pressure-type valves eliminated much
of the need for surface-operated mechanically-controlled valves.
Pressure valves
The pressure-differential (or specific gravity) valve was introduced in 1940. A

flexible diaphragm in this type of valve is open to the tubing-casing annulus
pressure on one side and tubing pressure on the other (Fig. 12-27). Figure 12-27.A
shows the valve in an open position whereas Fig. 12-27.B shows it in a closed
position. As the fluid column height above the valve exceeds 10-16 ft, sufficient
pressure is exerted to hold the valve open. Thus, gas injected down the tubing will
circulate out of the orifice and aerate (lighten) the fluid column above the valve. The
valve closes when the fluid column height drops below 10-16 ft. As a result, gas will
no longer circulate through that orifice and is forced down to the next lower valve.
The valve can open again at a later time if the fluid level rises and the valve is again
covered by fluid. Brown (1973) pointed out that the valve has proven to be an
456
PROWCTION
(A) Valve closed (B) Valve open
Fig. 12-27. Specific gravity differential valve. (After Brown, 1973, fig. 8-19, p. 186; courtesy of the
Petroleum Publishing Company.)
excellent one; however, it tends to be bulky and is applicable primarily to the

continuous and not intermittent lift systems.
Pressure-charged valves
There are two widely used types of pressure-charged valves, the rubber element
and bellows types. In principle these valves operate similarly. The opening and
closing pressures of bellows-type valve are different, w h c h is referred to as “spread”.
Inasmuch as different manufacturers have included various modifications and
improvements in the valve design, the design of these valves varies widely.
As pointed out by Thrash and Brown (1965), the force holding the valve open
(Fig. 12-28) is equal to:
f c = pd (12-33)
whereas the force acting to open the valve is equal to:
F, = Pc( A , -A,) + P,A, (12-34)

457
Fig. 12-28. Bellows valve schematic. (After Thrash and Brown, 1965, fig. 5 , p. 21; courtesy of Otis
Engineering Corporation.)
Inasmuch as in a balanced condition the forces are equal to each other:
where Pd = pressure in the dome, psia; A , = area of piston or bellows, in2; P, =

pressure necessary to open the valve, psia; A , = area of valve seat, in2; and
P, = pressure in tubing, psia. Solving for P,:
(12-36)
and substituting R for A . / A , :
(12-37)
where R = ratio of the area of the seat of the valve to that of the bellows.
In the case of intermittent gas type valve, it opens widely when the operating
pressure is reached and gas is injected underneath the liquid column (above the
valve) lifting the fluid column in the tubing-casing annulus. Consequently. as
pointed out by Thrash and Brown (1965), it is important to have a large port size in
the gas valve in order to allow a large volume of gas to pass through the orifice as
quickly as possible. As a general rule, the minimum opening for such a valve is 1/2
in. The exact size of the valve seat can be selected to yield the desired pressure
spread.
458
Estimation of horsepower required to compress gas
In order to compare gas-lift with other methods of lift, as discussed in other

chapters, the engineer needs to determine the approximate horsepower requirements
in order to estimate the gas compression costs. The following is a simplified
approach developed by Gilbert (1954). As he pointed out, it should be used as an
approximation only. The temperature of the gas injected into the well (power gas),
due to the low specific heat of the gas, is controlled by well temperatures at points of
application. The gas-rate requirements are usually estimated at standard conditions.
The gas horsepower required for the gas-lift is:
H , = p , Q , ( k / ( k - l))[(p2/pl)(k-1)'k - 11 :550 (12-38)
where p , = discharge pressure, psfa; p 2 = bottom of tubing pressure (initial), psfa;

Q, = volumetric rate of flow of gas, cu ft/sec, measured at p , .
For a wet gas with a k = 1.25, this formula may be stated as:
[
H p = 0.223M ( p 2 / p 1 ) o ' 2- I] (12-39)
where M = Mcf/day at 14.7 psi. According to Gilbert (1954), this is the horsepower
upon whch quotations should be based with the given (1) pressure ratio, (2) input
gas temperature, and (3) input pressure. It may be from 20 to 40% lower than the
manufacturers's brake-horsepower ratings depending upon the deviation from Boyle's
law, the auxiliaries used, and the overall plant efficiency attained. Figure 12-29
shows the relationships discussed.
0.25-
0.20 -
0.15-
-
0.00'
1.5 2
I I I
4
I ' I "
6 810
I I
20
' I
30
'-
50
P2/Pl RATIO
Fig. 12-29. Estimated gas-horsepower requirements for gas lifting. (After Gilbert, 1954, fig. 22, p. 141.)
k -1.25; p z = compressor outlet pressure, psia; p 1 = compressor input pressure, psia.
459
CONCLUSIONS
Gas lift, where applicable, offers many advantages over other lift systems. Several
of these advantages were listed by Thrash and Brown (1965): (1) relatively low
installation and maintenance costs where high-pressure gas is readily available, (2)
low lifting costs, (3) ability to handle a wide range of production rates without great
changes in production equipment, (4) simplicity of operations, (5) ability to handle
small volumes of sand and other erosive materials, (6) easily adapted to central
operation and automated controls, (7) adaptable to deviated holes, (8) cleanout of
the wellbore is seldom necessary, and (9) there are few moving parts that can
breakdown. The disadvantages of the system become pronounced when there is no
adequate volume of high-pressure, low-cost gas - compressors must be installed
and maintained. In addition, corrosion is augmented and paraffin and/or asphalt
deposition in flowlines is intensified for a gas-lift system as compared to other lift
systems.
Thrash and Brown (1965) offered the following thirteen rules of thumb for gas-lift
installations:
(1) Gas volumes required: (a) continuous flow - 150 to 250 scf/bb1/1000 f t of
lift; (b) intermittent flow - 250 to 400 scf/bb1/1000 f t of lift.
(2) Pressure required: 100 psi per 1000 ft of depth; up to 800 psi with a minimum
pressure of 300 psi.
(3) Allowable continuous flow depth (ft) = [( pc - p,)/0.15], where pc = casing
pressure, psia, and pt = tubing pressure, psia.
(4) Slug velocity for intermittent lift = 1000 ft/min.
(5) Minimum time (min) required for intermittent cycles = 1.5 X depth.
(6) Gas volume used per cycle, Q,/cy, on intermittent lift = (drop in pressure on
casing, psia) (storage volume in casing, cu ft) : 15.
(7) Approximate maximum rates possible from tubing sizes under normal lift
conditions (continuous lift) are as follows:
Tubing size (in.) Maximum volume (bbl/day)

3; 5000
3 4000
2; 3000
2 2500
1; 1000
1; 600
1 350
4 8 ) Productivity index, J, which is equal to:
J = kh/p., B,
where k = formation permeability, darcies; h = formation thickness, ft; p o = oil
viscosity, cP; B, = oil formation volume factor.
460
(9) Approximate production rate to change from intermittent flow to continuous

flow under normal conditions for straight tubing:
Tubing size (in) Production rate (bbl/day)
3 300
2; 250
2 200
1; 75-125
1: 50-75
1 25-50
(10) Weight of the gas column, Wg= (2.5 X l o p 5 ) ( p , D ) where p , = casing

pressure, psia, and D = vertical depth, ft.
(11) Dome pressure charged unbalanced gas lift valve - valve set at 60°F will
have a surface operating pressure at 60°F. The effects of gas column weight and
tubing effect are essentially offset by the temperature effect.
(12) Normal pressure in psi expected in a new well is equal to (0.465 X D ) , where
D = vertical depth in ft.
(13) Normally, temperature expected at a certain depth in a new well along Texas
and Louisiana coasts (U.S.A.) is equal to [74"F + (1.6"F/100 ft) X D ft].
Gas lift is a proven method of artificial lift which requires a relatively high-pres-
sure gas (minimum pressure of 250 psi). It is very flexible; for example, if designed
properly, it may produce 60 bbl/day as well as 1100 bbl/day. The maximum
efficiency is acheved when field operating personnel are properly trained to recog-
nize (and report) the " trouble signs". Continuously checking the behavior of casing
and tubing pressure is of utmost importance. The writers strongly recommend that
interested readers consult the classical work of Mach and Brown (1980) for further
details.
SOLUTION O F SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
Problem 1
The following average data are given for a well which is produced by continuous
gas lift through the tubing: (a) bottom of tubing, 6120 ft, (b) pressure at bottom of
tubing during gas lift, 825 psig, (c) pressure at top of tubing during gas lift, 105 psig,
and (d) specific gravity of well fluid, 0.875.
Compute the work of expansion and the number of cubic feet of gas (measured at
105 psig) required to lift each barrel of well fluid for (1)isothermal expansion with
100% efficiency; (2) adiabatic expansion with 100% efficiency; and (3) isothermal
expansion with percentage efficiency assumed to be equal to the percentage working
submergence.
461
Assumption-The increase in absolute pressure of gas in casing is 2.9% (not

compounded) per 1000 f t of depth.
Solution
L, =L - s,
p2 i- 15
L - s,
+ ( pz + 15) [ 1000 1 x (0.029) + 0.434 GS, = p, + 15
6120 - S,
105 + (105 + 15) j(0.029) + 0.434 x 0.875 S, = 825 psig
S , = 1858 f t
L, = 6120 - 1858 = 4262 ft

Isothermal work of expansion:
W = 332 pz log,, = 3 3 2 X 120log,, ( 120

840) = 33,700 ft-lb/cu ft
Adiabatic work of expansion:

144 x 1.27 x 120 [(7)!A??
W=
0.27 - ]
1.27 - 1 - 41,700 ft-lb/cu f t
349 G L,
Q=
349 X 0.875 X 4262
(1) Qi= 33,700 = 38.7 cu ft/bbl
(3) % efficiency = % S, = -
1858 X 100 = 30.3%
6120
38.7
Q = -= 127.5 cu ft/bbl (with gas measured at 105 psig)
0.303
Problem 2
The following average data are given for a well being produced by continuous gas
lift through the tubing: (a) bottom of tubing, 6570 ft, (b) static pressure at the
bottom of tubing, 1715 psig, (c) gross productivity index, 2.75 (bbl/day)/psi, (d)
pressure at top of casing during gas lift, 975 psig, and (e) pressure at top of tubing
during gas lift, 65 psig.
462
Find: (a) pressure at the bottom of tubing during the gas lift, (b) gross liquid
production rate, and (c) average tubing pressure gradient during the gas lift.
Assumption-The increase in absolute pressure of the gas in the casing is 2.5% (not
compounded) per 1000 f t of depth.
Solution
(a) p 1 = 990 + 0.025 X 6570 X 990 = 1152 psia or 1137 psig

1000
(b) q = 2.75(1715 - 1137) = 1590 bbl/day
p1 - p 2 1137 - 65
(c) Average tubing pressure gradient = - = 0.1632 psi/ft.
L 6570
~
Problem 3
This problem concerns 11 wells, all with a tubing depth of 5800 ft and J = 1.0.
The following information is given for the month of June:
Well no. Oil Gas Casing pressure Tubing pressure

(bbl/mo) (Mcf/mo) (Psi& (PW
1 11,800 15,000 1200 550
2 13,700 7400 1860 460
3 11,900 25,000 1080 650
4 13,500 8000 1580 520
5 11,800 15,200 1200 550
6 12,500 7000 1520 290
7 13,900 6500 1770 5 80
8 12,900 9500 1630 460
9 12,800 7500 1180 730
10 12,900 8900 1610 440
11 13,800 8400 1560 5 80
Solve for (1) flowing pressure at the bottom of the tubing, (2) static pressure, and
(3) gradient in the tubing (av) in psi/lOOO ft.
Plot the average gradient versus gas/oil ratio (G/O, R, or GOR).
Assuming that static pressure is declining at 20% per year and that there is no
change in the gas/oil ratio, when will each well cease to flow? (The limiting factor is
not less than 300 Mcf per day. Use the compound interest concept.) Geothermal
gradient = 2 O F/ 100 ft; G / Z = 0.84.
463
Sample solution (Well No. 10)
GL
53.3XZX T
Pbc =Ptc
0.84
-- X 5800
1625 53.3X.578
= 1905 psia or 1890 psig
Pbc =
p,, = 430 + 1905 = 2335 psia

where J = productivity index; pWs= bottomhole pressure, static; pe = external
boundary pressure; p b c = pressure at bottom of casing; p , = bottomhole pressure,
general; p w f= bottomhole pressure, flowing; q = production rate.
1890 - 440
(3) Tubing gradient = = 250 psi/lOOO ft
5.8
(4) GOR= 8900 ‘Oo0 = 690 ft3/bbl

12,900
(5) Min gas = 300 Mcf = [ ~ ~ ~ ( 0 -. P8t u)b ”, c o l , ] J X GOR
300,000 = [2335(0.8)”- 1450]1 x 690
solving for n :
n = 0.93 years
SAMPLE PROBLEMS A N D QUESTIONS
(1) Define “Working Fluid Level”, “Working Submergence”, and “Percentage

Working Submergence”.
( 2 ) Explain why more “paraffin” is formed in gas-lift wells than in pumping
wells.
(3) List the advantages and disadvantages of gas lift.
(4) Explain the different types of gas expansion.
(5) List the sources of energy loss in gas-lift operations.
( 6 ) List the methods which are used in removing “paraffin”.
464
(7) Given the following average data for a well being produced by continuous gas
lift through tubing:
(1) bottom of tubing = 8230 ft;
(2) pressure at top of casing = 925 psig;
(3) pressure at top of tubing = 130 psig; and
(4) specific gravity of well fluid = 0.816.
Assume:
(a) increase in absolute pressure of gas is 2.4% (not compounded) per 1000 ft;
(b) work done is 332 p z log,, ( p 1 / p 2 )ft-lb per cu ft of gas measured at p z
(psia); and
(c) percentage efficiency = 100.
Compute the work of expansion and the volume of gas (measured at 130 psig)
required to lift each barrel of well fluid.
(8) Given the following average data for a well being produced by continuous gas
lift through tubing:
(1) bottom of tubing = 7460 ft;
(2) static pressure at bottom of tubing = 1825 psig;
(3) gross productivity index = 2.35 (B/D)/psi;
(4) pressure at top of tubing during gas lift = 105 psig; and
(5) tubing-pressure gradient during gas lift = 0.145 psi/ft.
Assume the increase in the absolute pressure of the gas is 2.7% (not compounded)
per 1000 ft.
Find:
(a) pressure at bottom of tubing during gas lift;
(b) gross-liquid production rate; and
(c) pressure at top of casing during gas lift.
(9) Given:
Well No. Oil Gas Casing Tubing J Tubing

(Mcf/M) pressure depth pressure
(PSid (ft) (PSk)
5 11,800 15,200 1200 5800 1.o 550
Assume that static pressure is declining at 20% per year (no change in G/O
ratio), and use compound interest concept. Limiting factor is not less than 300 Mcf
per day. At what time will the well cease to flow? T/dL = 2"F/100 ft; G / Z = 0.84;
surface temperature = 60°F.
(10) Derive kick-off pressure for gas through casing.
For additional problem assignments see the classical work of Brown (1973).
REFERENCES
Brown, K.E., 1973. Gas Lift Theoiy and Practice. The Petrol. Publ. Co., Tulsa, Okla,, 924 pp.
Brown, K.E. and Beggs, H.D.. 1977. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. I. PennWell, Tulsa,
Okla., 487 pp.
465
Brown, K.E. and Lee, A.L., 1968. Easy-to-use charts simplify intermittent gas lift design. World Oil, (Feb.
1): 44-50.
Craft, B.C., Holden, W.R. and Graves, Jr., E.D., 1962. Well Design; Drilling and Production. Prentice-Hall,
Chilingar, G.V. and Beeson, 1969. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New York,
N.Y., 397 pp.
Gilbert, W.E., 1954. Flowing and gas-lift well performance. API Drill. Prod. Prac., pp. 126-157.
Kirkpatrick, C.V., 1955a. The Power of Gas. Camco, Houston, Tex.
Kirkpatrick, C.V., 1955b. Spacing pressure-loaded gas-lift valves. Oil Gas J . , 53(40): 110.
Kirkpatrick, C.V., 1962. Gas lift. In: T.C. Frick (Editor), Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol. 1.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., pp. (5-1)-(5-53).
Macco, 1966a. The Maccomatic Continuow Flow Gas Lift System. Macco Oil Tool, Houston, Tex., 32 pp.
Macco, 1966b. The Maceomatie Intermittent Gas Lift System. Macco Oil Tool, Houston, Tex., 72 pp.
Mach, J. and Brown, K.E., 1980. Gas lift. In: K.E. Brown, The TechnologV ofArtificia1 Lift Methods, Vol.
2a. PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., pp. 95-444.
Neely, B., Gipson, F., Clegg, J., Capps, B. and Wilson, P., 1981. Selection of artificial lift method. SOC.Pet.
Eng. of AIME, 56th Annu. Fall Tech. Conf., San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 5-7, 1981, SPE 10337, 6 pp.
Shaw, S.F., 1949. Flow characteristics of gas lift in oil production. Tex. Eng. Exp. St., Bull., 113: 1-9, 26,
47.
Thrash, P.J. and Brown, K.E., 1965. Field Operation Handbook for Gas Lift. Otis Engineering, Dallas,
Tex., 88 pp.
Trammel, P. and Praisnar, Jr., A., 1979. Designing gas lift for continuous liquids removal from gas wells.
Pet. Eng., (July): 28-34.
Teledine Merla, 1980. Gas Lift Values. Teledine Merla, Garland, Tex., 50 pp.
Winkler, H.W., 1957. How to design a closed rotative gas lift system. Pet. Eng., 29(5): 35, 36, 38-40,
42-44, 46.
Zaba, J. and Doherty, W.T., 1956. Practical Petroleum Engineer’s Handbook. Gulf Publishing, Houston,
Tex., 4th ed., pp, 568-629.
This
467
Chapter 13
PLUNGER LIFT '
CARROL M. BEESON, DONALD G. KNOX, MOAYED AL-BASSAM, AND

GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
The use of plunger lift in oil and gas wells is increasing. Several reasons for this
stem from general developments in the industry; that is, wells are being drilled
deeper, pressure maintenance is on the increase, and more data are being obtained
on bottomhole conditions and productive capacities. The first of these developments
makes pumping more difficult and the second increases the amount of gas available
for plunger lift. The bottomhole data have helped in deriving methods for accurately
predicting plunger lift performance.
Supplementing these general developments, plunger lift equipment has been
continually improved. In addition, new designs for the equipment have led to the
production of various types of plungers for use in a wide variety of oil and gas wells.
Beauregard and Ferguson (1981) and Ferguson and Beauregard (1983) discussed
applications, advantages, limitations, and economics of plunger lift. Because of the
many variables involved, there is no definite answer to the question whether or not
eventually a pumping unit will be required on a well utilizing a plunger lift.
As pointed out by Ferguson and Beauregard (1983), the mechanical wiping
action of the plunger interrupts the formation of paraffins because of their continu-
ous removal before hardening. In addition, because of the faster rate of fluid
removal as compared to the normal flow, there is a lower temperature drop and
shorter time available for deposition.
The present chapter covers the following areas:
(1) Beginning with the history of plunger lift and some developments in the
equipment, the first section also includes the well data used to put plunger lift on a
quantitative basis.
(2) The second section describes the determination of equations for gas and
pressure from the well data by the method of least squares.
(3) The third section explains the methods used in testing the effects of change in
tailpipe, water cut, and oil gravity, and the methods used in constructing nomo-
graphs to simplify the calculations.
' Largely based on Chapter 12 in: Suifuce Operutioi7s ii7 Petroleum Production, by George V. Chilingar
and Carrol M. Beeson, Am. Elsevier Publ. Co., Inc.. 1969, pp. 238-306. The help extended by the
Petroleum Engineer Publ. Co. and Ferguson Beauregard Inc. is indeed greatly appreciated.
468
(4) The next section explains how to use the nomographs to plot operating lines,
and contains supplementary figures representing the equations.
( 5 ) This is followed by the nomographs, along with examples illustrating their
use; also discussions of the accuracy to be expected from results determined by the
equations or the nomographs.
(6) Then are described the use of the equations without plotting an operating
line, and types of oil wells suitable for plunger lift. In addition, this section discusses
the intermittent flowing and plunger lift system, as well as applications of plunger
lift in gas wells.
(7) The final section covers prediction of plunger lift performance.
At the end of the chapter, there is a list of definitions of the symbols used
throughout the chapter.
HISTORY
Free-cycling plunger
The earliest plungers were made by the Hughes Tool Company. The inventors
must have realized that the addition of a piston to separate the lifting gas from the
lifted oil would use less gas than flowing oil in a spray. The operation of the piston
with small loads of oil would also exert less pressure on the formation than the gas
lifting of large slugs of oil without a piston.
These early gas-lift pistons were uncontrolled and were merely allowed to shuttle
between the surface and the bottom of the tubing. It was found that a regular cycle
could be established by adjusting the choke or bean in the continuously open flow
line. The choke or bean setting depended on the gas/liquid ratio, production rate,
and depth.
The plunger was made to drop and return by using a valve in the body of the
device. Upon arrival of the plunger at the surface, the valve opened and this
permitted the rising gas and liquid to pass through the hollow body of the piston as
it fell. The valve was mechanically closed when the device struck the footpiece
spring near the bottom of the tubing. Then the plunger became a solid piston
capable of lifting the accumulation of oil that had bubbled up into the tubing since
the previous cycle.
This type of operation worked wonderfully in some wells and not at all in others.
Its use, therefore, was limited and somewhat unpredictable. Special tubing was
required, and the footpiece could be removed only by pulling the tubing. In
addition, the plunger was subject to short stroking, that is, it sometimes failed to
reach the bottom or the top. This made restarting the well a frequent necessity.
Cycle-controlled expanding plunger
The National Supply Company took over the plunger in 1944 and, with their
experience in the field of gas lift, they began to improve the equipment. Valve locks
469
were added to the body of the device, whch prevented short stroking. A cycle
controller operated by pressure was used to open and close, in regular cycles, a
motor valve in the flowline.
Use of the controller added to the efficiency of the gas-lift piston all the benefits
of intermittent flow, including substantial savings in gas. The device also permitted
varying the size of the load by allowing the plunger to be held at the bottom for
practically any desired length of time.
The earliest cycle controllers depended on well pressure alone for both opening
and closing the flowline. Then an important contribution was made by development
of a trigger and a vent valve for closing the motor valve upon arrival of the plunger
at the surface. This resulted in additional savings of gas. The trigger development
also permitted the closing function of the cycle controller to be used as a safety
shutoff, in the event that the plunger failed to strike the trigger.
The expanding plunger was designed to eliminate the need for special tubing. A
retrievable footpiece and broaches were designed for use with a wireline, making it
possible to install the equipment without pulling the tubing or killing the well.
Lea (1981) presented a description of a dynamic model of plunger lift operations.
which includes calculation of the plunger velocity as the plunger and liquid slug
travel up the tubing. He also presented an analysis of plunger cycles in high gas/oil
ratio wells, to indicate the maximum (1) casing pressure necessary to lift the plunger
and accumulated liquids, and (2) rate of slug buildup.
EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENTS
Plunger equipment for gas wells, gas-lift wells, and high gas/oil ratio wells is
illustrated in Fig. 13-l.a, b, c.
Improvements in the equipment, as well as new applications for variations in the
device, have been made continually. Some developments include Type M Christmas
tree, turbulent-seal plungers, tandem plunger, improved removable footpiece, Taylor
Type K cycle controller, and time cycle controller with attachments.
In intermittent gas-lift wells, there is a dramatic increase in efficiency upon
placement of plunger above the operating valve between the lift gas and the liquid
to be lifted (Beauregard and Ferguson, 1981).
Type Mplunger lift Christmas tree
The main improvement in the plunger lift Christmas tree is the magnetically
operated trigger. This trigger always stays in adjustment, owing to the fact that the
plunger does not make physical contact with the trigger. It has a foolproof action,
because the trigger functions regardless of the position or speed of the plunger on its
arrival at the surface. The problem of packing-off between the tubing and atmo-
sphere has been eliminated, because there is no mechanical linkage extending into
the interior of the tubing.
470
EQUIPMENT FOR QAS L I F T W E L L S
LUBRICATOR WITH FLOW C

O
-
______
CATCHER N I P P L E
CONTROLLER
BALL VALVE
- ~~
_MOTOR
___ VALVE
C IVENTIONAL GASLIFT VALVES
DOWNHOLE SHOCK ASSEMBLY WITH __

C O L L E T T HOLD DOWN
S I D E POCKET MANDREL WITH VALVE

~
Fig. 13-1.Schematic diagrams of free piston systems: (a) Plunger equipment for gas-lift wells. (Courtesy
of Ferguson Beauregard Inc.) (b) Plunger equipment for gas wells. (c) Plunger equipment for high gas/oil
ratio wells. (d) Retractable segmented plunger called Vertipig. (Courtesy of Ferguson Beauregard Inc.) (e)
Operation of plunger lift system.
471
E P U I P Y E N T FOR OAS WELLS
LUBRICATOR WITH FLOW COUPLINO
CONTROLLER
CATCHER N I P P L E
MOTOR VALVE
BPLL VALVE
I- LOWER FLOW OUTLET
-PLUNGER
/ DOWNHOLE SHOCK ASSEMBLY WITH

STANDING VALVE C A G E
, STANDARD PUMP SEAT NIPPLE

472
EQUIPMENT FOR
HIGH
___ RATIO
-- O I L WELLS
CONTROLLER
MOTOR VALVE
-
:TI - -
LUBRICATOR WITH FLOW COUPLING

a
*
/ CATCHER N I P P L E WITH MAGNETIC SHUT-OFF
, e G P R E S S U R E SENSOR
DOWNHOLE SHOCK
STANDING VALVE CAQE
STANDARD PUYP S E A T NIPPLE

/
Fig. 13-1 continued.

413
MULTI-FLEX VERTI-PIG
H O W THE FREE
PISTON SYSTEM WORKS
1. Well closed, plunger falls bygravity.

Casing pressure low, and starts in-
creasing.
2. Upon striking footpiece, plunger

valve closes. Casing pressure still
increasing.
3. Casing pressure peaks, plunger

startslifting oil column, tubing pres-
sure drops.
4. Well opened, casing pressure drops,

tubing pressure drops, then rises as
fluid reaches surface.
5. Wellclosed. plunger strikes bumper,

valve opens and it is ready to fall
again. Casing pressure is low, com-
pleting cycle.
Turbulent-seal plungers
Turbulent-seal plungers were designed for certain types of oil and gas wells where
the expanding plunger is either unnecessary or not suitable. Two plungers of this
type have been developed, One features a nylon brush and the other involves the use
of teflon.
The brush-seal plunger forms an effective seal because the bristles provide a
flexible contact with the tubing, and a turbulent seal is created between the spirals
of the brush. The plunger is intended primarily for gas wells which produce small
volumes of water or condensate, and wells that produce small cuts of sand. It is
built, therefore, without a valve but with a standard Otis-type fishing neck. Wear is
confined to the replaceable brush, and there is little chance of sticking the plunger.
This is true because a sufficient clearance is provided between the tubing and the
steel portions of the plunger, and there are no places for sand or other solids to
collect in the device.
The teflon-seal plunger creates a turbulent seal by means of horizontal grooves in
teflon surrounding the narrow center section of the steel body. The grooved teflon is
474
made in cylindrical sections which are easily replaced. This plunger is intended
primarily for the rapid cycling of wells, so it is built with a valve. It has proved
particularly useful in wells producing fine, abrasive sands which do not affect the
valve, but which wear away the expanding metal bars and segments of the
expanding plunger.
Tandem plunger
The extended or tandem plunger was designed so that gas would lift it through a
tubing string containing retrievable valves. The shorter, standard plunger would not
rise through the enlargement of such a valve, because of the blow-by of gas.
The tandem unit consists of two brush-sealing elements, each of which is screwed
and locked onto the end of a pony sucker rod. The over-all length is about 10 ft, and
therefore, one of the elements is always making a seal within the regular-sized
portion of the tubing string. Because of the length of the tandem unit, a specially
designed hinged lubricator is mounted above the master gate for installing and
recovering the plunger.
Segmented retractable pads
A retractable segmented plunger (Fig. 13-1.d) is manufactured by Ferguson

Beauregard, Inc., called Vertipig. The stainless steel pads are cast to conform to the
“nominal” I.D. of the tubing when expanded on the upstroke of the plunger. A cam
mechanism in the tool is activated in the lubricator to retract the seals O.D. by in a
and create a bypass for the tool on its downward stroke. This type of bypass permits
fast fall time and is very effective where fast cycle time is critical. In addition, it is
superior for paraffin removal, inasmuch as it falls through the paraffin in the
retracted position and only wipes the tubing on the way up.
Ferguson Beauregard, Inc., developed an extremely light-weight expanding steel
pad plunger that has been highly effective in very low-pressure, low-differential
applications.
Removable footpiece
One type of footpiece has a built-in pulling rod. The upper end of the rod is an
Otis-type fishing neck, and the rod extends through the compression spring into the
hold-down adapter. Whatever type of hold-down is used, the footpiece can be easily
fished from its locked position with a wireline hoist, because the rod extending into
the adapter allows a positive pull to be applied to the footpiece.
Taylor Type K cycle controller
This recording cycle controller was designed so that both the opening control
point and the safety shutoff point could be set directly on the desired pressures.
47 5
Synchronization of the pen with the opening and closing pointers is easily under-
stood and accomplished. The heart of the instrument is made in one compact,
replaceable unit.
Time cycle controller with attachments
Attachments are available which may be added to any time cycle controller, so
that the motor valve will be closed by the plunger upon arrival at the surface. The
arrangement is such that the instrument shutoff is retained as a safety feature which
will close the flowline in event the plunger fails to reach the surface. The time
intervals for opening the flowline and for the safety shutoff may be varied at will.
Time controllers are used where pressure control is not feasible. This is the case
in nearly all gas wells where plungers are used to remove accumulations of water or
condensate. Time controllers are used also to ensure that each well in a group starts
flowing at a different time. This prevents the overloading of compressors and
gas-gathering systems.
Electronic controller
The electronic controller is basically a time cycle control with digital display of
the cycle time. The unit is powered by “D” cell batteries and uses solid state circuits
for accuracy and longer battery life. Cycle setting is made by entering the on period
(mode) and the off period (mode) into the control. Selection for the length of time
of each mode is from 1 min to 99 hrs and 99 min. The control then repeats the
setting of each mode to form the cycle time. This is a distinct advantage over
mechanical timer, which uses the 24-hr timing wheel where cycle must be divisible
into the number of lugs on the wheel. Digitrol I1 by Ferguson Beauregard offers
external sensors such as Hi-Lo pressures for casing or tubing, plunger arrival
shutoff, high-liquid level shut down, or differential monitors which are connected to
the terminal board in the controller panel. These units may be connected in such a
way that they will suspend all timing in the “off” mode, or they may just override
the time and switch to the next mode. Any number of sensors may be used on the
control at one time. Inasmuch as these are electric switch sensors, there are no
high-pressure lines connected to the control panel, which is a definite safety feature.
EARLY PREDICTION METHODS
For several years while the early stages in equipment development took place,
there was no reliable method of predicting plunger lift performance. There were
some charts which related operating pressure and production rate for various
depths. There was also a means of predicting effectiveness, that is, the ratio of the
expected rate of production to the rate computed for a zero flowing bottomhole
pressure.
416
These methods were based on data obtained with the free cycling Hughes
plunger. They soon proved inadequate for the better scaling and controlled plunger.
Very little study had been made of gas requirements. The available charts on
requirements of gas volume were unreliable, and so rules of thumb often were used
in their place.
WELL DATA FOR CYCLE-CONTROLLED EXPANDING PLUNGER
By 1954, it had become apparent that the older charts should be replaced by
prediction methods based on data obtained with the cycle-controlled, expanding
plunger. Accordingly, an intensive effort was made to obtain field data on this type
of equipment that would be representative of operations throughout the oil-produc-
ing areas of the United States and covering wide ranges of operating conditions.
The data have been listed in Tables 13-1 and 13-11. All of the data received from
the operators have been included in the tables, except where inconsistencies were
apparent. Of the 70 wells (or well conditions) with 2-in. plunger, 43 were from the
midcontinent, 14 from California, and 13 from the East. Of the 75 wells (or well
conditions) with 24-in. plungers, 61 were from California, 12 from the Rocky
Mountains, and 2 from the midcontinent. The distribution of the other variables
involved in the well data also were quite suitable, as shown in Table 13-111.
LEAST SQUARES EQUATIONS FOR PLUNGER LIFT
Description of plunger lift and need for equations
One of the efficient methods of producing oil involves the use of the cycle-con-
trolled, expanding plunger. The expanding segments make continuous contact with
the walls of regular API tubing strings, thereby forming an effective seal between
the lifting gas and the lifted liquid. On reaching the surface, a valve in the plunger is
opened mechanically, permitting the plunger to fall through the gas and oil to the
footpiece spring. On reaching the footpiece, the valve is closed mechanically, so that
gas under pressure may lift the plunger to the surface with another load of oil. The
plunger starts upward when the motor valve in the flow line is opened by the cycle
controller, usually after the pressure in the casing has reached some predetermined
value. The motor valve in the flowline ordinarily is closed by the arrival of the
plunger at the surface. (See Fig. 13-1.d.)
In plunger lift operation, the flowline is opened and closed to gain the advantage
of controlled intermittent flow. Combined with this advantage is the piston-like
efficiency of the expanding plunger.
Some wells do not produce sufficient formation gas to operate the plunger, so use
is made of circulated gas. In that case, a convenient source of supply is connected to
the casing, and gas is injected continuously at a rate sufficient to supplement the
produced formation gas.
TABLE 13-1
Well data for 2-in. plungers
Well Period Gross Net Circu- Gross Casing Tubing Trap Cycles Oil Casing Choke Casing Plunger Tubing
aver- liquid oil lated gas pressure pressure press. per gravitygas or bean size to foot- depth
aged gas (psig) (psig) day gravity setting footpiece a
referred piece
(days) (bbl/ (bhl/ (Mcf/ (Mcf/ max min max min (psig) ("API) to air (in.) (in., (ft) (ft)
day) day) day) day) 0.d.)
1 - 20 20 0 108 620 550 550 490 25 35 44 - 32/64 5: 7673 7720
2 - - 4 0 50 380 290 - 20 20 10 42 - 48/64 7 7002 7017
3 - - 10 0 50 225 200 - 36 36 80 40 0.72 48/64 5: 7855 7870
4 - - 12 0 50 280 220 - 30 30 9 40 - 32/64 5; 7713 7728
5 - - 14 0 150 360 310 - 20 20 24 40 ~
32/64 5: 7852 7867
6 - - 15 0 150 370 310 - 20 20 18 40 - 40/64 5: 7830 7860
7 - 13.8 13.8 0 138.2 290 250 240 120 20 28 41 - 24/64 5: 7715 7770
8 - 12.4 12.4 0 144.4 340 300 340 150 20 23 41 - 24/64 5; 7715 7770
9 1 17 9 65 81 470 415 280 160 60 18 50.0 0.775 30/64 5f 8946 9084
10 1 14 4 67 74 440 410 350 150 60 12 50.0 0.775 30/64 5: 8946 9084
I1 1 15 2 77 81 575 520 400 90 60 14 50.0 0.775 30/64 5: 8946 9084
12 1 11 3 61 66 575 520 400 90 60 14 50.0 0.775 30/64 5; 8946 9084
13 1 9 3 158 163 365 325 340 120 10 16 50.0 0.775 30/64 5: 9114 9157
14 1 7 2 124 128 365 325 340 120 65 16 50.0 0.775 30/64 5: 9114 9157
15 1 8 4 84 91 455 410 350 85 70 16 50.0 0.775 30/64 5; 9114 9157
16 1 9 5 70 79 425 380 300 100 70 16 50.0 0.775 30/64 5; 9114 9157
17 1 6 3 67 72 400 350 320 90 70 16 50.0 0.775 30/64 5f 9114 9157
18 1 9 4 67 74 420 380 350 90 70 18 50.0 0.775 30/64 5; 9114 9157
19 30 21 13 40.0 53.4 200 180 140 30 30 40 36.9 0.78 Open 5: 4600 4612
20 31 11 6.7 33.0 43.7 180 160 110 30 30 37 36.9 0.78 Open 5; 4621 4625
21 31 18 11 37.0 48.0 210 180 140 30 28 43 36.9 0.78 Open 5: 3808 3883
P
4
22 30 9.5 8.2 0 33.7 400 360 340 200 30 21 33.3 0.78 3/8 5; 7711 7718 4
TABLE 13-1 (continued)
aver- liquid oil lated gas pressure pressure press. Per gravity gas or bean size to foot- depth
aged gas (P&) (P&) day gravity setting footpiece =
referred piece
(bbl/ (bbl/ (Mcf/ max min max min (OAPI) to air (in.) (in.,
day) day) day) 0.d.)
23 28 35 35 0 187.4 500 440 440 125 125 35 37.0 0.78 1/2 5: 6630 6664
24 - 17.6 17.6 0 48.2 425 410 390 15 10 18 40 40/64 9: 6400 6455
25 6 63.2 51.0 0 500.2 372 362 352 90 85 67.5 37.7 0.732 19/32 7 11501 11506
26 4 61.1 47.3 0 470.7 390 378 320 100 85 71.5 37.5 0.728 19/32 7 11501 11506
27 1 16.0 4.8 282.1 435.4 310 280 250 70 85 47 26.5 0.633 64/64 7 11665 11670
28 61 27 26 88 276 195 185 145 81 81 84 35.6 0.789 32/64 7 6094 6511
29 30 25 21 0 193 190 180 100 60 60 96 36 0.70 3/8 11:,7 5959 5965
30 30 24 20 0 221 165 160 130 60 60 72 36 0.70 3/8 11$,7 5959 5965
31 31 22 18 0 202 175 170 140 60 60 72 36 0.70 3/8 11:,7 5959 5965
32 30 21 18 0 152 175 170 140 60 60 72 36 0.70 3/8 11:,7 5959 5965
33 31 19 16 0 116 175 170 140 60 60 72 36 0.70 3/8 11i.7 5959 5965
34 1 6.3 4.6 0 90.0 203 190 170 21 45 38 1/2 7 7243
35 1 5.1 1.7 0 62.6 180 168 170 7 46 37 1/2 7 6972 6990
36 1 7.2 5.9 0 52.9 180 168 170 18 28 37 29/64 7 6946 -
37 1 16.7 16.7 0 110 120 110 100 18 86 36 - 7 6984 7026

38 1 13.8 11.3 0 34.8 180 168 170 18 37 37 34/64 7 6947 6957
39 1 7.6 7.1 0 91.4 250 225 230 23 24 35 1/2 7 7102 7132
40 1 5.3 5.0 0 57.5 270 250 250 20 26 35 - 7 6850
41 1 4.8 4.8 0 66.0 125 115 115 16 44 36 1 /2 7 7092
42 1 6.9 6.5 0 52.4 265 250 250 20 30 35 7 7101
43 1 6.9 6.9 0 38.8 283 260 260 20 17 35 7 6969
44 1 15.8 15.6 0 88.5 268 258 250 24 33 36 7 6951 6966
45 1 4.7 ?.5 0 44.0 115 105 105 16 35 36 7 7087 7102
4 6 1 5.5 5.5 0 52.6 248 225 230 20 25 35 7 7213 7229
47 1 6.2 6.2 0 184 205 175 180 24 27 35 7 7242 7254
48 1 16.1 16.1 0 70.0 510 480 480 24 12 37 7 7065 -
49 1 49.8 49.8 0 187 330 310 310 22 - 56 36 7 6863 6897
50 1 38.6 34.8 0 82.5 480 - 320 0 0 36 - ~
7 - 6995
51 31 - 11.07 0 165.2 195 165 200 160 30 26 42 0.8 1 /2 5; 7531 7563
52 31 - 13.83 0 87.5 495 430 400 130 30 10 42 0.8 1/2 5; 7514 7576
53 1 14 14 0 109 680 630 520 70 20 28 45 ~ 23/64 5; 4755 4760
54 1 10.4 8.4 0 28.4 650 605 540 50 20 9 46 ~ 30/64 5; 5020 5020
55 1 40 38 0 42 720 680 650 30 20 14 - ~ 32/64 5: 4785 4820
56 1 4.2 4 0 8 300 260 250 200 15 4 41 ~ 20/64 5; 4140 4144
57 1 11 10.5 0 23 350 310 260 150 20 6 42 - 18/64 5: 3840 3844
58 1 18 17.5 0 30.1 600 550 500 375 20 7 41 ~ 30/64 5: 4150 4154
59 1 42 42 0 500 820 800 700 580 550 103 44 ~ 34/64 5: 4422 4430
60 1 4 0 4 0 0 80 360 340 250 40 40 29 41 ~ 32/64 5: 4185 4185
61 1 14 14 0 32.3 740 700 520 70 40 16 42 ~ 30/64 5: 5172 5187
62 1 26.8 26.8 0 72.9 690 630 500 100 50 12 42 ~ 28/64 5; 5180 5210
63 1 16 14 0 35.2 670 635 500 70 20 7 42 ~ 17/64 5: 5190 5194
64 30 45 45 0 50 180 160 125 50 40 96 46 ~ 8/16 4; 3240 3262
65 30 9 8 0 14 160 140 160 115 12 48 46 - 8/16 5: 3180 3220
66 1 15.2 15.2 0 25 195 175 - - 70 42 -
1/2 5: 3100 3150
67 1 12 12 0 75 85 75 ~ - 25 72 ~ 5/16 5; 3000 3050
68 61 43 43 0 32 400 350 350 155 75 32 38-40 ~
1/2 5; 3439 3439

69 31 30 30 0 35 400 370 290 110 75 20 38-40 ~
1/2 5; 3534 3534

70 31 10 10 0 170 315 250 290 175 40 36 38-40 - 5: 4140 4140
3/43
a Tubing size to footpiece is 2; in. 0.d. for all wells. ’ Values not available.
TABLE 13-11
P
0
W
Well data for 2;-in. plungers
Well Period Gross Net Circu- Gross Casing Tubing Trap Oil Casing Choke Casing Plunger Tubing
aver- liquid oil lated gas pressure pressure press. gravity gas or bean size to footpiece a depth
aged gas (Psig) (Psi@ gravity setting footpiece depth
(days) (bbl/ (bbl/ (Mcf/ max min max min (psig) ("API) referred (in.)
(in., 0.d.) (ft) (ft)
to air
day) day) day)
1 31 26 25.5 142 153 183 168 150 50 35 104 37.5 0.738 3/4 7 3756 3768
2 9 4 4 17 178 178 245 200 150 50 35 125 37.5 0.738 3/8-1/2 5: 3633 3638
3 11 70 49 150 190 205 175 150 50 35 110 37 0.720 3/8-1/2 5; 3606 3614
4 7 31 28 248 258 185 155 150 50 35 120 37.5 0.738 3/8-1/2 5: 3629 3637
5 20 88 74 125 140 190 166 150 50 35 115 31.5 0.720 3/8-1/2 5: 3634 3640
6 13 108 101 133 143 200 172 150 50 35 120 37 0.720 3/8-1/2 7 3793 3799
7 18 42 23 234 234 235 215 150 50 35 120 36.5 0.745 3/8-1/2 5; 3155 3760
8 21 61.4 61.0 0 438 119 110 84 82 68 151 41-42 0.690 5/8 6; 3395 3407
9 21 11.4 11.3 0 642 117 105 82 70 70 163 34-35 0.655 Open 7 2252 2308
10 21 23.5 23.5 0 188 390 358 345 59 48 21 40 0.675 3/4 5: 5053 5101
11 153 110 110 0 418 320 300 260 90 60 120 35 0.8 - 7 6325 6355
12 61 55 55 0 154 360 350 310 110 70 40 35 0.8 ~
7 6250 6280
13 - - 11 0 50 210 160 - 20 20 30 40 - 48/64 7 7801 7811
14 - - 22 0 150 450 400 400 150 10 14 40 ~
31/64 7 7335 -
15 - - 20 0 150 260 220 220 50 10 11 38 - 1 7 8560 8600
16 1 13.8 11.6 96.0 286.3 300 255 175 80 85 22 33.7 0.629 32/64 7 11385 11390
17 1 23.5 18.8 96.0 262.2 260 230 225 80 85 31 28.7 0.629 32/64 7 11385 11390
18 31 36 20 81 207 190 170 - 82 82 63 35.0 0.789 32/34 7 6519 6547
19 31 18 17 75 322 210 190 - 81 81 60 35.5 0.789 32/64 7 6629 6659
20 31 25 24 0 176 140 120 - 82 82 43 31.5 0.780 32/64 7 6583 6615
21 31 35 29 147 288 200 180 - 85 85 75 29.5 0.789 32/64 7 7605 7635
22 123 37 35 0 456.5 138 128 105 60 60 72 30 0.70 1/2 7 5988 6008
23 31 29 ' 29 130 165 760 700 600 300 200 13 21 0.62 1/4 7 6974 9647
24 30 40 39 363 484 840 760 750 550 480 32 40.0 0.685 48/64 7 8800 9658
25 30 60 32 398 464 475 435 400 100 75 45 36.2 0.685 19/64 I 7989 9246
26 30 10 9 105 110 415 410 420 160 75 17 34.8 0.685 15/64 7 7457 7457
27 - 58 33 207 252 150 135 100 30 20 50 27 0.670 1 8; 4774 4714
28 4 28 22.2 68.5 103 339 299 261 79 63 22.8 24.8 0.688 48/64 7 6425 6486
29 3 98 98 425 650 532 484 425 100 56.4 46 31.9 0.688 48/64 7 9174 9206
30 3 21 21 154 210 296 260 265 14 - 25.7 27.5 0.688 40/64 7 9964 10028
31 6 59.6 59.6 159.5 195 370 334 271 70 62 27 28.3 - 48/64 7 9690 9121
32 3 36.7 36.7 182 248 357 320 300 88 54 31 30.0 -
48/64 7 9092 9156
33 1 16 11 0 70 330 295 220 30 25 13 34.3 0.701 40/64 7 7610 7670
34 1 13 12 0 153 240 205 200 30 25 35 33.1 0.706 40/64 7 8609 8669
35 1 6 5 0 54 190 155 170 30 25 11 35.0 0.690 42/64 7 8417 8531
36 1 27 25 0 197 250 215 220 30 25 41 33.0 0.706 40/64 7 8100 8160
37 30 22.7 22.3 0 200 100 85 80 45 42 84 36.5 0.71 5 36/64 7 5750 5750
38 30 50.5 33.1 271 331 520 480 400 85 50 26 31.6 0.700 34/64 1; 10963 11678
39 31 51.5 40.8 159 271 470 440 380 85 50 33 32.0 0.695 16/64 7; 11300 11727
40 30 39.8 32.2 139.6 207 475 430 400 85 50 25 35.0 0.695 17/64 7; 11198 11638
41 31 35.0 32.0 130 170 340 300 250 15 70 26 24.0 0.692 24/64 1 9706 9706
42 31 33.0 31.0 270 300 450 310 380 100 70 26 26.0 0.692 24/64 4: 9707 9107
43 31 62.0 60.0 0 220 650 570 550 120 70 24 30.0 0.681 24/64 1 8209 8209
44 31 11.0 6.0 0 90 300 210 280 75 70 14 33.0 0.751 24/64 7 10201 10201
45 31 11.0 6.0 0 110 290 250 270 15 10 17 33.0 0.132 24/64 7 9511 10276
46 31 20.0 16.0 0 yo 300 260 270 80 70 22 28.0 0.724 24/64 7 10472 10472
47 31 70.0 24.0 150 375 560 500 475 120 70 30 28.0 0.692 24/64 7 10189 10189
48 31 90.0 10.0 0 460 740 660 650 300 70 31 42.0 0.735 24/64 7 10023 10444
49 31 54.5 48.4 0 176.7 280 260 223 104 85 57 29 0.71 24/64 7 4117 4117
50 31 31.3 35.6 0 55.0 653 623 560 400 85 12 29 0.75 24/64 7 4859 4871
51 31 41.5 40.5 0 83.8 124 684 630 350 85 27 30 0.74 12/64 7 4755 4758
52 2 84 83 655 780 715 655 645 160 - 22 36.4 - - 1 9344 9753
53 6 84 82 60 254 740 680 700 120 - 19.4 36.4 - ~
7 9344 9153
54 3 84 83 0 184 750 690 630 140 - 17 35.6 - - 7 9344 9753
55 3 69 68 0 245 750 680 640 100 - 19 37.3 - - 7 9255 9771
56 3 62 60 100 160 670 605 550 60 - 17 34.6 - - 7 9365 9874
57 8 64 62 93 204 720 660 625 90 - 15 34.4 - - 7 9349 9842
58 4 71 69.1 101 200 710 640 620 100 - 16.4 34.9 - - 7 9349 9842
59 3 69 68 92 181 740 680 610 90 - 16 34.0 - - 7 9349 9842
60 5 70 69 105 235 640 580 530 90 - 21 34.0 - - 7 9349 9842
7 m
P
61 6 71 69.7 67 141 580 530 440 65 - 17 33.9 - -
9349 9842 +
62 1 51 54 25 303 770 670 - 65 53 13 39.0 0.678 - 7 9349 9842
TABLE 13-11 (continued) P
N
W
aver- liquid oil lated gas pressure pressure press. per gravity gas or bean size to footpiece a depth
aged gas (Psig) (Psi@ day gravity setting footpiece depth
(days) (bbl/ (bbl/ (Mcf/ (Mcf/ max min max min (psig) (oAPI) referred
(in.) (in., 0.d.) (ft) (ft)
to air
day) day) day) day)
63 1 47 46 29 209 800 720 ~
50 50 10 36.4 0.678 7 9836 9867
64 1 47 46 3 183 800 720 545 50 70 8.7 36.4 0.678 I 9836 9867
65 8 28 27 53 102 620 550 520 70 ~ 8 34.5 - 7 9063 9063
66 4 76 72 53 163 750 680 640 100 ~ 4 34.9 7 9782 9804
67 4 59 57 112 175 720 620 640 100 - 15 33.0 7 9927 9938
68 4 67 62 102 179 690 625 570 90 - 16 34.4 7 9960 9987
69 4 64 58.5 84 161 650 600 535 160 ~ 19 30.1 7 9960 9987
70 4 25 21 69 123 735 655 640 90 ~ 6 32.4 7 10876 10906
71 5 32 30 54 112 760 660 700 110 - 10 34.4 7 9855 9855
72 3 39 37 0 90 750 650 660 70 - 10 34.8 7 9855 9855
73 3 62 60 0 126 720 650 670 140 - 13 36.5 7 9900 9921
74 10 18 18 36 92 570 490 560 200 - 8 33.4 7 10016 10048
75 1 12 11 43 74 680 590 ~
80 61 4 34.1 0.678 7 10016 10048
a Tubing size to footpiece is 2: in. 0.d. for all wells.

483
TABLE 13-111
Ranges a and averages of well data
2-in. Plunger 2:-in. Plunger

Low High Average Low High Average
Tubing depth, ft 3050 11,670 6677 3407 11,727 8313
Tailpipe, ft 0 138 32 0 1,257 185
Production rate,
bbl/day 4.2 63.2 18 10 110 45
Size load, bbl/cy 0.1 2.9 0.7 0.2 5.4 2.0
Oil gravity, OAPI 35 50 38.0 24 46 33.7
Water cut, % 0 86.7 17.0 0 88.9 12.6
a The variables ranged fairly uniformly between the low and high values listed, except as indicated in
footnotes b-g. One well had a tubing depth of 2308 f t . One well had a tailpipe of 417 ft. One well
had a tailpipe of 2673 ft. One well had a size load of 0.07 bbl/cy. One well had an oil gravity o f
26.5’API. g One well had an oil gravity of 21OAPI.
Ordinarily, casing pressure is used for controlling the cycles and no tubing packer
is set. It is this standard type of installation which is the primary subject of the
present chapter. Cycles may be controlled, however, by tubing pressure or by time,
wherever casing-pressure control is impracticable. Time control is especially ap-
propriate for removing accumulations of water or condensate from gas wells. This
method also is used to prevent overloading gas-gathering systems, by ensuring that
each well in a group starts flowing at a different time.
The early plungers, not being controlled by an instrument, were allowed to “free
cycle” while the flowline was open continuously. This method may be employed in
some cases, but the equations obtained from the present investigation do not apply
to this type of operation.
The cycle controlled plunger is so flexible that it may be used under a wide
variety of operating conditions in a given well. It was desirable, therefore, to
develop a quantitative method of predicting the requirements and performance for
various sets of operating conditions. This would make it possible to choose the most
suitable conditions for plunger lift in the well. Then the predicted requirements and
performance could be compared with those for other methods of production.
In order to put plunger lift on such a quantitative basis, the field data tabulated
earlier were collected from the producing areas of the United States. The data were
then analyzed to determine the variables controlling the gas and pressure require-
ments.
Equations
The main items of interest for the operation of the gas-lift plunger in a given well
are the requirements of net operating pressure and gas-liquid ratio. It is important
also to be able to estimate the casing pressure buildup and the maximum production
rate.
484
A knowledge of the pressure buildup is useful because the net operating pressure
depends upon the maximum casing pressure, whereas the production rate depends
upon the average casing pressure, and these pressures differ by one-half the pressure
buildup. The maximum production rate is needed as one limit to the large number
of operating conditions that may be used with plunger lift.
It will be shown how the following six basic equations concerning gas and
pressure were derived from correlations of field data by the method of least squares.
The method of obtaining the two equations for maximum production rate also will
be explained. (For definitions of symbols, see Nomenclature at the end of the
chapter.)
Net operating pressure:
D
2" P,"" - P F = 77.1Lc + 8.29-
1000
+ 18.O8Lc-1000 + 67.4 (13-1)
D
2i" = 3.44LC 5.78-
P,"" - Ptmin + 1000
+ l l . l l L c -1000 +91.4 (13-2)
Gas-liquid ratio gradient:
2" ~
G/L - - 9.90( D/lOOO) + 0.774PP" + 279 + 201 (13-3)
D/lOOO LC
,iff ~
G/L - -
+
47.8( D/lOOO) 0.738P,m'" + 2.54
+ 122 (13-4)
D/1 000 LC
Pressure buildup:
2" in 5t" = 8.16Lc + 3.43-

Pcm"- PCm'"
1000
+ 0 . 0 2 o p p + 9.9 (13-5)
24" in 7" Pcm" - Pcm'"= 3.19Lc + 9.31- 1000 + 0.051P,m'" - 43.1 (13-6)
Maximum production rate:
1440L,
2" (13-7)
q"" = 1.5( 0/1000) + 8L,
2t" 1440L,
'"" = 1.5( 0/1000) + 6Lc
(13-8)
485
METHOD OF OBTAINING EQUATIONS FOR GAS A N D PRESSURE
For each size plunger, the three basic equations were obtained from correlations
of field data by the method of least squares. Theoretical calculations and plots were
made only to ascertain which variables were indicated as influencing each factor
pertinent to the operation of plunger lift. For net operating pressure, the indicated
variables were size load, depth, and their product L, x D.For the factors, cycle gas
gradient and pressure buildup, the indicated variables were size load, depth, and
minimum tubing pressure.
A regression equation was formulated with a factor expressed in terms of the
indicated variables. The method of least squares (Ezekial, 1941) was applied to
determine the constant in the equation and the coefficient of each independent
variable. These coefficients were then used (Ezekial, 1941) to compute the coeffi-
cient or index of multiple correlation. Throughout the calculations, the depths were
rounded off so that a table of squares up to 2000 could be used without interpola-
tion.
Values were computed for the differences between the actual data and the
amounts computed from the equations. In the case of net operating pressure for the
2-in. plunger and the cycle gas gradient for the 2+-in. plunger, the difference for one
well was at least five times the average difference. Accordingly, the data for that
well were disregarded (Sherwood and Reed, 1939) and the coefficients were de-
termined again, using the data for all the wells except that one.
As applied to curve fitting, the principle of least squares states that the most
probable empirical equation is the one for which the sum of the squares of the
residuals is a minimum. A residual is the difference between the amount required by
the equation and the observed value.
An equation obtained by the method of least squares represents the most
probable values of a dependent variable for different values of the chosen indepen-
dent variables. For a chosen set of independent variables, the values of the
dependent variable need not be exactly equal to the average values. Accordingly, the
sum of the positive residuals need not exactly equal the sum of the negative
residuals. Nevertheless, a comparison of the plus and minus sums of the residuals
may be used to show that an equation substantially represents average values.
No figures have been included to show that the equations represent averages of
the data, because four dimensions would be required for most cases. There have
been listed, however, the plus and minus sums of the residuals. Inasmuch as the sum
of the positive residuals and the sum of the negative residuals are nearly equal in
every case, it follows that the equations substantially represent averages of the data.
Wells with 2-in. plungers
The equation for net operating pressure was determined in the form given in eq.
13-1. Well 53 was disregarded (Sherwood and Reed, 1939) in determining this
equation, because the difference between the reported net operating pressure and
486
that required by the equation obtained by using all the wells was five times the
average difference. Using the 69 remaining wells, the index of multiple correlation
was 0.710 (instead of 0.661 for all 70 wells). The positive and negative sums of the
residuals were +2650 and -2648.
The equation for gas volume was obtained in terms of the cycle gas gradient, and
was expressed as follows:
Gc
~-
D/lOOO
- 9.90( D/lOOO) + O.774Ptmin+ 279 + 201Lc (13-9)
Using the 70 wells, the coefficient of multiple correlation was 0.520. The plus and
minus sums of the residuals were +6887 and -6901. Dividing both sides of eq.
13-9 by L, yields a relation for gas-liquid ratio gradient based on volumes per
cycle:
G,/L, - 9.90( D/lOOO)

-- + O.774Pt"'" + 279 + 201 (13-10)
D/lOOO L C
Equation 13-10, expressing GJL, is equivalent to eq. 13-3 given previously in

terms of G / L , which expresses the ratio of volumes for any interval of time.
The equation for pressure buildup was obtained as given in eq. 13-5. The 41 wells
with Sf-in. casing were used, and the coefficient of multiple correlation was 0.576.
The positive and negative sums of the residuals were + 194 and - 197.
Wells 25-28 and 34-49 had 7-in. casing instead of the 5 i - h casing. Accordingly,
these 20 wells offered an opportunity to test the belief that pressure buildup is
inversely proportional to the annular areas. The ratio of the actual pressure buildup
to that required by eq. 13-5 averaged 0.424. The inverse ratio of the annular areas
involved is 0.515. Consequently, these results support the belief that pressure
buildup is inversely proportional to the annular areas involved, for a given size
tubing.
Wells with 24-in. plungers
The equation for net operating pressure was determined in the form given in eq.
13-2. Using the 75 wells, the index of multiple correlation was 0.945. The plus and
+
minus sums of the residuals were 1849 and - 1981.
The equation for gas requirement was obtained in terms of the cycle gas gradient,
and is expressed as follows:
GC
D/lOOO
= 47.8-
1000
+ 0.738P,"'" + 254 + 122Lc (13-11)
Well 52 was disregarded (Sherwood and Reed, 1939) in determining eq. 13-11
because the difference between the actual cycle gas gradient and that required by
487
the equation obtained by using all the wells was almost eight times the average
difference. Using the 74 remaining wells, the coefficient of multiple correlation was
0.639 (instead of 0.599 for all 75 wells). The positive and negative sums of the
residuals were +9484 and -9698.
Dividing both sides of eq. 13-11 by L, yields an equation for gas/liquid ratio
gradient based on volumes per cycle. Analogous to the case of the 2-in. plunger, the
latter relation for the 24411. plunger is equivalent to eq. 13-4 given previously for
gas/liquid ratio gradient based on volumes for any interval of time.
The equation for pressure buildup was obtained as given in eq. 13-6. The 61 wells
with 7-in. casing were used, and the coefficient of multiple correlation was 0.837.
The plus and minus sums of the residuals were +415 and -417.
METHOD OF OBTAINING EQUATIONS FOR MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE
The minimum cycle time involves movement of the plunger from the footpiece to
the surface, unloading the liquid at the surface, and movement of the plunger from
the surface to the footpiece; the last step might be divided into the fall of the
plunger through gas to the top of the liquid and the fall of the plunger through the
liquid to the footpiece. From this description, it seems reasonable to suppose that
the minimum cycle time depends mainly upon the depth of the footpiece and the
size load.
When the well has a tailpiece, extra time is required for the gas to break through
the slug of liquid below the footpiece. This extra time appears to be about
equivalent to the time required for the plunger to rise and fall through gas for a
distance equal to the length of the tailpipe. For wells with tailpipes, therefore, the
depth affecting the cycle time may be taken as the depth to the bottom of the
tailpipe. More generally, the depth may be taken as the point where gas enters the
tubing. This also is the depth found to be most suitable for computing the gas and
pressure requirements.
The operating conditions ordinarily are set so that rate of upward movement of
the plunger averages about 1000 feet per minute. The downward fall through gas is
about twice that speed. Accordingly, the number of minutes required for the plunger
to rise to the surface and fall to the top of the liquid may be expressed as one and
one-half times the depth in thousands of feet.
Measurements and estimates of the time required for the plunger to unload liquid
at the surface, and for the plunger to move down through liquid in the tubing, lead
to a value in minutes equal to eight times the number of barrels per cycle for the
2-in. plunger and six times the number of barrels per cycle for the 2:-in. plunger.
These considerations lead to expressions for the minimum cycle time:
2" tp = 1.5( + 8L,

0/1000) ( 13-12)
24" tp = 1.5( 0/1000) + 6L, (13-13)

488
Dividing the number of minutes per day by minimum cycle time [eqs. 13-12 and
13-13] and multiplying by size load, eqs. 13-7 and 13-8, respectively, may be readily
obtained for the maximum production rate expected from plunger lift.
Of the data received and listed in Tables 13-1 and 13-11, ten wells correspond to
rates of production that exceed 70% of the values computed from eqs. 13-7 and
13-8. For wells 3, 25, 26, 28, 29, and 37 with 2-in. plungers, the respective
production rates were 73.7, 115.3, 119.2, 72.3, 73.5, and 73.5% of the values
computed from eq. 13-7. For wells 3, 6, 29, and 48 with 2i-in. plungers, the
respective production rates were 70.3, 92.5, 85.0, and 71.2% of the values calculated
from eq. 13-8. These comparisons indicate that the rates expressed by eqs. 13-7 and
13-8 are not too difficult to attain.
CONSTRUCTING PLUNGER LIFT NOMOGRAPHS
Need for nomographs
After the equations were obtained, as described in the preceding section, the next
step in, applying plunger lift was to derive an expression for production rate. This
could be accomplished through use of the equations for net operating pressure and
pressure buildup, in conjunction with the productivity index equation. Mathemati-
cal operations indicated by the resulting expression for production rate could be
simplified by construction of a nomograph. This graphical treatment would also
permit ready display of the range of production rates below the maximum.
Method of constructing nomographs
Estimating average pressure at point where gas enters tubing

For a cyclical process, such as is involved in plunger lift, the average pressure at
the point where gas enters the tubing may be estimated from the casing pressures at
the surface, as described in the following paragraphs.
The average casing pressure (at the surface) may be taken as the arithmetic
average of the maximum and minimum casing pressures, or the maximum casing
pressure less one-half the pressure buildup. The average pressure at the bottom of
the column of gas may be obtained by adding the weight of the gas to the average
casing pressure. This may be done through multiplication of the average presure at
the top of the column by a factor appropriate for an average well. The resulting
product may be added to the average pressure at the top.
The average well was assumed to have a gas gravity of 0.75 (referred to air), a
depth of 8000 ft, and an average casing temperature of 160'F. These values led to
an average gas factor of 0.027 0/1000, and to the approximate relation:
Pwf= [ P,"" - + ( P,"" - (1 + 0.0270/1000)

PFin)] (13-14)
489
Derivation of operating line for 2-in. plunger

In obtaining an expression for production rate to construct the operating line, use
was made of the productivity index equation:
4=J(Pw,-P,,) (13-15)
Substituting the values of F,, from eq. 13-14 into eq. 13-15:
q = JP,, - J [ P,"" - f ( P,"" - P p ) ] (1 + 0.0270/1000) (13-16)
Combining the preceding with eqs. 13-1 and 13-5 gives
+ 18.08L,-
q = JP,, - J ( P y i n + 77.7L, + 8.29-
D
1000
D
1000 ii +
+ 67.4 1 0.027-
1000
+f J
i
8.16L, + (13-17)
Equation 13-17 may be rearranged to express q in terms of L, as follows:
q=JP,,-J
i 1+0.027-
1000
j!0.990Pyi" + 6.58-1000
D + 62.41
-J 1
i+ 0.027-
D
1000
(13-18)
Equation 13-18 represents a straight line, if q is plotted against L, for given

values of J , Pws, D, and P?". This is termed the operating line, and it may be
determined by the intercepts on the axes, which are as follows:
When q = 0,
L, = i
P,, - 1 + 0.027-
+
(I 0.027-
1000
)[0.990P,"" + 6.58-1000 + 62.4)
t 73.61
(13-19)
When L,=O,
q=JP,,-J
i
1+0.027-
1000
+
] ( 0 . 9 9 0 P ~ " 6.58-1000 +62.4) (13-20)
490
Derivation of operating line for 2: -in. plunger

In steps analogous to those just described, expressions equivalent to eqs. 13-18,
13-19 and 13-20 have been derived for the 2i-in. plunger as follows:
= JP,, -J 1
i+ 0.027-
1000
) (0.974PF'" + 1.125 1000 +113.2)
-
(13-21)
When q = 0,
P, -
i+
1 0.027-
1000
) (0.974P,m'" + 1.125 1000 + 113.2)
-
L, = (13-22)
i+ 1 0.027-
1000
+ 1.545)
When L,=O,
1 [O.974Pyin + 1.125 -
1000 + 113.2) (13-23)
Mathematical operations by nomographs

The value of (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO) (0.990 Ptmin)may be isolated in eqs. 13-19 and
13-20 and subtracted separately from P,,. Then the intercepts are fixed by the value
+
of D and the value of P, - (1 0.027 0/1000) (0.990 Pp).
The left-hand chart in
the nomograph for the 2-in. plunger (Fig. 13-2) contains curves of the intercept by
eq. 13-19 plotted against depth for various values of P, - (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO)
(0.990 PFin).
The chart in the upper right-hand corner of this nomograph contains essentially
+
straight lines, which subtract the value of (1 0.027 D/lOOO) (6.58 D/lOOO + 62.4)
from P,, - (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO) (0.990 P p ) . The radiating lines in the upper center
of the nomograph permit multiplication of the above difference by the productivity
index, to obtain intercept 2.
Inasmuch as the rate of production is limited by the time required for the plunger
to complete a cycle, it was necessary to draw maximum production rate curves on
the lower center portion of the nomograph. Each of these curves was plotted by
substituting a given value of depth and various values of size load in eq. 13-7.
The preceding mathematical operations expressed by the nomograph make it
possible to locate graphically the two intercepts. The line drawn between the
intercepts shows the operating line, which is that part of the line between intercept 1
49 1
Fig. 13-2. (Nomograph 1). Example illustrated by dashed line is for a well with the following known conditions: depth of tubing = 6600 ft: minimum
pressure at top of tubing = 60 psi; static hottomhole prcssurc = 800 psi: and productivity index = 0.12. For 2-in. plunger.
492
Fig. 13-3. (Nomograph 2). Example illustrated by dashed line is for a well with the following known conditions: dcpth of tubing = 9200 ft: minimum
pressure at top of tubing = 1 0 0 psi; static bottomhole pressure = 2100 psi; and productivity index = 0.08. For 2l-in. plunger.
493
and the point where the line crosses the appropriate maximum production rate
curve.
Entirely analogous operations are performed by means of the nomograph for the
2 t - h plunger (Fig. 13-3).
Derivation of supplementary operating line for 2-in. plunger

The operation of plunger lift in a well with an excessive formation gas/liquid
ratio may be determined by the ratio rather than by the anticipated minimum
tubing pressure. Consequently, an expression was derived for the supplementary
operating line, based on gas/ liquid ratio gradient instead of minimum tubing
pressure.
This was accomplished by obtaining from eq. 13-3 the value for and
substituting it in eq. 13-18. Rearranging to express q in terms of L, gives
= JP,,
i
- J 1 + 0.027-
1000
'IL D
+ 18.08-1000 - 183.5) L ,
i
+ J 1 +0.027- D
1000
+ 294) (13-24)
Equation 13-24 represents a straight line, if q is plotted against L, for given

values of J , P,,, D , and ( G / L ) ( D / 1 0 0 0 ) . This is termed the supplementary
operating line, and it might be determined by the intercepts on the axes. It is more
convenient, however, to use the intersection of the two operating lines and the
intercept on the production rate axis. The latter is called intercept 2A and is
expressed as follows:
When L,=O,
(13-25)
It was desirable to use the same base (psi) lines on the nomograph for determin-
ing both intercepts, 2 and 2A. The chart in the upper right-hand corner of the
nomograph contains lines which subtract the value of (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO) (6.58
0/1000 + 62.4) from P,, - (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO) (0.990 P,""n). Equation 13-25 does
not contain a term involving P,"'ln, so the minimum tubing pressure is ignored in
determining intercept 2A. This equation also shows that (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO) (6.09
D/lOOO) + 294) should be added to P,,,.
To use the base lines in the upper right-hand chart as the first step in obtaining
intercept 2A, it follows that the sum of the above difference, or (1 + 0.027 D/lOOO)
(12.67 D/lOOO + 356.4), must be added to P,,. In this way, P,, will be increased
both by the amount the lines subtract and by the amount shown in eq. 13-25. Thus,
494
the measurements for intercept 2A are made from the base lines drawn for intercept
2.
The relation for the intersection of operating lines may be obtained by simulta-
neously solving the equations for the two operating lines. The result is the equation
for gas/liquid ratio gradient which was solved simultaneously with the main
operating line in deriving the supplementary operating line. In the case of the 2-in.
plunger, the expression for the intersection is the same as eq. 13-3.
It is explained below why the intersection of operating lines will lie on the dotted
extension of the main operating line. There is also included a graphic explanation of
the fact that the intersection may be located by means of the appropriate equation
for gas/liquid ratio gradient.
The only time the supplementary operating line is of interest is when the
formation gas/ liquid ratio gradient is greater than that required for the maximum
production rate determined by the main operating line. Along this operating line,
the minimum tubing pressure is fixed while the gas/liquid ratio gradient continu-
ously increases with decreasing size load. As a consequence, there must be a point
on the dotted extension of this operating line where the gas/liquid ratio gradient
required for the size load at the point is equivalent to the formation gas/liquid ratio
gradient. This point is the intersection of operating lines.
Along the supplementary operating line, the formation gas/ liquid ratio gradient
remains constant, while the minimum tubing pressure continuously decreases with
decreasing size load. Consequently, there must be a point on the supplementary
operating line where the minimum tubing pressure required for the size load at the
point is equivalent to the fixed value of minimum tubing pressure along the main
operating line. This point also is the intersection of operating lines.
From the foregoing, it follows that the lines intersect at the point where the size
load has the value required by both the minimum tubing pressure of the main
operating line and the formation gas/ liquid ratio of the supplementary operating
line. This size load may be computed by means of the equation of gas/liquid ratio
gradient. The point corresponding to the computed size load lies on both lines, so it
is readily located on the one that has already been drawn. Accordingly, the
intersection of operating lines is located at the point on the main operating line that
corresponds to the size load computed from the equation for gas/liquid ratio
gradient.
Derivation of supplementary Operating line for 24 -in. plunger

In steps analogous to those described above, relations similar to eq. 13-24 and
13-25 have been derived for the 2i-in. plunger:
G/L + 11.11- D - 159.51 L,

1000
i
+ J 1 S0.027-
D
1000
(13-26)
495
When L, = 0,
(13-27)
In using the lines in the upper right-hand corner of the nomograph as the first
step in determining intercept 2A, the value that should be added to P,, is (1 + 0.027
D/lOOO) (63.1 D/lOOO + 335). To locate the intersection of operating lines for the
2i-in. plunger, eq. 13-4 should be used.
Method of testing effects of various well conditions
The effects of change in tailpipe, water cut, and oil gravity were tested by the
method of least squares and found to be insignificant. The method was applied to
the net operating pressure and to the cycle gas gradient, for the wells with 2i-in
plungers, as described below.
After eqs. 13-2 and 13-11 were obtained, the method of least squares was applied
again, with one of the well conditions as an added independent variable. In this
way, new coefficients of the variables and a new coefficient of multiple correlation
were determined.
In each case, the coefficient or index of multiple correlation was found to
increase so slightly, if at all, that the added variable did not significantly increase
the correlation. Consequently, it was believed unnecessary to apply the test to the
pressure buildup for the 21-in. plungers or to any of the factors of pressure or gas
for the 2-in. plungers.
Tailpipe
A well was considered to have a tailpipe if a pipe extended below the footpiece
by a distance equal to 0.3% or more of the distance from the surface to the bottom
of the pipe. By this definition, 44 of the wells with 24-in. plungers had tailpipes
ranging from 0.3 to 27.756, and averaged 3.25%.
As stated earlier, the least-squares equation for net operating pressure, which was
obtained from the 75 wells with 2;-in. plungers, had an index of multiple correla-
tion of 0.945. When tailpipe was included as an added first-power variable, the
index of multiple correlation was raised to 0.946. This increase in the index is
negligible because these values yield a partial coefficient of multiple correlation that
is not significant (Davies, 1949).
The least-squares equation for cycle gas gradient, which was obtained from the
75 wells with 21-in. plungers, had a coefficient of multiple correlation of 0.639.
After the tailpipe was included as an added first-power variable, the coefficient of
multiple correlation was found again to be 0.639.
The definition of depth which is used throughout this chapter is the distance
from the surface to the point at which gas enters the tubing. This would be at the
bottom of any tailpipe. The negligible increase, if any, in the coefficients of multiple
correlation indicates that no additional notice need be taken of tailpipes similar to
those in the wells studied.
496
Water cut
All the equations developed in this chapter include the water in the units of
barrels per day and barrels per cycle. Nevertheless it was believed advisable to test
the effect of water cut on the requirements of pressure and gas.
The least-squares equation for net operating pressure, which was obtained from
the 75 wells with 2f-in. plungers, had an index of multiple correlation of 0.945.
When water cut was included as an added first-power variable, the index of multiple
correlation was found again to be 0.945.
The least-squares equation for cycle gas gradient, which was obtained from the
75 wells with 2f-in. plungers, had a coefficient of multiple correlation of 0.639. The
water cut, as volume per cent of total production, was included as an added
first-power variable; the coefficient of multiple correlation was then found to be
0.641.
This increase in the coefficient is negligible (Davies, 1949), so water cut may be
ignored in estimating plunger lift requirements. Of course, the produced water must
be included in the production rate and in the size load.
For the 75 wells with 2i-in. plungers, water cuts ranged from 0 to 88.956, with an
average of 12.6%.
Oil gravity
The least-squares equation for net operating pressure, whch was obtained from
75 wells with 2t-in plungers, had an index of multiple correlation of 0.945. After oil
gravity was included as an added first-power variable, the index of multiple
correlation was found to be 0.947. This increase in the index is negligible (Davies,
1949).
The least-squares equation of cycle gas gradient, which was obtained from the 75
wells with 2i-in. plungers, had a coefficient of multiple correlation of 0.639. When
oil gravity was included as a first-power variable, the coefficient of multiple
correlation was found to be 0.678. This increase in the coefficient is not significant
(Davies, 1949) because these values yield a partial coefficient of multiple correlation
of 0.029, which is not significant even for a total number of observations as high as
75.
For the oils produced from wells with 2i-in. plungers, the gravities ranged mainly
from 24 to 46" API (one value was 21"), averaging 33.7" API. Consequently, no
allowance need be made for this property in plunger lift calculations, for oil
gravities from 24 to 46' API.
HOW TO USE PLUNGER LIFT NOMOGRAPHS
Purpose of nomographs
The purpose of the nomograph is to permit graphical solution of the problem of

estimating plunger lift performance for a given well. Construction of the nomo-
491
graphs was based on formulas derived by the method of least squares from actual
field data. Supplementary figures in this series provide a means for determining the
probable requirements of gas volume and casing pressure, when size load and
production rate are read from a nomograph.
Solution of the problem is obtained by plotting the operating line for a well. This
line relates size load to gross production rate and, therefore, represents a well’s
ability to produce by the plunger lift method.
For a given depth, there is an upper limit to the production rate, the limit being
fixed by the time required for the plunger to complete a cycle. Accordingly, the
nomographs include curves for various depths which represent the maximum
production rates attainable by plunger lift for various size loads. The intersection of
a well’s operating line and the appropriate limiting depth curve, therefore. will
indicate the highest rate of production expected for the well that is being plotted.
By accepting lower production rates, the plunger may be operated with larger size
loads and at higher net operating pressures to obtain lower gas/liquid ratios. Daily
volumes of gas and the corresponding cost may readily be compared with rates of
production to determine the most economical operation for the well being studied.
The effect of a well’s formation gas/liquid ratio upon the production rate may be
predicted by plotting a supplementary operating line.
Nomograph instructions
In using the nomographs to estimate plunger lift performance in a given well,
aside from tubing and casing sizes, the following information is needed: (1) depth,
(2) static bottomhole pressure, (3) productivity index, and (4) anticipated minimum
tubing pressure. The depth is taken as the distance from the surface to the bottom
of the tubing (or to the point at which gas enters the tubing from the casing). The
static bottomhole pressure should be referred to this depth. The productivity index
is considered to be a constant in the nomographs, and so should be an average
value, if known to vary with the production rate. The values used for static
bot tomhole pressure and productivity index should be as recent as possible and
consistent with the known production rate and the computed or measured flowing
bottomhole pressure. The minimum tubing pressure should be estimated from the
trap or separator pressure, and from expected pressure losses in the flowline, if not
known from field observation. Whenever static pressure and productivity index are
unknown, it may be possible to estimate their limits and plot a pair of operating
lines to obtain the probable range of plunger lift performance. Throughout the
nomographs and figures, interpolation is permitted between lines representing
depth, pressure, productivity index, and size load.
Step I
Multiply the anticipated minimum tubing pressure by 0.990 (1 + 0.027 0/1000)
+
for the 2-in. plunger or by 0.974 (1 0.027 0/1000) for the 2141-1. plunger. Subtract
this amount from the static bottomhole pressure to obtain the value for use in steps
I1 and 111.
498
Step I1
Enter the left-hand chart of the nomograph and proceed up the appropriate
depth line to the curve representing the value obtained in step I. At this point, turn
right and move horizontally to the barrels-per-cycle (bbl/cy) axis. This point is
designated intercept 1.
Step I I I
On the upper right-hand chart, proceed down the proper depth line to the value
determined in step I. Now turn left and move horizontally to the line representing
the productivity index of the well. Then turn and go vertically down to the bbl/day
axis. This point is designated intercept 2 .
Step IV
Connect intercepts 1 and 2 with a straight line which is solid from intercept 1 to
the appropriate depth curve, and is dashed from that point to intercept 2. The solid
portion of this line is the operating line. Directly below the intersection of the
operating line and the depth curve may be read the maximum production rate
expected for the well. The value on the bbl/day axis opposite this intersection is the
size load which will be lifted at the maximum production rate.
The number of cycles per day is computed by dividing bbl/day by bbl/cy, and
the number of minutes per cycle is equal to 1440 divided by the number of cycles
per day. Use Fig. 13-4 (for 2-in.) or Fig. 13-6 (for 2i-in.) to find the required
gas/liquid ratio gradient (gas/ liquid ratio divided by depth in thousands of feet)
from the predicted size load, the depth, and the expected minimum tubing pressure.
Multiply this value (for gas/liquid ratio gradient) by the depth in thousands of feet
(0/1000) to determine the required gas/liquid ratio. Multiply the latter figure by
the predicted production rate to obtain the gas volume. Use Fig. 13-5 or Fig. 13-7 to
find the net operating pressure from the predicted size load and known depth. Add
this value to the minimum tubing pressure to obtain the probable maximum casing
pressure.
Step V-A
Compare the required gas/liquid ratio gradient with the expected formation
gas/liquid ratio gradient. If the probable gas requirement is greater than that which
the well is expected to make, there are two possible situations. If outside gas is
available, it may be circulated at a constant rate down the casing of the well in an
amount necessary to increase the gas/liquid ratio gradient to the required value. In
the second situation where no outside gas is available, use eq. 13-3 or eq. 13-4 to
compute the size load which can be lifted with the expected formation gas/liquid
ratio gradient, at the known depth and anticipated minimum tubing pressure. Mark
a point on the operating line opposite this value of bbl/cy, and read the predicted
gross production rate on the bbl/day axis directly below this point. The values of
cycles per day, minutes per cycle, and maximum casing pressure may be computed
as in step IV.
499
4 5 7 e 10 I1 I2
DEPTH, Tn-D FEET
Fig 13-4 Gas/liquid ratio gradient versus depth (part A) and versus minimum tubing pressure (part B)
for various size loads Add reading of part A to that of part B (2-111 plunger)
500
ZW 300 400
MINIMUM T U I l N O PRCIIURE, PI1
Step V-B
I f the required gas/liquid ratio gradient is less than that expected from the well,
there are two alternative courses. In the first of these, the excess gas is allowed to
ISd '3tlnSS3Ud DNIlVtl3dO 13N
Y
P,
i
k
.-
.-c
P
-
1
L
P
3
%
L
Fig. 13.5. Net operating pressure versus depth for various size loads (2-in. plunger).
501
502
4 5 0 7 8 0 10 II I2
DEPTH.THOIJSND FEET
Fig 13-6 Gas/liquid ratio gradient versus depth (part A) and versus minimum tubing pressure (part B)
for vanous size loads Add reading of part A to that of part B (2i-in plunger)
flow out of the tubing or the casing, either intermittently or at a constant rate, to
obtain the maximum production rate predicted in step IV. The second alternative
involves operation of the plunger in the standard manner while accepting the
production rate obtainable under these conditions.
In t h s second alternative, where no provision is made to remove the excess gas,
503
MINIMUM TUBING CRLSUIII?, P.S.I.
Fig. 13-6 continued
the effect of the excess gas on the production rate may be determined by plotting a
supplementary operating line as follows:
(1) Refer to eq. 13-3 (for 2-in.) or eq. 13-4 (for 2t-in.) and compute the size load
which corresponds to the expected minimum tubing pressure, depth, and formation
gas/liquid ratio gradient. Make a mark at this size load upon the dashed extension
504
Fig. 13-7. Net operating pressure versus depth for various size loads ( 2 l - h plunger).
505
of the operating line on the nomograph. Let this point be designated the "intersec-
tion of operating lines."
(2) This differs from step I11 in that the minimum tubing pressure is not
considered. Furthermore, a value is computed which is to be added to the static
bottomhole pressure: for the 2-in. plunger, the added value is (1 0.027 0/1000) +
(12.67 0/1000 +
356); in the case of the 24-in. plunger, the value is (1+ 0.027
0/1000) (63.1 0/3000 + 335). Re-enter the upper right-hand chart and proceed
down the proper depth line to the appropriate value of static bottomhole pressure
plus the value just computed. Now turn left and move horizontally to the proper
productivity index line. Then turn and go vertically down to the bbl/day axis. This
point is designated intercept 2A.
(3) Draw a straight line from intercept 2A through the intersection of operating
lines, which is solid above and dashed below the point at which the line intersects
the appropriate depth curve. Directly below the intersection of the supplementary
operating line and the depth curve may be read the production rate predicted for
the given conditions. The value on the bbl/cy axis opposite this intersection is the
size load which will be lifted at this production rate.
The values for cycles per day and minutes per cycle may again be computed as in
step IV. The minimum tubing pressure is computed from eq. 13-3 or eq. 13-4 using
the size load just determined and the given gas/liquid ratio gradient and depth. Use
Fig. 13-5 or Fig. 13-7 to find the net operating pressure from the size load just
determined and the known depth. Add this value to the minimum tubing pressure,
to obtain the required maximum casing pressure.
PLUNGER LIFT NOMOGRAPHS AND EXAMPLES
Types of example wells

The nomograph instructions given in the preceding section have been applied to
examples illustrating two different types of wells. For the first example well,
illustrated on Nomograph 1 (Fig. 13-2) for the 2-in. plunger, the probable gas/liquid
ratio required at maximum production rate is considerably higher than the well's
formation gas/liquid ratio. For the second example well, on Nomograph 2 (Fig.
13-3) for the 2f-in. plunger, it is considerably lower, so the situation is reversed.
Nomograph Examples
Data
Plunger size, in. 2 2;
Tubing size, o.d., in. 2; 2;
Casing size, o.d., in. 5; 7
Tubing depth, D , f t 6600 9200
Anticipated minimum tubing pressure, P,""",psi 60 100
Productivity index, J , (bbl/day)/psi 0.12 0.08
Static bottomhole pressure, Pw,, psi 800 2100
Gas/liquid ratio, G / L , cu ft/bbl 3035 6900
Gas/liquid ratio gradient, ( G / L ) (0/1000), (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 460 750
506
Solution bv Nomograph
Step I :
Pw,, psi 800 2100
P,"'"(0.990)(1+ 0.027 0/1000). psi 70 -
P,"'"(0.974)(1 +0.027 0/1000). psi - 122

Pw, - P,"'"(0.990)(1+0.027 0/1000), psi 730 -
Pw,- P~'"(0.974)(1+0.027 0/1000), psi - 1978
Step 11:
Intercept 1, bbl/cy 2.66 14.08
Step I l l :
Intercept 2, bbl/day 72.5 146
Step I V :
Maximum production rate, bbl/day 57.0 121.5
Size load at maximum production rate, bbl/cy 0.58 2.36
Cycle frequency, cycles/day 98 51.5
Cycle time, minutes/cycle 15 28
Required gas/liquid ratio gradient (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 880 454
Required gasJliquid ratio, cu ft/bbl 5808 4177
Required daily gas volume, Mcf/day 331 508
Net operating pressure, psi 236 394
Minimum tubing pressure, psi 60 100
Maximum casing pressure, psi 296 494
Step V - A :
Required gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)(ft/1000) 880 454
Formation gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 460 750
Difference between required and formation gas/liquid
ratio gradient. (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 420 -296
First alternative: Required volume of outside gas to make up
deficiency and attain maximum production rate. Mcf/day 158 -
Second alternative: Size load which can be produced on

formation gas alone. bbl/cq 1.51 -
Production rate at above size load, bbl/day 31.7 -
Cycle frequency, cycles/day 21 -
Cycle time, minutes/cycles 69 -

Net operating pressure, psi 420 -
Minimum tubing pressure. psi 60 -
Maximum casing pressure. psi 480 -
Step V-B:
First alternative: Volume of excess gas to be removed, Mcf/day - 331
Second alternative:
1. Size load at given value of minimum tubing pressure
and formation gas/liquid ratio gradient, for locating
intersection of operating lines, bbl/cy - 1.22
2. Intercept 2A, bbl/day - 241
3. Production rate, bbl/day - 98
Size load at above production rate. bbl/cy - 1.6
Cycle frequency, cycles/daq - 61
Cycle time, minutes/cycle - 24
Minimum tubing pressure. psi - 421
Net operating pressure. psi - 314
Maximum casing pressure. psi - 135
507
Accuracy expected from results
As stated earlier, the equations for gas and pressure were derived from correla-
tions of field data by the method of least squares. This method yields expressions
that represent actual field experience. Some of the data may have been submitted
for plungers that were not being operated under ideal conditions. Nevertheless, the
net operating pressure, gas/ liquid ratio, and pressure buildup that were being used
undoubtedly were the values required for the chosen set of operating conditions.
In operating a plunger, it has always been possible to control the pressure in the
casing and the volume of any outside gas that was being circulated. Before the
equations and nomographs were available, however, it was not easy to choose the
operating conditions most suitable for a well. The above factors are interdependent
with size load and minimum tubing pressure. Consequently, the values chosen for
maximum casing pressure and gas/liquid ratio will influence size load and mini-
mum tubing pressure.
It follows, therefore, that the well data submitted for various sets of operating
conditions were suitable for deriving the equations relating these interdependent
variables. The method of least squares permitted determination of these relations in
terms of probable or average values, thus minimizing the effects of errors and other
variations, and in addition, had the usual advantage inherent in a method based on
experience.
Another major advantage in such correlation equations is the opportunity of
choosing safety factors that correspond to practically any degree of certainty desired
in results obtained through use of the equations. This is amplified by the discussion
of accuracy in the paragraphs that follow.
The accuracy to be expected from use of the equations for gas and pressure is
illustrated by Figs. 13-8 and 13-9. To obtain the curves for the figures, the data for a
well were substituted into the appropriate equation and a factor, such as net
operating pressure, was calculated. This was subtracted from the actual reported
data and the difference was expressed as per cent of the calculated value. These
difference percentages were arranged in order of increasing magnitude. The values
at various fractions of the total number of cases were then plotted and a smooth
curve was drawn among the points. Any point on such a curve indicates that the
fraction of cases directly below the point had difference percentage equal to or less
than the value horizontally opposite the point.
As an example of use of the curves, it may be noted in Fig. 13-8 that for a 2-in.
plunger the actual net operating pressure for 0.5 of the cases fell within +24% and
for 0.9 of the cases within +55% of the calculated values. These would be the
variations which should include the actual net operating pressure for one out of two
new cases, and nine out of ten new cases, for which the appropriate equation is
applied. For the 2i-in. plunger, the corresponding values are +12% and *47%.
These conclusions stem from the fact that 0.5 and 0.9 of the cases studied fell within
these variations and the same should hold for new cases.
A percentage variation (or safety factor) which is allowed in predicting net
508
FRACTION OF CASES WITH DIFFERENCES LESS THAN SCALE READING
Fig. 13-8. Accuracy expected from least-squares equations (2-in. plunger).
operating pressure usually should lie somewhere between the above pairs of values,
depending on the degree of certainty desired. For practical purposes, the same
variation may be allowed in predicting production rate.
The last statement does not concern any inaccuracies involved in the productivity
index equation. This relation, with its advantages and disadvantages, has been the
subject of many articles in the past and doubtless will be the subject of many more
in the future. The equation has become an important tool in predicting production
rates, and proof of its validity is beyond the scope of the present chapter.
As stated in the Nomograph Instructions given in the preceding subsection, an
average value for the productivity index should be used, if it is known to vary with
production rate. It should also be emphasized that unless both the static bottomhole
pressure and the productivity index have been determined quite recently, one of
509
FRACTION OF CASES WITH DIFFERENCES LESS THAN SCALE READING
Fig. 13-9. Accuracy expected from least-squares equations ( 2 :-in. plunger).
these should be computed. For example, if the static pressure is the one more
recently determined, it should be substituted into the productivity index equation,
along with the production rate and the flowing bottomhole pressure which has been
measured or calculated from the well’s operating conditions. This permits computa-
tion of the productivity index for use with the nomographs.
The accuracy to be expected from use of the equations for gas/liquid ratio
gradient may also be read from the curves of Figs. 13-8 and 13-9. For the 2-in.
plunger, 0.5 and 0.9 of the cases were within 30% and 5-7376, respectively; for the
2i-in. plunger, 0.5 and 0.9 of the cases were within 21% and 57%, respectively.
A similar statistical analysis of accuracy cannot be made for the maximum
production rate equations. However, this is not a serious disadvantage. These
equations are used in the nomographs only for fixing an upper limit to the gross
510
production rate expected from plunger lift. Furthermore, operating conditions may
be set so that the maximum production rates given by the equations are actually
attained.
PLUNGER LIFT APPLICATIONS
Use of equations and figures without plotting operuting line
When the static bottomhole pressure and the productivity index are known or
may be estimated, a well’s operating line may be drawn on a nomograph, as has
been described earlier. Even when such bottomhole data are not available, the
equations for net operating pressure and gas/liquid ratio gradient may be used to
advantage.
Any oil or gas well has limitations as to pressure or volume of gas, and one of
these factors is more critical than the other. By substituting a value for the more
critical factors into the appropriate equation, the size load may be computed. This
computed size load may be substituted into the companion equation, and a value
may be calculated for the less critical factor. This process may be repeated, starting
with various values of the more critical factor. The method is illustrated in Table
13-IV, and it may be applied either before or after installing plunger lift equipment.
Before installation, the calculations are used in predicting future performance. After
installation, the method is used in adjusting the operating conditions to those most
suitable for the well.
Types of oil wells suitable for plunger lift
General considerations
The plunger can be applied to all wells that are within its capacity and where
sufficient gas and pressure are available. These include weak-flowing wells, small
producers with high gas/oil ratios, and wells on gas lift that are using excessive
volumes of gas. Also included are wells where the accumulation of bottomhole
water, paraffin, or an emulsion is a production problem.
Plunger lift is especially suitable for the deeper well with a medium-to-high static
bottomhole pressure and low productivity index. This method may be economically
applied to the difficult intermediate step between flowing and pumping, usually
when gas/oil ratios are high. The plunger is considered a depletion device for deep,
tight formations.
The standard plunger lift installation consists of surface controls and a simple,
open system without a tubing packer. Experience has proven that flowing bottom-
hole pressures can be obtained by this system that are generally lower than those by
any other gas-lift method.
In some wells, it becomes necessary to lift small loads of oil with each cycle. In
such cases, a plunger acting as a piston can lift the oil with less pressure, less volume
511
TABLE 13-IV
Example wells for use of equations
Description Value
Example well with limited net operating pressure
Data:
Tubing size, o.d., in. 2;
Tubing depth, ft 8000
Anticipated minimum tubing pressure, psi 40
Pressure of outside gas available, psi 500
Anticipated production rate, bbl/day 70
Solution by equations orfigures:

From data, net operating pressure, psi 460
From eq. 13-1 or Fig. 13-5, size load, bbl/cy 1.47
From eq. 13-3 or Fig. 13-4, gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 466
Probable gas/liquid ratio, cu ft/bbl 3728
Probable daily gas volume, Mcf/day 261
Example well with limited gas/liquid ratio

Data:
Minimum tubing pressure, psi 60
Gas/liquid ratio, cu ft/bbl 4000
Solution by equations andfigures:

From data, gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)(ft/1000) 465
From eq. 13-4, size load, bbl/cy 2.07
From eq. 13-2 or Fig. 13-7, net operating pressure, psi 346
Probable maximum casing pressure, psi 406
Example gas well unloading water to atmosphere

Dara:
Tubing depth, f t 4200
Casing pressure, psi 400
Water production rate, bbl/day 4
Solution by equations or figures:

From eq. 13-3 or Fig. 13-1, gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 366
Probable gas/liquid ratio, cu ft/bbl 1537
Probable daily gas volume used in unloading, Mcf/day 6.46
Example gas well producing to sales line

Data:
Tubing size, o.d., in. ' 2;
Sales line pressure, psi 650
Casing pressure, psi 860
Water production, bbl/day 150
512
TABLE 13-IV (continued)
Description Value
Solution h.v equutions upid figures:
Cycle frequency, cycles/day 75
Cycle time, minutes/cycle 19
From eq. 13-4, gas/liquid ratio gradient, (cu ft/bbl)/(ft/1000) 587
Probable gas/liquid ratio to lift water, cu ft/bbl 2348
Probable daily gas volume used in lifting, Mcf/day 3 52
of gas, less slippage, and less chance of forming emulsions than is the case with any
other gas-lift method.
For best results, oil gravities probably should be above 24”API. Plunger lift will
produce wells with water cuts ranging from 0 to loo%, providing the gross
production rate is within the “capacities” listed later in this section.
The plunger is excellent for preventing the build-up of paraffin on tubing walls
and often in flowlines as well. This is due to the combination of the intermittent gas
flows, followed by warm slugs of liquid, and the scraping action of the plunger.
The plunger can operate in the tubing, no matter how crooked the hole. It has
not been determined how great the deflection from the vertical would have to be to
cause an adverse effect upon plunger operation. But it is believed that a steep angle
would tend to slow the plunger, so that its maximum effectiveness could not be
realized.
Capacities
The maximum (gross) production rates of wells ordinarily considered suitable for
plunger lift are listed below:
Depth
(ft) Barrels per day
Plunger size
2-in. 2 5 -in
4000 130 190
6000 115 175
8000 105 160
10,000 95 150
12,000 85 140
How to determine if a well is a possible plunger lift candidate

The suitability of an oil well for the plunger lift system is best determined by
plotting the well’s operating line on a nomograph, as described earlier. A helpful
513
NET OPERATING PRESSURE-POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH

Fig. !3-10.Application curves based on gas and pressure requirements (2-in. plunger).
preliminary appraisal, however, may be made by using Fig. 13-10 or Fig. 13-11 to
determine whether a well is a possible candidate for plunger lift.
Use of Figs. 13-10 and 13-11

The curves in Figs. 13-10 and 13-11 represent probable requirements of gas and '
514
-1
U
d
c
Y
n
NET OPERATING PRESSURE-POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
Fig. 13-11. Application curves based on gas and pressure requirements (2i-in. plunger).
pressure. The gas/liquid ratio is plotted against the net operating pressure. The
latter is the amount of the casing pressure that is over and above the trap or
separator pressure. In computing the gas/liquid ratio for Figs. 13-10 and 13-11; the
trap or separator pressure was taken equal to zero.
515
Because these curves represent average values, 2000 f t should be subtracted from
the well’s tubing depth, in using the curves to determine whether a well’s operating
line should be plotted.
In using the figures, the procedure to follow depends upon whether the well must
rely entirely on formation gas or there is additional gas available from some outside
source; that is, whether gas volume or pressure is the more critical factor.
Well depends entirely on formation gas

Use Fig. 13-10 for a well with 2-in. tubing or Fig. 13-11 for a well with 2+-in.
tubing. Starting at the well’s gas/liquid ratio, proceed horizontally to a curve
representing the well’s tubing depth less 2000 ft. Directly below this point, read the
value of net operating pressure. If this pressure appears feasible, the well’s operating
line should be plotted for a complete analysis.
Well has gas available from some outside source

Select a casing pressure acceptable for producing the well. Subtract from this
value the.pressure of the flowline or separator. Enter Fig. 13-10 (for 2-in.) or Fig.
13-11 (for 24-in.) at this net operating pressure, and proceed vertically to a curve
representing the well’s tubing depth less 2000 ft. Horizontally opposite this point,
read the value of the gas/liquid ratio. If this ratio appears reasonable, the well is a
possible candidate and its operating line should be plotted.
Intermittent flowing and plunger lift system
Before completing a new well, it may be profitable to estimate the likelihood of

its developing into one suitable for plunger lift. In this regard, it is helpful to project
into the future the probable ranges of the well’s static bottomhole pressure and
productivity index.
These estimated values may be used to plot a series of operating lines on a
nomograph by the method described earlier. These lines will indicate: (1) whether
the well will become suitable for plunger lift, (2) when to start the plunger, and (3)
whether the well may be economically depleted by plunger lift.
The operating lines plotted for the well at various estimated stages of production
may indicate that the well will become suitable for plunger lift. In this case, it will
pay to consider equipping the well at the start for the intermittent flowing and
plunger lift system.
This system involves the following producing steps, during any of which outside
gas may be added: (1)continuous flow, ( 2 ) intermittent flow by automatic stopcock-
ing, and (3) producing with plunger lift.
Equipping wells at start for intermittent flowing and plunger lift (free piston) system
Tubing program
(1) When run, the tubing should be drifted or sized to 1.915 in. for the 2-in.
plunger or 2.355 in. for the 2i-in. plunger.
516
(2) The tubing should be the same size all the way down and should be run as
deep as practicable, inasmuch as this will help in the later stages of depletion.
(3) An API pump shoe may be run on the bottom of the tubing string, for later
setting a footpiece spring.
(4) If a packer is desired in the well, consideration should be given to installing a
side-door choke at the same time. In wells suitable for such a practice, this will
permit the use of outside gas without removing the packer, in case additional gas is
finally required for the operation of plunger lift.
Christmas tree
A plunger lift Christmas tree should be installed, so that it will later accommodate
a plunger. The master gate valve should have a full, round opening of the same size
as the tubing string. Such a tree is just as useful for all prior operations, and no
major change need be made when the well is ready for installation of the rest of the
plunger lift equipment.
Well starting
There should be a means of starting the well after natural flow ceases. Gas from
an outside source, such as a compressor, should be available at sufficient pressure
for starting the well, or kick-off valves should be installed to permit the use of gas at
a lower pressure. Preferably, these should be outside valves which will permit
normal passage of the standard plunger through the string of tubing.
Cycle controller for intermittent flowing

In the producing step involving intermittent flow by automatic stopcocking, a
cycle controller would be installed to open and close the flowline. This controller
should be the same one needed later with plunger lift.
Advantages of intermittent flowing and plunger lift system
The system involving intermittent flowing and plunger lift has several advantages
over any other system of producing a well. Some of the advantages are the
following:
(1) The system is so versatile and flexible that it will handle a well throughout
wide ranges of bottomhole conditions, production rates, gas/ oil ratios, and water
cuts.
(2) The formation gas is always used in lifting, and is never a detriment.
(3) From completion to the final step of depletion by plunger lift, the tubing
need not be pulled to progress through the steps outlined in t h s system.
(4) If no tubing packer is used, as is generally recommended, the operator will
have the advantage of more easily obtaining bottomhole data. This is especially true,
if a bonnet is installed designed for running instruments into the annulus.
( 5 ) All controls are located at the surface.
(6) Inasmuch as the well is always in a state similar to natural flowing, there is a
beneficial effect on the formation.
517
Gas well applications
The application of plunger lift is being made in gas wells for removing liquid
accumulations which hold back gas production. It has been found that gas produc-
tion is substantially increased by the automatic removal of even very small volumes
of water per day.
It is necessary to flow some gas wells at very high rates to produce water, or to
blow the wells frequently to atmosphere in removing the water. In such cases, it is
found advantageous to use a plunger to gain better control in producing the well.
Removing the water with a plunger, while producing gas at a lower rate, results in a
much gentler action on the formation.
In a well which has sufficient pressure, a plunger may operate while the gas is
being produced through a separator directly to the sales line. Where this is not
practicable, the gas should be produced from the casing to the sales line, and the
plunger should be cycled periodically to remove liquid from the tubing to the
atmosphere or low-pressure separator. In this latter application, it is necessary to
use the trigger to insure a minimum loss of gas during the periodic unloading of the
tubing.
Ordinarily a timer is used for the automatic control of plunger lift in gas wells. It
is possible, however, to operate the plunger manually instead of automatically,
especially if no more than two cycles per day are required.
The free piston, being a versatile tool, may be operated in a variety of ways to
produce gas wells with wide ranges of gas and liquid production rates. The volume
of produced gas may be any value above the minimum gas requirement described in
the subsection involving Figs. 13-10 and 13-11. The liquid “capacities” listed in the
subsection following Table 13-IV apply also to plunger lift operation in gas wells.
PREDICTING PLUNGER LIFT PERFORMANCE
Need to use tubing bottom as reference depth
Static bottomhole pressures and productivity indexes often are referred to the
midpoint of the perforations. For use with wells to be produced by free-piston lift,
accuracy of predicting well performance is greatly increased by referring these
values to the bottom of the tubing. If gas is to enter at some depth other than the
bottom of the tubing, the point of reference should be taken at the depth where gas
is to enter the tubing, as was done to derive operating lines for plunger lift. In this
way, there is a column of gas in the annulus from that depth to the surface while the
plunger is rising. Furthermore the height of liquid above that depth ordinarily is
negligible during the rest of the free-piston cycle.
This permits adding the weight of the gas column to the average casing pressure
in order to obtain the average flowing pressure at the bottom of the tubing. That
518
sum and the static bottomhole pressure were introduced into the productivity-index
equation, to obtain the operating line. Both the static bottomhole pressure and the
productivity index, therefore, should be referred to the depth at which gas enters the
tubing, whxh is usually the bottom of the tubing.
It is readily apparent that the static bottomhole pressure varies with depth
according to the static-pressure gradient. It is also true that the productivity index
usually varies with depth because the static-pressure gradient and the flowing-pres-
sure gradient usually are not equal. This becomes evident upon consideration of the
productivity-index equation:
4 = JPW,
- Pwf) (13-28)
If Pw, and Fwfare changed by different amounts in referring them to a new

depth, the value of Pw, - Fw,is changed. Accordingly, for a given q, the computed
value of J will be different. For a thick zone, the difference may be appreciable, as
is illustrated by an actual well described in the next subsection.
Example of change in productivity index with depth
According to Horton (1959), Well I was perforated from 7350 to 8590 ft, with the
midpoint at 7970 f t and the bottom of the tubing at 8490 ft. The measured static
pressure was 394 psi at the midpoint and 600 psi at the bottom of the tubing. When
the well was producing 38 bbl/day of 33" API oil with a 34% water cut, the
measured flowing pressure was 192 psi at the midpoint and 220 psi at the bottom of
the tubing.
Substituting these values in eq. 13-28, the calculated productivity index is 0.188
(bbl/day)/psi at the midpoint and 0.100 (bbl/day)/psi at the bottom of the
tubing. These values differ greatly with depth and the proper one should be used in
predicting free-piston performance. With the bottom of the tubing at 5490 f t as at
present, an index of 0.100 (bbl/day)/psi and a static pressure of 600 psi should be
used. If the tubing bottom were at the midpoint, an index of 0.188 (bbl/day)/psi
and a static pressure of 394 psi should be used. If the tubing bottom were at the top
of the zone, still a different pair of values should be used.
Obtaining static and index consistent with operating conditions
If a well is being produced by gas lift or by free-piston lift and a fairly accurate
value is known for either the static bottomhole pressure or the productivity index, a
value is readily computed for the other, which is consistent with the production rate
and the operating conditions. The method given herein has been found to increase
so greatly the accuracy of predicting performance that it should be used in all cases,
unless very accurate recent values have been obtained for both the static bottomhole
pressure and the productivity index at the depth where gas will enter the tubing.
519
TABLE 13-V
Estimated values of static pressure and productivity index for well 1
Case Static Static Gradient Productivity Productivity

pressure pressure index index
7970 ft 8490 ft 7970 ft 8490 ft
(psi) (psi) (psi/ft) [(bbl/day)/psiI [(bbl/day)/psiI
1 - a
600 ’ - - 0.100
2
3
-
394
600
550
-
0.300
-
-
0.100
0.115
’
4 394 589 0.375 ’ - 0.103
5 394 628 0.450 ’ - 0.093
6 - 578 0.300 0.188 0.106
7 - 617 0.375 ’ 0.188 0.096
8 - 656 0.450 0.188 ’ 0.087
a Values either not available, or not applicable. Values given or assumed. All other values were
computed from a production rate of 38 bbl/day and a flowing pressure of 220 psi at 8490 ft.
The method involves obtaining, for a given production rate, an average casing
pressure to which is added the weight of the column of gas down to the bottom of
the tubing. This yields the average flowing pressure at the point where gas enters the
tubing. If either the “static” or the “index” is known for that depth, the value may
be introduced into the productivity-index equation, along with the average flowing
pressure. This permits calculating the one that is unknown, to obtain a pair of
values consistent with the operating conditions. (See cases 1 and 2 of Table 13-V.)
In the case for which the static bottomhole pressure is known at some other
depth, the value of the static at the desired depth may be estimated from the static
pressure gradient. If unknown, this may be taken as the pressure gradient of the oil
at reservoir temperature, reduced by an amount consistent with the formation
gas/liquid ratio. These values of the average flowing pressure and the static at the
tubing depth are introduced into the productivity-index equation, which is then
solved for the index. The value obtained is consistent with the given production rate
and average casing pressure. (See cases 3-5 of Table 13-V.)
In some cases, the productivity index may be known more accurately than the
static bottomhole pressure, at some depth other than the tubing bottom. In this
event, the index and the static may be estimated for the desired depth with sufficient
accuracy for most purposes. The given value of the productivity index is introduced
into the productivity-index equation, solving for the static. The resulting value
approximates the static at the reference depth for the given index. The resulting
value of the static is corrected to the tubing depth, applying the static gradient. The
new value is then used in the productivity-index equation to estimate the index at
the tubing depth. (See cases 6-8 of Table 13-V.) These calculations give a pair of
values consistent with the operating conditions and reasonably accurate.
This method always gives a pair of values consistent with the operating condi-
520
tions. The values will be exact, provided that the static at the tubing depth is known,
or the static at another depth and the static gradient are known. Table 13-V shows
that reasonable estimations of the static gradient yield sufficiently accurate values of
the index.
When the index is known at some depth other than the tubing depth, Table 13-V
shows that sufficiently accurate values of the static and the index may be computed
by using the known or estimated static gradient.
Changes in operating line with changes in static and index computed from operating
conditions
For a given pair of values for the production rate and the average flowing
pressure, all main operating lines plotted on a nomograph will have a common point
fixed as follows: the value on the production-rate axis is the given production rate;
the corresponding value on the size-load axis is given by the expression for intercept
1 on that axis, with the given average flowing bottom-tubing pressure being
substituted for the static bottom-tubing pressure. Derivation of the common point is
given in later paragraphs.
Changes in the direction of the operating lines passing through that fixed point
are apparent from a consideration of eq. 13-22 of intercept 1 for 2i-in. plunger lift:
When q = 0,
P, - (1 + 0.027D/1000)(0.974Ptmin+ 1.1250/1000 + 113.2)

L, = (13-22)
(1 + 0.0270/1000)(11.11D/1000 + 1.545)
The values of D and Ptm"'are fixed for given operating conditions, and so L,
increases with increasing values of P,,. This causes the operating line to tend toward
the vertical. A decrease in P,, causes the operating line to tend toward the
horizontal.
The equation for the main operating line for the 2i-in. plunger has been derived
in the following form (eq. 13-21):
)(0.974Pyin+ 1.125-1000 +113.2)
(13-21)
This equation is applied to the same production rate for a well, but to different pairs
of values taken for the static pressure and the productivity index. Subscript 1 is used
to denote one set of values, and subscript 2 to denote a second set of values. The
521
operating line for condition 2 is subtracted from the operating line for condition 1.
At the common point of the lines, this yields the following size load:
J 2 ( P W S ) 2 -J1(PwJ1
I(1.545 + 11.11-)(J2
D -J1)
'' = (1 + 0.027-
1000 1000
0.974PF'" + 1.125- + 113.2

- 1000 (13-29)
D
1.545 + 11.11-
1000
The productivity-index equation is then applied to the same production rate and
flowing bottom-tubing pressure for a well, but to different pairs of values taken for
the static pressure and the productivity index. The fixed value of average flowing
bottom-tubing pressure is denoted by p;,. The productivity-index equation for
condition 1 is divided by the productivity-index equation for condition 2 to give the
following relation:
(I 3-30)
Substituting the value of J1from eq. 13-30 into eq. 13-29 gives:
L, =
P;, -
i+
1 0.027-
1000
+ 1.125 -
](0.974PFin
1000
+ 113.2)
(13-31)
i+ 1 0.027-
1000
I(1.545 + 11.11-
1000
Equation 13-31 is the value of intercept 1 which would be obtained by using F;,
instead of P,,.
Of course, the common point of the two lines lies at the production rate given for
the well and is fixed by this given value and eq. 13-31.
Actual field example of changes in predictions from operating line
One operator has supplied both static bottomhole pressures and productivity
indexes for nine wells being produced by plunger lift. This provided an excellent
opportunity for obtaining actual well data to illustrate the changes that occur in
predictions from an operating line, when different values are used for the static
pressure and the productivity index. The well data are listed in Table 13-VI. The
table includes data of all wells for which the operator supplied both static bottom-
hole pressures and productivity indexes.
In all calculations with the well data, operating conditions were fixed at those
u?
N
TABLE 13-VI
Well data for 2;-in. plungers a
Well Gross Water Gas/ Casing Tubing Cycles Plunger Tubing Producing
liquid cut liquid pressures pressures, Per footpiece depth interval depth
ratio depth
(bbl/day) (cu ft/bhl) max. min. max. min. (ft) from to
- -
A 90 14 9530 360 340 345 135 96 7417 7447 7450 8152
B 24 8 7500 340 325 330 200 29 5873 5873 7431 8209
C 28 2 21,000 380 345 345 170 79 7799 7822 7881 8799
D 64 4 6500 580 560 560 245 85 7665 7695 7698 8320
E 31 4 13,500 340 300 300 110 30 6540 6570 7324 7450
F 40 4 7500 310 290 330 145 58 6687 6717 7060 8150
G .53 6 4500 590 510 540 140 26 6250 6280 6329 7349
H 42 5 8500 400 360 365 115 30 8535 8565 8655 9761
I 27 8 6500 400 380 350 90 52 6051 6081 6900 8236
- ~
a The following conditions were reported for all the wells: (1) Gas/liquid ratio involved only formation gas because no gas was circulated in any of the
wells. (2) Gas gravity was 0.75 referred to air, and oil gravity was 30-31OAPI. (3) Tubing size was 2; in., and casing size was 7 in.
TABLE 13-VII
Comparison of actual production rate with maximum estimated from given static pressure and given productivity index a
Well 'Tubing Min. Given Given Inter- Inter- Inter- Inter- Est. Initial Initial
depth tubing static prod. cept 1 cept2 section cept 2A max. prod.
Est. rnax.
pressure pressure index of oper. prod. rate
lines rate
(ft) (PSid (Psi& (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (%)
7447 135 1000 0.217 6.85 150 0.61 393 70 90 128.7

5873 200 1100 0.11 9.50 88 0.59 193 75 24 32.0
7822 170 1160 0.05 7.60 40 0.30 100 37 28 75.6
7695 245 1500 0.50 10.00 525 1.11 1170 113 64 56.6
6570 110 1100 0.05 9.10 41 40 31 77.5
6717 145 1055 0.10 8.30 74 68 40 58.8
6280 140 1590 0.07 15.35 92 86 53 61.6
8565 115 2070 0.03 15.00 53 ~ - 51 42 82.4 '
6081 90 1040 0.15 9.90 118 0.74 267 86 27 31.4

Average 61.2
a With the given static and given index, wells A, B, C, D, and I produced more gas than was required, and excess gas was not removed; therefore, the
estimatcd maximum production rate was obtained by plotting a supplementary operating line. With the given static and given index, wells E, F, G, and H
produced less gas than was required for maximum production rate; therefore, no supplementary operating line was plotted for any of these wells.
w
N
W
TABLE 13-VIII
Comparison of actual production rate with maximum estimated from given static pressure and computed productivity index a
Well Tubing Min. Given Average Calc. Inter- Inter- Inter- Inter- Est. Initial Initial
depth tubing static flowing prod. cept 1 cept 2 section cept 2A max. prod.
Est. max.
pressure, pressure pressure index of oper. prod. rate
lines rate
(ft) (psig) (PSk) (PSk) (bbb'cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (%)
A 7447 135 1000 420 0.155 7.25 107 68 90 132.2

B 5873 200 1100 385 0.034 9.60 25 24 24 100.0
C 7821 170 1160 437 0.039 6.65 32 30 28 93.3
D 7695 245 1500 688 0.079 10.10 84 77 64 83.2
E 6570 110 1050 376 0.043 9.50 35 34 31 91.2
F 6717 145 1055 353 0.057 10.55 41 40 40 100.0
G 6280 140 1590 646 0.056 15.35 70 68 53 77.9
H ' 8565 115 2070 468 0.026 14.80 46 44 42 95.5
I 6081 90 1040 455 0.046 9.90 37 35 27 77.1
Average 94.5
a With the given static and computed index, well A produced more gas than was required, and the excess gas was not removed; therefore, the estimated
maximum production rate was obtained by plotting a supplementary operating line. With the given static and computed index, each of the other wells
produced less gas than was required for maximum production rate; therefore, no other supplementary operating lines were plotted.
TABLE 13-IX
Comparison of actual production rate with maximum estimated from given productivity index and computed static pressure a
Well Tubing Min. Given Average Calc. Inter- Inter- Inter- Inter- ESt. Initial Initial
depth tubing prod. flowing prod. cept 1 cept 2 section cept 2A max.
prod.
pressure index pressure, index of oper. prod. rate
lines rate
(bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (%)
A 7447 135 0.217 420 834 5.15 126 0.61 355 67 90 134.3
B 5873 200 0.11 385 603 3.10 24 - - 23 24 104.3
C 7821 170 0.05 437 997 6.10 32 0.30 92 31 28 90.3
D 7695 245 0.50 688 816 3.60 87 1.11 829 90 64 71.1
E 6570 110 0.05 376 996 8.20 36 - - 35 31 88.6
F 6717 145 0.10 353 753 4.85 83 0.68 149 70 40 57.2
G 6280 140 0.07 646 1403 13.15 76 - - 72 53 73.6
H 8565 115 0.03 468 1868 13.30 47 - - 46 42 91.3
I 6081 90 0.15 455 635 4.80 65 - ~
58 27 46.5
Average 84.1
a With the given index and computed static, wells A, C, D, and F produced more gas than was required, and excess gas was not removed; therefore, the
estimated maximum production rate was obtained by plotting a supplementary operating line. With the given index and computed static, wells B, E, G,
H, and I produced less gas than was required for maximum production rate; therefore, no supplementary operating line was plotted for any of these wells.
wl
N
wl
TABLE 13-X
Comparison of actual production rate with maximum estimated from measured pressure run and computed productivity index a
Well Tubing Min. Meas. Average Calc. Inter- Inter- Inter- Inter- Est. Initial Initial
depth tubing static flowing prod. cept 1 cept 2 section cept 2A max. prod.
Est. max.
pressure pressure pressure index of oper. prod. rate
lines rate
(ft) (Psig) (PSk) (Psig) (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/cy) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (bbl/day) (56)
7447 135 899 420 0.188 5.80 112 65 90 138.4

5873 200 671 385 0.084 3.95 26 25 24 96.0
7821 170 1030 437 0.047 6.35 32 30 28 93.3
7695 245 1480 688 0.081 9.90 84 76 64 84.1
6570 110 856 376 0.065 6.75 38 36 31 86.1
6717 145 1014 353 0.061 7.80 42 41 40 97.6
6280 140 1404 646 0.070 13.15 76 73 53 72.6
8565 115 1919 468 0.029 13.65 48 42 42 100.0
6081 90 605 455 0.180 2.95 40 37 27 73.0
Average 93.5
~~
a With the static obtained from a measured pressure run and the computed index, well A produced more gas than was required, and excess gas was not
removed; therefore, the estimated maximum production rate was obtained by plotting a supplementary operating line. With the static obtained from a
measured pressure run and the computed index, each of the other wells produced less gas than was required for maximum production rate; therefore, no
other supplementary operating lines were plotted.
527
actually measured immediately after plunger lift was installed. These initial condi-
tions were used to compare the initial production rate with the estimated maximum
production rate obtained from the operating line. This one point on the operating
line is quite suitable as a standard of comparison for wells such as these, with
gas/ liquid ratios sufficiently high to operate near maximum production rates.
In Table 13-VII, the given static pressure and given productivity index for each
well were taken to be the values at the bottom of the tubing and were used in
plotting the operating line. In Table 13-VIII, the given static pressure was taken to
be the value at the bottom of the tubing to compute the productivity index used in
plotting the operating line. In Table 13-IX, the given index was taken to be the
value at the bottom of the tubing to compute the static pressure used in plotting the
operating line. In Table 13-X, the given static pressure was corrected from the
middle of the perforations to the bottom of the tubing by data obtained in a
pressure-bomb run. The productivity index was then computed for the bottom of
the tubing before plotting the operating line.
Comparisons in the tables were based on maximum production rates estimated
by plotting operating lines. This method of comparison was used because the
producing gas/liquid ratios were high and the operator hoped to produce oil from
each well at a rate near the maximum obtainable by plunger lift. However, tubing
depths were high (average of 817 ft) above the top of the perforations. Comparisons
also might be based on production rates at any given size load. Nevertheless the use
of estimated maximum production rate is quite appropriate as a basis for a well with
a high gas/liquid ratio or where outside gas is available.
It is apparent from the tables that the given static pressure and given productivity
index did not permit reasonably accurate predictions of production rate. The actual
initial production rate averaged only 67.2% of the estimated maximum production
rate. On the other hand, the tables show that computing the productivity index from
the given static pressure, or vice versa, yielded reasonably accurate predictions.
For the actual case in which the productivity index was based on a static pressure
obtained from a pressure-bomb run, the initial production rate averaged 93.5% of
the estimated maximum production rate. The average was only 1.0% higher, or
94.5%, when the index was computed directly from the static. The average was only
9.4% lower, or 84.1%,when the static was computed directly from the index.
Even more accurate estimations would have been obtained if the static bottom-
hole pressure had been corrected to the tubing depth. As was stated concerning
Table 13-V, the computed index would be exact in case the reference depth is given
for the static and the static gradient is known. It was also shown in Table 13-V that
quite accurate values of the static and the index may be computed from the index at
some reference depth, using the known or estimated gradient.
NOMENCLATURE
D -depth or distance from surface to point at which gas enters

tubing, feet.
528
G/L -volume ratio of gross gas to gross liquid, both measured at 14.7
psia and 60" F, standard cubic feet per barrel.
G -volume of gross gas per cycle, standard cubic feet per cycle.
J -productivity index, barrels per day per pound per square inch.
L C -size load of gross liquid, barrels per cycle.
PcmaX -maximum casing pressure (at the surface), pounds per square
inch gauge.
pcmln -minimum casing pressure (at the surface), pounds per square
inch gauge.
Ptmln -minimum tubing pressure (at the surface), pounds per square
inch gauge.
PWf -flowing bottomhole pressure (at depth D),pounds per square
- inch gauge.
PWf -average flowing bottomhole pressure (at depth D), pounds per
square inch gauge.
PW S -static bottomhole pressure (at depth D), pounds per square inch
gauge.
4 -gross production rate, barrels of liquid per day.
4 Inax -maximum gross production rate, barrels of liquid per day.
t y -minimum time required for plunger to complete a cycle, minutes
per cycle.
( G / L ) / ( D/lOOO)-gas/liquid ratio gradient, cubic feet per barrel/(feet/1000).
Pcmax - P,mn:net operating pressure, pounds per square inch.
P,"" - Pcfin:pressure buildup, pounds per square inch.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first part of this chapter includes large portions of the material contained in
a series of five articles by Beeson et al. (1958). This material has been reproduced by
consent of the Petroleum Engineer Publishing Company, Dallas, Texas.
The authors sincerely appreciate the fact that the excellent distribution indicated
in Tables 13-1, 13-11, and 13-111 is due to the many engineers and operators who so
generously collected and submitted the data.
The authors sincerely appreciate release of the data for publication of Table
13-VI.
The help extended by E. Beauregard and Don Hollis of Ferguson Beauregard
Inc. is also greatly appreciated.
(1) Show by a sequence of five illustrations the operation of a plunger lift.

(2) Describe types of wells suitable for plunger lift.
529
(3) List the main items of interest in the operation of the gas-lift plunger for a
given well.
(4) Is there any noticeable effect on the items in (3) due to changes in tailpipe,
water cut or oil gravity, and how was this determined?
(5) In using a nomograph, what is the datum plane that should be used for the
static bottomhole pressure and the productivity index?
(6) If the static bottomhole pressure and the productivity index are given for the
midpoint of the perforations, what information would be needed to compute the
values at the desired datum plane?
(a) For a well that is being pumped; (b) for a well that is being produced by
continuous gas lift.
(7) Indicate the computations that would need to be made with the information
listed in (6).
(8) What is the distinguishing characteristics of a well for which a Supplementary
Operating Line would be plotted on a nomograph?
(9) For a 2i-in. plunger with maximum production rate of 110 bbl/day de-
termine:
(a) cycle frequency, cy/day;
(b) cycle time, min/cy;
(c) size load at maximum production rate, bbl/cy; and
(d) required daily gas volume.
Given: depth = 9000 ft; min. tubing pressure = 100 psi. Max. casing pressure is
not given.
(10) Given: plunger size-2 in.; tubing depth-10,000 ft; intercept 1-3.66
bbl/cy; intercept 2-100 bbl/day.
Determine:
(a) maximum production rate-bbl/day;
(b) size load at maximum production rate-bbl/cy;
(c) cycle frequency; and
(d) cycle time-min/cy.
(11)Construct nomograph for a 2-in. plunger using the data given in this chapter.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R.L. and Bancroft, T.A., 1952. Statistical Theory in Research. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
Babson, E.C., 1939. Range of application of gas lift methods, API Drilling Prod. Practice, American
Petroleum Institute, New York, N.Y., p. 266.
Beauregard, E. and Ferguson, P.L., 1981. Introduction to Plunger Lift: Applications, Advantages and
Limitations. Presented at the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Dept. Pet. Eng., Texas Tech.
Univ., Lubbock, Tex., Apr. 23-24.
Beeson, C.M., Knox, D.G. and Stoddard, J.H., 1955. Plunger lift correlation equations and nomographs.
Paper 501-G presented at AIME Pet. Branch Meet., New Orleans, La., Oct. 2-5, 1955.
Beeson, C.M., Knox, D.G. and Stoddard, J.H., 1958. The plunger lift method of oil production. Pet.
Eng., 30(6): B96-102; 30(7): B68-71; 30(9): B58-61; 30(10): B76-77; 30(11): B106-108.
Davies, O.L., 1949. Statistical Methoak in Research. Oliver and Boyd, London.
530
Ezekial, M., 1941. Methods of Correlution Analysis. Wiley, New York, N.Y.
Ferguson, P.L. and Beauregard, E.. 1983. Will Plunger Lift Work in Well? Presented at the
Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Dept. Pet. Eng., Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, Tex., Apr.
27-28.
Horton, W.D., 1959. Esperience with Vurious Gus Lift lnstullutions. Los Angeles Busin. Rep. Pet. Eng.
Dept.. Univ. South. Calif., Los Angeles, Calif. (unpublished).
Kempthorne, O., 1952. The Design und Ana/ysis of Experiments. Wiley, New York. N.Y.
Lea, J.F., 1981. D,vnumic unu(vsis of plunger lift operutions. 56th Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition,
SOC.Pet. Eng. AIME. San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 5-7, 1981, SPE 10253, 11 pp.
Lebeaux, J.M. and Sudduth, L.F., 1955. Theoretical and practical aspects of free piston operations. J .
Per. Technol., 7(9): 33.
Lloyd. F.T., 1959. Artificial lifting of deep wells in California, A P I Drilling Prod. Practice, American
Petroleum Institute, New York, N.Y., p. 359.
McMurry, E.D., 1953. Use of the automatic free piston in oil well production problems. Truns. A I M E ,
198: 165-170.
Shenvood, T.K. and Reed, C.E.. 1939. Applied Muthemutics in Chemicul Engineering. McGraw-Hill. New
York, N.Y.
531
Chapter 14
SUCKER-ROD PUMPING
DAWOOD MOMENI, GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN, W.B. HATCHER and

AXELSON
INTRODUCTION
The oldest and most widely used type of artificial lift of oil wells is the sucker-rod
pumping. Most of the stripper wells (i.e., producing less than 10 bbl/day) use
sucker-rod pumps. These stripper wells constitute about 74% of all oil wells. About
28% of the remaining 26% are flowing wells, 20% are lifted with sucker-rod pumps,
and 52% are lifted by gas lift, electric submersible pumps, and hydraulic pumps.
Usually, it is possible to lift 1,000 bbl/day from a depth of about 7000 ft, and
200 bbl/day from a depth of about 14,000 ft. Presence of H,S changes depth values
to 4000 f t and 10,000 ft, respectively (Neely et al., 1981). Unfortunately sucker-rod
pumping (1) cannot be used in crooked holes, (2) have limited ability to lift sand,
and (3) is inefficient in the presence of scale and paraffin accumulations. In
addition, the sucker-rod pump operates inefficiently and tends to gas lock if the
annulus is not used efficiently or if the gas-liquid separation capacity of the
tubing-casing annulus is too low.
Inasmuch as various parts of a sucker-rod pumping system (string, pump, and
unanchored tubing) are subjected to fatigue, this system (see Fig. 14-l.a,b) must be
more effectively protected against corrosion than other lift systems. The possibility
of polished rod stuffing box leaks can be minimized using proper design and
operating procedures (Neely et al., 1981).
SUCKER-ROD PUMPING UNIT
A schematic diagram of a walking-beam type of sucker-rod pump unit is

presented in Fig. 14-1.a. The power of the electric motor ( 1 ) is transferred by v-belts
to,a gear reducer ( 2 ) , which reduces the rpm of electric motor to about 3-25 rpm.
The number of double strokes per minute (spm) of the sucker rod is equal to the
rpm value. If I , = I,, the length of the stroke of the polished rod ( 3 ) is equal to 2r
( r = length of the crank). Crank is connected to the walking beam ( 6 ) by the pitman
‘ Axelson, Inc. gave permission to reproduce several parts of their excellent “Pump and Rod Engineer-
ing Manual”. The help extended by s. (Chip) Cipparuolo is indeed greatly appreciated by the authors.
532
Fig. 14-1.a. Sucker-rod pumping system (European approach). (After Szilas, 1975, fig. 4.1-1, p. 259;
courtesy of Elsevier Science Publishers.)
(connecting rod), having length 1. Polished.rod (3) is being moved by the walking
beam ( 6 ) and the horsehead ( 7 ) . Walking beam ( 6 ) is supported by the Samson
post (a trestle) ( 5 ) . Variation of polished-rod load over the pumping cycle is
balanced by a crank counterweight (8) and the beam counterweight ( 9 ) . Polished
rod ( 3 ) , which is a specially made and machined top unit of the rod string, is
hanging from a carrier ( 4 ) . Plunger ( 1 1 ) is moving up and down by the rod string
inside a pump barrel ( l o ) ,which is attached to the installed tubing shoe. During the
downstroke, the travelling valve ( 1 2 ) is open and the standing valve ( 1 3 ) is closed.
Thus, the plunger sinks in the fluid filling the barrel. On the upstroke, the travelling
valve ( 1 2 ) is closed and the plunger lifts the fluid filling the annular space between
the tubing and the rod. During this time, the standing valve ( 1 3 ) is open to allow
the fluid to enter the barrel through the filter ( 1 4 ) .(See also Figs. 14-1.b and 14-2.)
General considerations
All beam-type pumping unit geometries fall into two distinct classes: (1) Class I
lever system, having rearmounted speed (gear) reducer, with the fulcrum at mid-beam
(e.g., conventional unit). (2)Class I11 lever system, having a push-up geometry with
front-mounted speed reducer (e.g., air balanced and Lufkin Mark I1 units), in which
533
WNj WJRIffi
WLL Rutr
Fig. 14-1.b. Sucker-.rod pumping system. (After API, 1983, fig. 1.1, p. 1.)
PE s
Fig. 14-2. Schematic diagram showing some production and well completion equiprnents and a sucker-rod
pumping unit. (Courtesy of Trico Industries, Inc.)
v;
L
m
N
P
e
c
d
Fig. 14-3. Pumping units nomenclaturc. (After Lufkin, 1983, figs. 33. 34. and 35, p. 27: courtesy of Lufkin Industries. Inc.)
535
Air Balanced Pumping Unit Mark II Pumping Unit

537
the fulcrum is located at the rear of the beam (Byrd, 1983). Figure 14-3 illustrates
schematically these different pumping unit types.
In any sucker-rod pumping installation design, the behavior of all elements of the
system should be considered very carefully. These elements should not be treated
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

RWA RHB RWB RHT RWT TH
RSA RSB RST
(1) RHA: Rod, Stationary Heavy Wall Barrel, Top Anchor Pump
(2) RWA: Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barrel, Top Anchor Pump
RSA Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barrel, Top Anchor, Soft-Packed Plunger Pump
(3) R H B Rod, Stationary Heavy Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump
(4) RWB: Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor P u m
RSB: Rod,Stationary Thin Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor, Softsacked Plunger Pump
( 5 ) RHT: Rod, Traveling Heavy Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump
(6) RWT: Rod, Traveling Thin Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump
RST: Rod, Traveling Thin Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor, Soft-Packed Plunger Pump
(7) TH: Tubing, Heavy Wall Barrel Pump
(8)TP: Tubing, Heavy Wall Barrel Soft-Packed Plunger Pump
Fig. 14-4. API pump classification. (From API, 1979, R P 11AR: courtesy of American Petroleum
Institute.)
538
individually but rather as a series of elements working in harmony with the other
components of the system. According to API(1983) RP 11L standards, the mini-
mum amount of information which must be known, or assumed, in order to
Letter Designation
Metal Plunger Pumps Soft-packed Plunger Pumps
7- -7 -7
Type of Pump Heavy-Wall Thin-Wall Heavy-Wall Thin-Wail

Barrel Barrel Barrel Barrel
Rod Pumps
Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor RHA RWA ....... . RSA
Stationary Barrel, Bottom Anchor RHB RWB ....., , . RSB
Traveling Barrel, Bottom Anchor RHT RWT .. ....,, RST
Tubing Pumps TH ........ TP .. . .. . ..
6.7.2 Complete pump designations include: (1) nominal tubing size, ( 2 ) basic bore diameter, (3) type of
pump, including type of barrel and location and type of seating assembly, ( 4 ) barrel length, (5) plunger
length, and ( 6 ) total length of extensions when used, as follows:
r -1! x x
--Total length of extensions, whole feet.
Nominal plunger length, feet.
Barrel length, feet.
Type seating usembly; C -Cup type

M - Mechanical type
Location of aeating asaembly; A - Top

B - Bottom
T - Bottom, traveling barrel
F o r metal plunger pumps

S -Thin-wall
For soft-packed plunger pumps
-Type pump; R-Rod
(91.8 mm)
(98.1 m m )
(44.5 mm)
( 4 5 2 mm)
(50.8 mm)
(57.2 mm)
(69.5 m m )
(69.9 mm)
-Tubing -
sire; 16 1.900 in. OD.
20 -%in. OD.
(48.9 m m )
(60.9 mm)
30
-
26 2% in. OD.
- 3 % in. OD.
(79.0 mm)
(88.9 mm)
Example: A 1% in. (91.8mm) bore rod type pump 6.7.3 In addition t o the pump designation described
with a 10 ft. (9.048 m ) heavy wall barrel and 2 ft. in Par. 6.7.2., i t is necessary for the purchaser to pro-
(0.610 m ) of extensions, a 4 it. (1.219 m ) plunger,vide the following information:
and a bottom cup type seating assembly for o era a. Barrel material
tion in 2% in. (60.Smm) tubing, would be &sip: b. Plunger material
nated a s follows:
20-126 RHBC io-4-2 I
C. Plunger clearance (fit)
d. Valv;? material ' '
e. Length of each extension
NOTE: Metallic Materials for Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps for Hydrogen Sulfide Environments are listed
in NACE Std MR-01-76.
Fig. 14-5. API pump designation. (From API, 1977, RP l l A R , p. 17; courtesy of American Petroleum
Institute.)
539
determine even approximate loads and pump displacements must include: (1) fluid
level (net lift), ft; (2) pump depth, ft; (3) pumping speed, strokes per minute; (4)
length of surface stroke, in.; (5) pump plunger diameter, in.; (6) specific gravity of
the fluid; (7) nominal tubing diameter and whether it is anchored or unanchored;
(8) sucker-rod size and design; and (9) unit geometry. With the above data, the
engineer can calculate: (1) plunger stroke, in.; ( 2 ) pump displacement, bbl/D; (3)
peak polished rod load, lb; (4) minimum polished rod load, lb; (5) peak (crank)
torque, in.-lb or ft-lb (when the unit’s torque factor schedule is known); (6) polished
rod horsepower; and (7) counterweight required, lb. It should be noted that the API
RP 11L calculations assume that there is 100% pump fillage. Also, difficulties are
encountered when trying to use these calculations on shallow wells.
As stated by Brown et al. (1980) three steps are generally required in designing an
installation: (1) preliminary selection of components for the installation must be
made; ( 2 ) operating characteristics of the preliminary selection are calculated using
the basic formulas, tables and figures presented in this chapter; and (3) the
calculated pump displacement and loads are compared with the volumes, load
ratings, stresses, and other limitation of the preliminary selection.
Subsurface pumps
Once a decision has been made to artificially produce an oil well with a
sucker-rod-pump system, the size of the pump bore is the first element which must
be considered. Inasmuch as the primary reason for the installation is to produce
fluid, the quantity of fluid desired is the first controlling factor. The next step is the
selection of the pump type. It is narrowed down from eight API types to about two
by the time one has selected the bore size. In some cases, however, one may have to
consider some of the “special” pumps offered by the manufacturers.
The American Petroleum Institute (1983) has adopted a classification system for
subsurface pumps, as shown in Fig. 14-4. A complete pump designation is given in
Fig. 14-5. Complete description of the API pumps is presented in the next section.
EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF PUMPS
In selecting the pump for use in a particular well, it is necessary first to consider
the amount of fluid to be produced. This determines the bore size of the pump. The
next consideration is the type of pump to be used.
SelectiQn of pump bore size
With the required quantity of fluid known, selection of a pump bore is the first
step in designing a pump. Charts have been prepared where combinations of net
plunger ttavel and strokes per minute have been applied to the most popular bore
sizes to obtain the daily production. This production figure is based on 100%
540
STROKES PER MINUTE

Fig. 14-6. Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 1&-in. bore and
various net plunger travels. (After Axelson, 1982. p. 26.) V.E. = volumetric efficiency.
volumetric efficiency. Thus, it is necessary to determine at what efficiency the pump

will operate when it is finally installed. The measured production/computed pro-
duction ratio is fairly constant for many of the wells in a certain area. This ratio,
which is termed "field efficiency", can be applied to other similar wells of that area.
If efficiency ratio is not available, it is common practice to use a figure of 80%. As
an example, required daily production of 120 bbl was selected. To produce this
amount at 80% efficiency, the pump must have a capacity of 150 bbl/D at 100%
efficiency (i.e., 120/0.8 or 120 X 1.25). The production charts (Figs. 14-6 through
14-13) are then consulted to determine how the different plunger bores must be
541
STROKES PER MINUTE
Fig. 14-7. Relationslup between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (S;PM) for a 1:-in. bore and
various net plunger travels. (After Axelson, 1982, p. 27.)
operated to produce the necessary amount of fluid. The 150 bbl/D point is found in
the “production in barrels per day” column on the left-hand side of the chart and a
horizontal line extended from that point to the right. This line should intersect one
or more radiating lines that represent different lengths of net plunger travel. When
vertical lines are dropped downward from these points of intersection, they will fall
across the scale which represents the number of cycles or strokes per minute. Thus,
for any average production requirement, there may be several pump bores capable
of delivery. Each one of those bores may be operated with numerous combinations
of net plunger travel and strokes per minute.
542
<
8
0
3
?i
v)
fBl
5
STROKES PER MINUTE
Fig 14-8 Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 1:-in bore and
various net plunger travels (After Axelson, 1982, p 28 )
Upon scanning the different bore production charts, Figs. 14-8 and 14-9 covering
the It-in. and lf-in. bores seem to offer the most likely applications. The l$-in.
bore will produce the desired quantity with 50-in. NPT (net plunger travel) at 11:
SPM (strokes per minute); 40-in. NPT at 14$ SPM; or 30-in. NPT at 193 SPM. The
If-in. bore using the same NPTs will produce the needed amount at the slower
speeds of 8$, 104, or 14 SPM, respectively.
The problem may be approached in different ways after the production line has
been established on a chart. For instance, if a la-in. bore is to be used and a
pumping unit and prime mover were already coupled together to run at 12: SPM,
approximately 34-111. NPT would be needed.
543
Fig. 14-9. Relationship between production (hbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 1 :-in. bore and
In some instances, where large bores are involved, the required production may
not be listed on the chart. In such cases, the required production must be divided by
some factor so that the result is a number of barrels per day on the chart. Using the
method outlined earlier, locate the NPT and SPM intersection. Then, either the
NPT or SPM must be multiplied by the same factor used to reduce the original
production figure, which will give the combination needed to produce the original
amount.
The simple formula used to construct these charts is presented below. The pump
bore may be considered as the diameter and the net plunger travel as the length of a
544
Fig. 14-10. Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 2-in. bore and
cylinder-shaped bucket. This bucket is filled and emptied a certain number of times
per day. This enables determination of total production Q:
Q =A, X NPT X S P M ( 6 0 X 24/231 X 42) = O.1484AP X NPT X SPM (14-1)
where Q = total production, bbl/D; A , = area of plunger, in.’; N P T = net plunger

travel, in.; and S P M = strokes per minute. (Conversions: 60 min/hr, 24 hr/D, 231
cu in./gal (U.S.), and 42 gal/bbl.)
Inasmuch as for each distinct bore the plunger area remains unchanged, the
formula can be further simplified by multiplying the different plunger areas by the
545
STROKES PER MINUTE
Fig. 14-11. Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 2:-1n. bore and
various net plunger travels. (After Axelson, 1982, p 31.)
time/volume factor of 0.1484, to obtain a list of production constants. This

constant is frequently referred to as d (see Table 14-1). Thus:
Q = C x N P T x SPM (14-2)
If a chart is not available but Q and the pump constant are known, a product of
the N P T and S P M can be found and a combination of the two determined for
application. For example, if a chart for 1:-in. bore was not available and the same
Q of 150 bbl/D was required, by dividing Q by the C value for the I f - in . bore
(0.2622) the result is 572. This figure is a product of N P T X S P M needed to
546
STROKES PER M I W E
Fig. 14-12. Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 21-in. bore and
produce 150 bbl/D. By assigning a speed of 10 SPM, the N P T must be approxi-

mately equal to 57 in. Referring to Fig. 14-8 again, the N P T and SPM are found to
agree with the 150 bbl/D horizontal line. It should be noted that the SPM value
can be adjusted over an entire range, whereas the stroke length, which is directly
related to N P T , can only be set at 2 or 3 specific values, depending upon the
pumping unit.
After concluding that either the lf-in. or the l+-in. bore (and their operating
combinations) are best suited, Table 14-11 may be consulted as a further step in
deciding which one of the two will be best for the other conditions anticipated in
this well. Ths table shows the minimum size tubing that can be used with certain
541
STROKES PER MINUTE
Fig. 14-13. Relationship between production (bbl/D) and strokes per minute (SPM) for a 3 l - h bore and
bores of the different types of pumps of standard design. In some instances, the
tubing size is governed by field practice if all of the hoists are equipped with the
same size tongs.
Letter designations for several kinds and types of pumps are included under the
pump type heading. The first letter of this designation is either an “R” or a “T’.
The “ R ’ indicates that the complete pump assembly is installed and retrieved by
manipulating the sucker-rods to which it is attached. The tubing in which the pump
is used is generally equipped with a means of anchoring the stationary part of the
pump at the required depth, while the movable or travelling portion is free to
548
TABLE 14-1
Pump production constants ( C = 0.1484 A P G ) . Production bbl/D = NPT X SPM X C. (After Axelson,
1982, p. 34.)
Plunger diameter Gross plunger area Pump constant, C

(in.) (in.*)
5 (0.625) 0.3067 0.0455
(0.750) 0.4417 0.0,656
(0.875) 0.6013 0.0892
l(1.000) 0.7854 0.1166
1 (1.0625) 0.8866 0.1316
1; (1.125) 0.9940 0.1475
a
1 -0.040’’ (1.210) 1.1499 0.1706
1 a (1.250) 1.2272 0.1821
i
1 (1.500) 1.7671 0.2622
1f (1.625) 2.0739 0.3078
1: -0.040’’ (1.710) 2.2966 0.3409
1: (1.750) 2.4053 0.3569
1s (1.7813) 2.4900 0.3695
2 (2.000) 3.1416 0.4662
2; (2.125) 3.5466 0.5263
2:(2.250) 3.9761 0.5901
2: (2.500) 4.9087 0.7285
2; (2.750) 5.9396 0.8814
3 (3.000) 7.0686 1.0490
3: (3.250) 8.2958 1.2310
3; (3.500) 9.6211 1.4278
3; (3.750) 11.045 1.6390
4: (4.750) 17.721 2.6297
reciprocate with the rod string. This anchoring mechanism, in conjunction with the
holddown assembly of the pump, also serves as a fluid seal. Such pump assemblies
are known as rod type pumps. The “T” indicates that the pump assembly is a
tubing type pump. In the latter case, installing or retrieving the complete assembly
requires manipulation of both the sucker rods and tubing. The second letter
designation indicates the kind of rod type or tubing type pump, in reference to the
barrel or tube part of the assembly.
The letter ‘‘€3’’ indicates that the barrel of the pump is a one-piece, thick-walled
tube with a precision finish. The letter “L” indicates that the barrel of the pump is
an assembly consisting of an outer jacket in which either a one-piece liner or several
sectional liners are inserted and held in position in the jacket with clamping collars
or bushings. Both the one-piece and sectional liners have precision finishes, with
549
TABLE 14-11
Minimum tubing size requirement for standard types of pumps. (After Axelson, 1980, p. 35.)
Pump type Tubing size (in.)

If 1; 2 2; 3 4
Pump bores (in.)
RH 1; 2;
rod, heavy wall I f BSC 1: BSC
7
-
RW 8 15 If 2 2; 3;
rod, thin wall
TH 1: 2; 2q 3q
tubing, heavy wall
that of the sectional type being considerably finer. The “H” and “L” barrel
designations are common to both rod and tubing type pumps. Although the letter
designations “S” and “ P” are different, these barrel designations for rod and tubing
pumps are the same. The barrel tolerances are quite large and are used with fabric
cup and/or ring plunger. The letter “‘W’ denotes a thin-wall precision tube.
The API has established bore tolerances for these different barrel designations.
The “H” and “W” tubes and one-piece liners “L” are allowed: plus two-thou-
sandths of an inch and minus zero thousandths of an inch ( + 0.002 in., - 0.000 in.)
over or under the base bore. The “P” and “S” tubes are allowed: plus sixty-two
ten-thousandths of an inch and minus twenty-two ten-thousandths of an inch
( + 0.0062 in., - 0.0022 in.) over or under the base bore. The sectional liners “L” are
allowed; plus twelve ten-thousandths of an inch and minus two ten-thousandths of
an inch ( + 0.0012 in., - 0.0002 in.) over or under the base bore.
Besides the choice to be made in the type of pump, “ R ’ or “T”, the barrel
selection is made by weightng the advantages and disadvantages of the different
kinds.
The “H” variety rod pump is heavy and strong but has a smaller bore and costs
more than the “ W” variety. It has the same bore, fewer fittings and lower costs than
the “L” variety; however, repair costs may be higher and, in comparison to the
sectional liner “ L”, cannot furnish the fine bore tolerances and is not available with
the cast wearing surfaces. The “H” variety tubing pump comparisons are the same
as the rod type, except that there is no contrast in bores.
The “L” variety (sectional liner) has greater precision and, frequently, lower
repair costs; however, it has more parts, higher initial cost and, in comparison to the
“W” variety, a smaller bore. The one-piece liner, with fewer parts, has its greatest
advantages in cost of repair. The material selection is smaller and its precision the
same as that of the “H” and “W” kinds, whereas its bore is also smaller than the
“ W” type.
550
The “S’and “P” varieties are available in the same materials as the “H” and
“W” tubes, but because of the bore tolerances are more adapted to mass produc-
tion. Both of these barrels are of the soft-packed plunger type; the “S” variety being
“ thin-walled’’ and the “P” variety being “ heavy-walled”. The chief advantage of
this type of barrel is low initial cost.

The “W” variety is the most popular of all barrel designs, and is available in all
tube materials, with standard bores having precision finish. It is intermediate in
initial cost and repair. Being of the “thin-wall” design, it is not adaptable to the
loads and standard handling of a tubing (T type) pump.
As shown in Table 14-11, the 1;-in. bore is available in the RS and RW type
pumps which require a minimum tubing size of 2 in. The 14-in. bore is available in
the R H type, but the minimum tubing size required for its use is 24-in.. The If-in.
bore is also found in the 2-in. tubing column (Table 14-11), but is available only in
the TH or TP types. The l$-in. bore appears in the 24-in. tubing column and is
available in the RH type. This is because the 2i-in. tubing has sufficient space to
accommodate the barrel wall thickness of those two types. The standard bores, as
shown in Table 14-11, are not restricted only to the tubing sizes shown, because it is
easy to adapt them to the larger tubing sizes. This has been common practice in the
past where large-diameter tubing was installed for flush, flowing production, but
relatively small bores were needed to handle the fluid when pumping took place.
The effect of proration should be considered at the beginning in determining the
daily requirements. In sizing a pump it is also necessary to make allowances for
downtime. To oversize the pump after a bore has been selected to provide for
downtime increases operating costs.
Making provisions for shutdown time can be handled similarly to that of the
.pump efficiency. For example, if the allowable well production of 114 bbl/D for
each calendar day has been established, the average monthly allowable, using 30:
days per month, will be 3480 (3477) bbl/month. An estimate of the number of
shut-in days per year and then per month is made. If 18 days per year was an
acceptable figure, the monthly average would be li days. Subtracting that amount
from the 30: average days per month, would leave 29 days for producing the 3480
bbl. This would require 120 bbl/D which is the quantity used in the example. If
downtime does not occur, the extra day and a half can always be used for
preventative maintenance.
If 2i-in. tubing was used in the example, the selection of the bore would require
the use of Figs. 14-8 and 14-9. The choice is dictated by the surface equipment and
sucker-rod string needed to obtain the net plunger travel and strokes per minute
combination. The 1:-in. and l+-in. bores are available in identical kinds and types
for that size piping.
Thus, the 2-in. tubing can be used. Then the types of pumps and their specifica-
tions must be examined closely, because the decision at this stage will automatically
determine the bore size to be used. One should analyze all the basic pump types to
evaluate the features of two pumps in the above examples.
551
Selection of pump setting depth

In selecting the size of the pump, the pump setting depth is very critical. The bore
size will have to be decreased as the setting depth of pump increases. Figures 14-14
and 14-15 may be consulted for maximum setting depths of various barrel sizes.
Recommended safety factors are also shown on the charts. In wells that are known
as “sanders”, it might be necessary to set the pump at a level higher than what
might otherwise be considered optimum.
Selection of pump types
After the bore size of the pump has been established, one can determine the
pump type required to lift the fluid to the surface. A few API pump types are
described below.
35000
Recommended Safety Fact0

F o r Bottom Hold Down
30000
25000
I
:
w
20000
0
15000
10000
5000
30 50 70 90 110 130
MAltltRIAL YIELD STRENGTH (Thousmds) R W (THIN WALL)
Fig. 14-14. Relationship between depth (ft) and yield strength of material (thousands of psi) for RW
(thin-wall) type pump. (After Axelson, 1982, p. 8A.)
552
35000
30000
25000
I
In
- 20000
W
0
15000
10000
'
Recommended S a f e t y F a c t o r s :
For Bottom Hold Down Pumps -
Divide Max. S e t . Depth By 2
I
For Top Hold Down Pumps -
Divide Max. S e t . Depth By 3
so00 EXAMPLE: 2-112'' RW Pump, Bot. Hdn., Allo) S t e (
Max. Set Depth - 20,500'
,Rec. Safety S e t . Deoth - 10.150' 1
30 50 90 110 I30
MTERIAL Y I E L D STRENGTH (Thousands)
Fig. 14-15. Relationship between depth (ft) and yield strength of material (thousands of psi) for RH
(heavy-wall) type pump. (After Axelson, 1982, p. 9.)
( I ) Casing pump
Casing pumps (Fig. 14-16) include those generally designed for large-production
volumes. The well fluid is produced through the casing and no tubing is used
because the pump is installed on the sucker-rod string.
Most assemblies incorporate pack-off and hold-down mechanisms. When the
pump reaches the desired depth in the well, the rods are manipulated in a manner
which actuates the anchor pack-off to engage and seal against the casing wall. These
anchor pack-off elements can usually be installed at the top or bottom of stationary
barrel pumps and can be used also with the travelling barrel pump type. Some of
the pack-off assemblies rely on the hydrostatic force of fluid in the casing to
compress the pack-off for more effective seal. Unless a fluid release is available in
packers of that type, tremendous loads are involved when it is necessary to pull the
553
CASING
PUMP
Fig. 14-16. Schematic diagram of casing pump. (Courtesy of Axelson, 1980. p. 9.)
pump. It is essential to know the exact size and weight of the casing when pulling
the pump. This information is also needed when specifying a casing pump packer.
All standard type pumps can be adapted to casing pump use.
Slim-hole tubingless completions are smaller versions of casing pumps. Rod
insert pumps are adapted to run with pump anchors. Macaroni tubing instead of
rods is used in some installations to overcome some basic disadvantages of casing
pumps. Gas can be vented and production is confined in the macaroni tubing. The
main advantage of tubingless completions is reduction in tubular investment.
The casing pump is not recommended for handling gas, because all fluids move
through the pump and gas cannot be vented. Wells suited for the large-volume
casing pumps are generally water-drive wells with gas effects being minor. The
initial and repair costs of casing pumps are comparatively high.
Advantages of casing pumps include: (1) large volumetric capacity, (2) certain
cost savings, and (3) use without tubing. Disadvantages of these pumps are: (1)
casing is subject to wear by rods, (2) broken rods are harder to fish in casing, (3)
hazardous in the presence of sand, scale, or corrosion, (4) expensive reworking, and
(5) inefficiency in the presence of gas.
554
* 4
THE
Fig. 14-17. Schematic diagram of tubing pump (THE). (Courtesy of Axelson, 1982, p. 10.)
( 2 ) Tubing pump
A tubing pump (Fig. 14-17) has a greater capacity than a standard rod pump for
the same size tubing. The pump barrel and standing valve seating shoe are installed
as part of the tubing string or it may be dropped in the tubing prior to running the
rods, which is not recommended. It may be run with the plunger on the rod string if
the plunger is equipped with a standing valve puller. In addition, the plunger may
be run inside the barrel with the tubing and connected to the rods later by means of
an on-or-off attachment. The fluid is produced up the tubing and gas is vented up
the casing annulus.
Oversize plungers and barrels may be adapted to the bottom of the tubing and
connection made to the rods by means of an on-or-off attachment. With the
addition of a tubing drain, the rods are disconnected and pulled without the pump,
while the pump is retrieved by pulling the dry tubing. Such an installation
eliminates many of the disadvantages found in casing pump operations.
Due to the limitations imposed by the strength and stretch of the rod string, the
tubing pumps are usually used at shallow to medium depth and where relatively
555
RWT
RHT
Fig. 14-18. Schematic diagram of a rod pump with travelling barrel (RWT, RHT). (Courtesy of Axelson,
1982, p. 11.)
large volumes of fluid are being produced. Tubing pumps are constructed from
various materials.
Advantages of these pumps include: (1) greater capacity than standard rod
pumps, ( 2 ) simplicity and ruggedness for severe service, (3) protection of casing
against wear and corrosion, (4) large fluid flow areas, and (5) adaptability for
producing viscous fluids. Disadvantages of tubing pumps are: (1) tubing must be
pulled to repair pump barrel, ( 2 ) additional installation cost (tubing), (3) gas
compression ratios are lower than in an insert pump, and (4) in unconsolidated
sands large production may give rise to large sand volumes.
(3) Rod pump with travelling barrel

In the case of rod pump with travelling barrel (Fig. 14-18), the barrel tube travels,
whereas the plunger remains stationary. The barrel tube is connected to the
556
sucker-rod string through a connector and a large travelling valve. The standing
valve connects directly to the top of the stationary plunger. The plunger is
supported by a long, hollow pull-tube, which is connected to the bottom holddown.
The surging action of the fluid around the bottom of the travelling barrel tube keeps
sand from settling and sanding-in the pump.
The large travelling valve carries the upstroke load of the fluid and during
periods of shutdown acts as a built-in sand check valve. The barrel tube must resist
a collapsing load on the upstroke. On the downstroke, pressure is balanced on the
inside and outside of the tube, with the exception of any shock loading caused by
fluid pound. Inasmuch as the leakage path for the plunger is from the bottom to the
top, gravity aids in preventing sand from scouring and wearing the tube and
plunger.
The standing valve, which must fit inside the barrel tube, is smaller than the
standing valve on stationary tube pumps. Because of the construction of the pump
with the open-type cage and the connector on the tube, it is not possible to get quite
as good compression ratio as compared to a stationary barrel pump. This generally
results in lower volumetric efficiency when compared to the stationary barrel pump.
To reach the compression chamber, the produced fluids must pass through a long
hollow pull-tube. Because of the long fluid passage, the smaller standing valve, and
the comparatively smaller compression ratio, the travelling barrel type pump is not
recommended in wells having gas problems.
In wells where the fluid level is very low, a large closed-type standing valve,
sometimes called a foot valve, is installed between the holddown and the pull-tube.
Fluid is then trapped in the pull-tube instead of surging back to the lower fluid level
line.
On the downstroke, the fluid load is taken by the standing valve. The pull-tube,
in turn, must support this compressive load. The lower barrel tube plug serves as a
guide and gives some measure of support. Because of buckling tendency and
wearing action, a long travelling pump is seldom used in deep wells. The use of
oversize connectors to prevent the barrel tube from rubbing against the tubing is
quite popular. The travelling barrel pump generally has fewer components than a
stationary pump and is cheaper.
The advantages of rod pump with travelling barrel include: (1) absence of sand
settling due to agitation, (2) good plunger leakage path, (3) built-in check valve, (4)
both cages are of open type, (5) rugged construction, (6) stronger pull-tube instead
of valve rod of stationary barrel tubes, and (7) lower cost (usually) than stationary
barrel pumps. Disadvantages of these pumps are as follows: (1) poor performance in
wells with gas problems, (2) not recommended for long pumps in deep wells, (3)
poor valve placement, (4) poor fluid flow design, (5) tendency of gas break-out, and
(6) poor valve sizing.
(4) Rod pump with Stationary barrel and bottom hold-down
Pumps with stationary barrel and bottom hold-down utilize a seating mechanism
at the bottom of the barrel tube which holds it stationary, while the plunger is free
to travel with the motion of the rods (Fig. 14-19). The standing valve is generally
557
RWB
RHB
Fig. 14-19. Schematic diagram of rod pump with stationary barrel and bottom hold-down (RWB, RHB).
(Courtesy of Axelson, 1980, p. 13.)
larger than the travelling valve which is preferred over the travelling-barrel design
where the reverse is true. The produced fluid must flow across the smaller opening
of the travelling valve. Any resulting gas breakout does not affect the operation of
the pump. In this type of pump, the valve placement is better and the flow design
causes less gas interference than the travelling type. The barrel tube is surrounded
by stagnant well fluid between the barrel and the tubing. As a result, there is a trap
for the accumulation of sand or other sediments as well as an undisturbed area for
corrosion to take place. This could stick the pump in the tubing and cause a
stripping job. A bottom discharge valve is sometimes used to keep the area
surrounding the barrel tube free of sand and sediments; however, the pressure drop
across this valve can restrict the filling of the pump chamber and induce gas
breakout.
558
The weakest part of these assemblies is the valve rod and its small threads. As the
size has been increased, the trouble from this source was reduced but not eliminated.
Because of the basic design of this type of pump and distribution of the pressures
involved, its use is recommended in the deeper wells.
Advantages of these pumps include: (1) adaptability to deep wells, ( 2 ) smaller
possibility of having pressure ruptured tubes than in the case of other standard
pump types, (3) good valve location, (4) preferred valve sizing, ( 5 ) good flow design,
(6) varied material selection, and (7) better design where long pumps are necessary.
Disadvantages can be summarized as follows: (1) valve rod is a weak link in
sucker-rod chain, ( 2 ) barrel tube is subjected to sedimentation and corrosion, (3)
part-time pumping may allow sedimentation to take place in working parts, (4) poor
plunger leakage path, and (5) requirement of more parts at generally higher cost
than in the case of travelling-barrel type pump.
R WA
RHA
Fig. 14-20. Schematic diagram of rod pump with stationary barrel and top hold-down (RWA, RHA).
(Courtesy of Axelson. 1980, p. 14.)
559
(5) Rod pump with stationary barrel and top hold-down

In rod pump with stationary barrel and top hold-down, the barrel hangs from the
hold-down (Fig. 14-20). Fluid is discharged immediately above the hold-down and
keeps sand from settling and sanding up the pump. The pump barrel can be used as
a gas anchor for better gas separation. On the downstroke, the entire fluid load is
supported by the standing valve. The barrel tube must also withstand this tensile
load. Consequently, t h s type of pump is not recommended for deep wells.
Inasmuch as formation pressure only acts on the outside of the tube, the fluid
column pressure on the downstroke on the inside, which is usually greater than the
formation pressure, acts to split the barrel. The standing valve is positioned below
the hold-down; hence, in low-fluid level wells, it has the best possibility of being
submerged when compared to other pump types. Pumps of this type for tubing
larger than 2 in. in diameter require oversize seating nipples for cup hold-downs.
The advantages of these pumps include: (1) good tolerance in sandy wells, (2)
pump barrel can act as gas anchor, (3) excellent adaptability to low-fluid level wells
as standing valve can be submerged, (4) excellent fluid flow design, (5) preferred
valve sizing, and (6) good design where long pumps are necessary.
Disadvantages of these pumps are: (1) valve rod is a weak link in chain of sucker
rods, (2) poor performance in deep wells because of bursting and tensile load on
barrel, (3) poor plunger leakage path, (4) part-time pumping may allow sedimenta-
tion to take place in working parts, (5) requirement of more parts at generally higher
cost than travelling-tube type of pump.
(6) Rod pump with stationary barrel and top and bottom hold-down
Rod pump with stationary barrel and top and bottom hold-down is a non-stan-
dard type of pump, which utilizes two hold-down mechanisms attached to the top
and bottom of the barrel (Fig. 14-21). Its use requires the simple construction of a
section of tubing, to each end of which is attached a seating shoe or nipple
corresponding to the mechanism on the pump, so that the length will position both
hold-downs simultaneously or nearly so. The best pump assembly is the top-cup
hold-down and bottom mechanical hold-down, with corresponding seating nipple at
the top and mechanical hold-down shoe or nipple at the bottom of the tubing shell.
As the “no-go” swell of the top-cup hold-down is removed, it is pushed completely
through the cup seating nipple. The mechanical hold-down of the pump will pass
freely through that nipple, but will stop and seal when it reaches its mechanical
hold-down shoe. With the “no-go” removed, the top-cup hold is then adjusted in its
seating nipple as to the length of the shell and provides a seal and hold-down.
The advantages of these pumps include: (1) excellent stabilization for any and,
particularly, for longer pumps; (2) elimination of sedimentation around barrel tube;
(3) great reduction of corrosive attack on exterior of tube; and (4) presence of valve
placement, sizing, and flow design of stationary-barrel bottom hold-down pump
type-
The disadvantages are: (1) loss of the top hold-down advantages of valve
submergence and use of pump barrel as gas anchor, (2) retainment of valve rod
560
1
RWAB
RHAB
Fig. 14-21. Schematic diagram of rod pump with stationary barrel and top and bottom hold-down
(RWAB and RHAB). (Courtesy of Axelson, 1982. p. 15.)
weakness (but will reduce its flexing due to stability of pump), (3) retainment of
plunger leakage path and sedimentation possibility with intermittent pumping, and
(4) increased cost due to the construction of shell.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS IN SUCKER-ROD DESIGN
Although a sucker-rod pumping system appears to be a simple mechanical

device, its mathematical analysis is quite difficult. This is due to the fact that the
behavior of each component of the system is dependent upon the actions of other
components. Additional problems arise due to the elastic nature of the rods, the
tubing, and the produced fluid. Forces are applied to each one of them at various
stages of the cycle, and each one will elongate or compress differently.
561
The sucker-rod behavior can be treated mathematically with one-dimensional

wave equation, which is a partial differential equation with boundary conditions.
Difficulties exist, however, in trying to define the boundary conditions which
describe the behavior of the downhole pump. These difficulties arise because the
pump behavior is controlled by the motion of the sucker-rod string, which must be
established by the wave equation. Much work has been done by Dr. S.G. Gibbs on
the solution of the wave equation and he has written numerous papers on its
applications (Gibbs, 1963, 1977).
The most commonly practiced method of determining sucker-rod behavior is
presented in the API (1977) RP 11L. This method uses empirical equations which
are based on correlations of actual test data. The designer must realize, however,
that unusual conditions might exist downhole that will greatly affect the validity of
the calculations. Some of these unusual conditions include: (1) slanted or crooked
holes, (2) very viscous fluid, (3) excessive sand production, (4) excessive gas
production through the pump, and ( 5 ) well flowing-off.
Design of the sucker-rod string
Usually a tapered rod string is used, which is a combination of different lengths

of rods of different sizes, with the largest-diameter rods at the top.
The minimum and maximum loads expected during the pumping cycle must be
known in order to choose and design suitable surface equipment to handle these
loads. There are two basic methods of designing tapered sucker-rod strings. In the
first method, a point in the string should be determined at which the stress in the
rod equals the maximum safe working stress and from that point to the top a larger
size rod is used. In selecting the lengths of individual sections, the unit stress at the
end of each section is made equal to the maximum permissible working stress (see
Craft et al., 1962, p. 295). In the more commonly used second method, the lengths
are selected so as to make the unit stresses at the tops of the sections equal. The
latter method has a greater safety margin as far as corrosion pitting is concerned
and its applications are outlined in this section. The percentages of rods having
different sizes in a tapered string can be obtained from Table 14-IV. The stress at
any point in a rod string is equal to the stress due to the fluid load on the plunger
plus the stress caused by the weight of rods below this point. In the case of elastic
deformation, the ratio of the stress applied to a body to the resulting strain is
constant. This ratio is called the modulus of elasticity, E . Stress is equal to the force
per unit area, i.e., stress = F / A ; whereas strain is the fractional change in length due
to stress, i.e., strain = e//. Commonly, force, F , is expressed in lb and cross-sec-
tional area, A , of the unit under stress is expressed in in2. Elongation, e, and
original length, I , must be given in the same length units. The force caused by the
fluid load results from the pressure differential across the plunger (pump is set at a
depth, L ) , having a cross-sectional area of A , :
F=ApxA, (14-3)
TABLE 14-111
Approximate coefficient of stretch, E (courtesy of Axelson, 1982, p. 35) a.
Plunger Rod size

size (in.)
(in.) 5 7 7 5 3 7 5 1 7
R 4 R X 4 U n 4 R 1
~
0.62 0.47 0.38 0.59 0.44 0.35 0.56 0.42 0.32 0.26
0.86 0.65 0.52 0.81 0.60 0.48 0.78 0.57 0.44 0.36
1.24 0.93 0.76 1.17 0.87 0.68 1.11 0.81 0.63 0.51
1.69 1.27 1.02 1.58 1.18 0.93 1.51 1.11 0.86 0.70
2.06 1.53 1.21 1.97 1.44 1.12 0.90
2.63 1.95 1.55 2.51 1.83 1.43 1.15
3.11 2.26 1.76 1.41
3.73 2.70 2.12 1.70
a Formulae: Approximate stretch of rods and tubing for a fluid having specific gravity of 1.0. Stretch = E X ( Dp/1000)2, where E = coefficient of stretch
+
and Dp = pump depth in ft. Stretch = ( E , L , E,L, + E,L,)Dp/lOOO; where L , = length of top section, ft; E , = coefficient of stretch for top section;
L, = length of center section, ft; E, = coefficient of stretch for center section; L, = length of bottom section, ft; and E , = coefficient of stretch for
bottom section.
TABLE 14-IV
Rod and pump data (from API, 1977, 1RllL. table 4.1, pp. 7-9; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Rod a Plunger Rod Elastic Frequency Rod string (% of each size)
1 1 5 I
No. diam., weight, constant, factor, 1: 1 H 4 X 2
d, w, E, F,
(in.) (Ib/ft) (in./lb-ft)
44 All 0.726 1.990 x 10 - 1.Ooo 100.0
54 1.06 0.908 1.668 X 10K6 1.138 44.6 55.4
54 1.25 . 0.929 1.633X10-6 1.140 49.5 50.5
54 1.50 0.957 1.584~10-~ 1.137 56.4 43.6
54 1.75 0.990 1.525 X 1.122 64.6 35.4
54 2.00 1.027 1.460X10-6 1.095 13.7 26.3
54 2.25 1.067 1.391 x 1.061 83.4 16.6
54 2.50 1.108 1.318X10K6 1.023 93.5 6.5
55 All 1.135 1.270~ 1 .000 100.0
64 1.06 1.164 1.382X10-' 1.229 33.3 33.1 33.5

64 1.25 1.211 1.319X10-" 1.215 37.2 35.9 26.9
64 1S O 1.275 1 . 2 3 2 ~lo-' 1.184 42.3 40.4 17.3
64 1.75 1.341 1.141 X 1.145 47.4 45.2 7.4
65 1.06 1.307 1.138X 1.098 34.4 65.6

65 1.25 1.321 1.127 X 1.104 37.3 62.7
65 1.50 1.343 1.110x10-6 1.110 41.8 58.2
65 I .75 1.369 1.090X10-6 1.114 46.9 53.1
65 2.00 1.394 1.070x 1.114 52.0 48.0
65 2.25 1.426 1.045 X 1.110 58.4 41.6
65 2.50 1.460 1.018 X 10K6 1.099 65.2 34.8
65 2.75 1.497 0.990X10-6 1.082 72.5 27.5
65 3.25 1.574 0.930X10K6 1.037 88.1 11.9
66 All 1.634 0.883 x lo-' 1.ooo 100.0
v,
75 1.06 1.566 0.997 X 10- 1.191 27.0 27.4 45.6 m
W
vl
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 m
P
Rod a Plunger Rod Elastic Frequency Rod string (% of each size)

No. diam., weight, cons tan t , factor, 1; 1 7 3 5 I
x 4 X
d, w, 4 Fc
(in.) (lb/ft) (in./lb-ft)
75 1.25 1.604 0.973 X 10V6 1.193 29.4 29.8 40.8
75 1.50 1.664 0.935 x 1.189 33.3 33.3 33.3
75 1.75 1.732 0.892 X 1.174 37.8 37.0 25.1
75 2.00 1.803 0.847 X 1.151 42.4 41.3 16.3
75 2.25 1.875 0.801 x 1.121 46.9 45.8 1.2
76 1.06 1.802 0.816 X 1.072 28.5 71.5

76 1.25 1.814 0.812 x 1.077 30.6 69.4
76 1.50 1.833 0 . 8 0 4 ~10K6 1.082 33.8 66.2
76 1.75 1.855 0.795 X 1.088 37.5 62.5
76 2.00 1.880 0.785 X 10K6 1.093 41.7 58.3
76 2.25 1.908 0.774 X 1.096 46.5 53.5
76 2.50 1.934 0.764 x 10K6 1.097 50.8 49.2
76 2.75 1.967 0.751 x 1.094 56.5 43.5
76 3.25 2.039 0.722 X 10V6 1.078 68.7 31.3
76 3.75 2.119 0.690X 10K6 1.047 82.3 17.7
77 All 2.224 0.649 x 1.000 100.0

85 1.06 1.883 0.873 x 1.261 22.2 22.4 22.4 33.0
85 1.25 1.943 0.841 X 1.253 23.9 24.2 24.3 27.6
85 1.50 2.039 0.791 x 1.232 26.7 27.4 26.8 19.2
85 1.75 2.138 0.738 X 1.201 29.6 30.4 29.5 10.5
86 1.06 2.058 0.742 x 10K6 1.151 22.6 23.0 54.3

86 1.25 2.087 0.732 X 1.156 24.3 24.5 51.2
86 1.50 2.133 0.717 x 1.162 26.8 27.0 46.3
86 1.75 2.185 0.699X10-6 1.164 29.4 30.0 40.6
86 2.00 2.247 0.679 x 10 - 1.161 32.8 33.2 33.9
86 2.25 2.315 0.656 x 1.153 36.9 36.0 27.1
86 2.50 2.385 0.633 X 1.138 40.6 39.7 19.7
86 2.75 2.455 0.610 x 1.119 44.5 43.3 12.2
87 1.06 2.390 0.612X10-6 1.055 24.3 75.7
87 1.25 2.399 0.610~ 1.058 25.7 74.3
87 1S O 2.413 0.607X10-6 1.062 21.7 72.3
87 1.75 2.430 0.603 x 10- " 1.066 30.3 69.7
87 2.00 2.450 0.598 X lo-" 1.071 33.2 66.8
87 2.25 2.412 0.594x10-' 1.075 36.4 63.6
87 2.50 2.496 0.588 x I .079 39.9 60.1
87 2.75 2.523 0.582 x lo-" 1.082 43.9 56.1
87 3.25 2.575 0.570X10-6 1.084 51.6 48.4
81 3.75 2.641 0.556X lo-" 1.078 61.2 38.8
87 4.75 2.793 0.522 X lo-" 1.038 83.6 16.4
88 All 2.904 0.497 X 1.om 100.0
96 1.06 2.382 0.670 x 1.222 19.1 19.2 19.5 42.3
96 1.25 2.435 0.655 X 1.224 20.5 20.5 20.7 38.3
96 1.50 2.511 0.633 X 1.223 22.4 22.5 22.8 32.3
96 1.75 2.607 0.606 x 10- 1.213 24.8 25.1 25.1 25.1
96 2.00 2.703 0.578xlO-" 1.196 27.1 27.9 27.4 17.6
96 2.25 2.806 0.549 x 1.172 29.6 30.7 29.8 9.8
91 1.06 2.645 0.568 X 1.120 19.6 20.0 60.3
97 1.25 2.670 0.563 x lo-" 1.124 20.8 21.2 58.0
97 1S O 2.707 0.556 X 1.131 22.5 23.0 54.5
97 1.75 2.751 0.548 x 1.137 24.5 25.0 50.4
97 2.00 2.801 0.538xlO-" 1 A41 26.8 27.4 45.7
97 2.25 2.856 0.528X10-6 1.143 29.4 30.2 40.4
97 2.50 2.921 0.515 x 1.141 32.5 33.1 34.4
97 2.75 2.989 0.503X10-6 1.135 36.1 35.3 28.6
97 3.25 3.132 0.475X10-6 1.111 42.9 41.9 15.2
98 1.06 3.068 0.475 X 1.043 21.2 78.8
98 1.25 3.076 0.474~ 1.045 22.2 77.8
98 1.50 3.089 0.472 x lo-" 1.048 23.8 76.2
98 1.75 3.103 0.470~10-~ 1.051 25.7 74.3
98 2.00 3.118 0.468 X 10- 1.055 27.7 72.3
98 2:25 3.137 O.465xl0K6 1.058 30.1 69.9
98 2.50 3.157 0.463 x 10-" 1.062 32.7 67.3
98 2.75 3.180 0.460~ 1.066 35.6 64.4
98 3.25 3.231 0.453 x 1.071 42.2 57.8
98 3.75 3.289 0.445X10-6 1.074 49.7 50.3
98 4.75 3.412 0.428 x 1.064 65.7 34.3
99 All 3.676 0.393X10-6 1 .Ooo 100.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Rod * Plunger Rod Elastic F~~~~~~~~ Rod string (W of each size)
1 3 5
No. diam., weight, constant, factor, 1: 1; 1 x 4 x
d, w, E, F,
(in.) (lb/ft) (in./lb-ft)
107 1.06 2.977 0.524 x 10 - 6 1.184 16.9 16.8 17.1 49.1

107 1.25 3.019 o.517x10-6 1.189 17.9 17.8 18.0 46.3
107 1.50 3.085 0.506 x 10V6 1.195 19.4 19.2 19.5 41.9
107 1.75 3.158 o.494xlo-6 1.197 21.0 21.0 21.2 36.9
107 2.00 3.238 0.480X10-6 1.195 22.7 22.8 23.1 31.4
107 2.25 3.336 0.464 X 10- 1.187 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0
107 2.50 3.435 0.447 x 1.174 26.9 27.7 27.1 18.2
107 2.75 3.537 0.430~ 1.156 29.1 30.2 29.3 11.3
108 1.06 3.325 0.447 x 10-6 1.097 17.3 17.8 64.9
108 1.25 3.345 0.445 X 1.101 18.1 18.6 63.2
108 1.50 3.376 0.441 x 10-6 1.106 19.4 19.9 60.7
108 1.75 3.411 0.437 X 1.111 20.9 21.4 57.7
108 2.00 3.452 0.432 X 1.117 22.6 23.0 54.3
108 2.25 3.498 0.427 x 1.121 24.5 25.0 50.5
108 2.50 3.548 0.421 x 10K6 1.124 26.5 27.2 46.3
108 2.75 3.603 0.415 X 1.126 28.7 29.6 41.6
108 3.25 3.731 0.400X 1.123 34.6 33.9 31.6
108 3.75 3.873 0.383 X 1.108 40.6 39.5 19.9
109 1.06 3.839 0.378 X 1.035 18.9 81.1

109 1.25 3.845 0.378 x 1.036 19.6 80.4
109 1.50 3.855 0.377 X 1.038 20.7 79.3
109 1.75 3.867 0.376 X 1.040 22.1 77.9
109 2.00 3.880 0.375 x 1.043 23.1 76.3
109 2.25 3.896 0.374 X 1.046 25.4 74.6
109 2.50 3.911 0.372 X 1.048 27.2 72.8
109 2.75 3.930 0.371 x 1.051 29.4 70.6
109 3.25 3.971 0.367 X 10K6 1.057 34.2 65.8
109 3.75 4.020 0.363 X 1.063 39.9 60.1
109 4.75 4.120 0.354 X 10W6 1.066 51.5 48.5
a Rod No. shown in first column refers to the largest and smallest rod size in eighths of an inch. For example, Rod No. 76 is a two-way taper of and
rods. Rod No. 85 is a four-way taper ofi,i, I. a
and rods. Rod No. 109 is a two-way taper of 1 and 1; rods. Rod No. 77 is a straight string of rods,
etc.
568
Inasmuch as it is usually assumed that the pump is set at the working fluid level in
the well, the pressure differential is actually equal to the pressure at depth L due to
the column of fluid having specific gravity G:
Ap = 0.433GL (14-4)
For a more general case, where working fluid level is situated at depth D, the
pressure under the plunger, which is due to a column of fluid having height ( L - D )
in the casing, should be considered. Thus:
Ap = 0.433GL - 0.4336( L - D ) = 0.433GD (14-5)
For a tapered rod string with two sections having lengths L, and L , (in ft),
cross-sectional areas of A , and A , (in in.2) and weights M I and M 2 (in lb/ft), the
stress at the top of the lower section is equal to:
0.433LAp + L,M, 0.433LAp + L R , M ,

- ( 14-6)
A, A1
The stress at the top of the upper section is equal to:
O.433LAp+ L,M, + L2M2 0.433LAp + LR,M, + LR2M2

- (14-7)
A2 A2
where R , and R , are the fractions (of the total rod length) of the lower and upper
rod strings, respectively. If stresses at the top of two sections are equal, then:
0.433Ap + R I M l 0.433Ap + R , M , + R2M2

- (14-8)
A1 A2
where:
R, +R, = 1 (14-9)
The above equations can be modified for any tapered string with more than two
sections. This, however, makes the analysis more complex. (See Craft et al., 1962.)
Example 14-1
It is estimated that production of a well will be 400 bbl/D with a pump setting
depth of 6050 ft. Assuming a pump with a l:-in. plunger and using a tapered rod
string, consisting of $-in., ?-in., and 1-in. rods, determine the length of each section.
The rods are available in lengths of 25 ft.
569
Solution:
From Table 14-IV (rod no. 86): R , = 0.406, R , = 0.294, and R , = 0.30. Then:
L , = L R , = 6050 X 0.406 = 2456 f t of :-in. rods
L , = L R , = 6050 X 0.30 = 1815 f t of :-in. rods
L , = L R , = 6050 X 0.294 = 1779 f t of 1-in. rods.
Using 25-ft increments: L , = 2450 ft, L , = 1800 ft, and L, = 1775 ft.
As mentioned before, the maximum estimated stress must be compared with the
allowable working stress for the rods being designed. This would result in an
adjustment in the above results. Consideration of polished rod loads and, conse-
quently, the maximum stress at any point in the rod string is the most important
factor in this adjustment. This will be discussed later.
Rod motion analysis
As discussed before, the pumping motion is supplied to the polished rod through
a series of rigid members, with no fluid couplings. The power is transmitted through
the various components in a sequence beginning with the gear reducer and then
through the crank, pitman, walking beam, horsehead, and, finally, hanger bar to the
polished rod.
The rotating crank is connected to the walking beam by the pitman, thus causing
the walking beam to reciprocate with a motion that simulates a simple harmonic
one. Thus, theory and load analysis of beam pumping are based upon simple
harmonic motion (SHM). (See Day and Byrd, 1980, p. 28.)
Unlike hydraulic units, the upstroke and downstroke loads of the beam units are
not constant and have certain maximum and minimum loads. This is caused
primarily by the harmonic type of pumping motion (SHM), which begins slowly at
the reversal, increases to a maximum velocity at midpoint, and then decreases to the
next reversal. As a rule of thumb, the maximum velocity is approximately equal to
1.5 times the average velocity. In addition, the harmonic vibration of the rod string,
which is related to pumping rate and rod-string length, affects the loads. These loads
must be estimated prior to the selection of equipment for a pumping installation
and before designing and selecting a suitable sucker-rod string.
Rod load is maximum in the top unit of the string, i.e., in the polished rod. It is
subject to a considerable variation during the double-stroke pumping cycle. Instan-
taneous load is a function of a large number of factors. These could be static and
dynamic loads. If sucker rods were suspended statistically from a polished rod or if
they were rising or falling at a constant velocity, the weight of sucker rods, W,,
would be the only force acting on the polished rod. In dynamic case, however, when
the sucker rods are accelerating, an additional acceleration load of [ ( W , / g ) a ] is
added to the above force. The acceleration factor, a,is expressed as follows:
a = a/g (14-10)
where a is the maximum acceleration achieved by the sucker-rod string.

570
The most commonly used analysis of simple harmonic motion of the rod string
without considering fluid acceleration involves the Mills (1943b) acceleration factor:
SN2
a = 2v2SN2/g= - (14-11)
70,500
where S = length of stroke, in., and N = pumping speed, strokes per minute (spm).
Example 14-2
Calculate the maximum polished rod load caused by 3000 f t of 1-in. sucker rods
if the average speed is 20 spm and the polished rod stroke length is 44 in. The
weight of sucker rod is 3.12 Ib/ft.
Solution:
Weight of sucker rods W,= 3.12 lb/ft X 3000 ft = 9360 Ib; a = 44 X 202/70,500
= 0.25; maximum load = acceleration load +
weight of rods = 9360 X a + 9360 =
11,700 lb.
Effective plunger stroke
The relative movement of the plunger stroke with respect to the working barrel is
the controlling factor in determining the volume of oil handled during each stroke
of the pump plunger. This relative motion is called the net or effective plunger
stroke, which may differ from the polished-rod stroke because of many variables.
These include (1) rod and tubing stretch, (2) plunger overtravel resulting from
dynamic motion and elasticity of the rods, (3) rod vibration, and (4) subsurface
friction effects.
The basic stretch of the rod string in a given well fluid essentially depends on the
length of the rod string. The string is loaded by its own weight alone only during the
downstroke, whereas during the upstroke there is an additional weight of the liquid
column acting on the plunger. The change in the liquid load entails a change in
stretch, which is described, subscribing to Hooke’s law, as follows:
FL
e, = A L , =- (14-12)
EA,
where F is force in lb, A , is the cross-sectional area of the rod under stress in in.2,
and E is the modulus of elasticity, which is a characteristic of the rod material to
which stress is applied, L is the length of the member under stress in ft, and e,
( = AL,) is elongation in ft (e.g., E for steel is equal to 30 X lo6 psi). Normally,
magnitudes of elongation and length are in inches and feet, respectively, in which
case eq. 14-12 becomes:
12F L
e , =AL, = - (14-13)
EA,
571
Substituting eq. 14-5 in eq. 14-13:
e, =A L , = 12 X 0 . 4 3 3 G D A p L / (E , A , ) = 5 . 2 0 G D A p L / (E , A , ) (14-14)
In the case of a tapered rod string, the above equation must be applied to each
section:
5.20GDApL, 5 .20GDApL ,
e,, = AL,, = ; er2= A L,, = ; etc. (14-15)
EAl EA2
where AL,, is the elongation of length L , (ft) of rods having cross-sectional area
A , ; A L,, is the elongation of length L2 (ft) of rods having cross-sectional area A , ;
etc. Thus, the total stretch for the rods is equal to:
e,, = AL,, = ( 5 . 2 0 G D A p / E ) (L , / A , + L,/A, + .. + ) ( 14-16)
Equation 14-14 can be used also for the elongation of the tubing as follows:
e , = A L,, = 5.20GDApL/EA, (14-17)
where A , is the cross-sectional area of the tubing wall.

During each pumping cycle, as the travelling and standing valves of the sub-
surface pump open and close, the fluid load is being transferred alternately to the
tubing and to the rod string. During the downstroke, when the standing valve is
closed and the travelling valve is open, a certain amount of elongation occurs in the
tubing, which is caused by the fluid load. On the other hand, at the beginning of the
upstroke the travelling valve is closed and elongation of the rods result. Stretch
comes out of the tubing as a result of opening of the standing valve. The working
TABLE 14-V
Tubing data (from API, 1977, R P 11L, table 4.2, p.10; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
1 2 3 4 5
Tubing Outside Inside Metal Elas tic
size diameter diameter area cons tan t,
(in.) (in.) (in.) (sq in.) E,
(in./lb-ft)
1.900 1.900 1.610 0.800 0.500 X lo-'
2; 2.375 1.995 1.304 0.307 X lo-'
2; 2.875 2.441 1.812 0.221 x 10-6
3f 3.500 2.992 2.590 0.154X10-'
4 4.000 3.476 3.077 0.130X10-6.
4; 4.500 3.958 3.601 0.111 x 1 0 - 6
572
TABLE 14-VI
Sucker-rod data (from API, 1977, RP 11L, table 4.3, p. 10; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute).
1 2 3 4
Rod Metal Rod Elastic
size area weight constant,
(in.) (sq in.) in air, Er
w, (in./lb-ft)
(lb/ft)
1
2 0.196 0.72 1.990X10-6
5
8 0.307 1.13 1.270 X
3
4 0.442 1.63 0.883 X
7
8 0.601 2.22 0.649 x
1 0.785 2.90 0.497 X 10K6
If 0.994 3.67 0.393 X
barrel moves upward as a result of tubing restoration to its original length and the
plunger moves downward due to the elongation of rods. Thus, there is a decrease in
effective plunger stroke, which is equal to the sum of rod and tubing elongations
resulting from fluid load.
In addition to the fluid load, the rod load consisting of the dead weight of rods
and acceleration load causes additional rod elongation.
The weight of the sucker rods suspended below any element of the string changes
uniformly from zero at the bottom to the maximum value of Wr at the top of the
string. An average weight of Wr/2 centered at L/2 could be considered effective in
causing rod elongation. On considering both dynamic and static loads, the elonga-
tion of the rods at the end of the downstroke, ed, is equal to:
(14-18)
At the end of the upstroke, when the acceleration loads are in opposite directions,
the elongation of the rods is equal to:
(14-19)
The net elongation resulting from acceleration, which is termed the plunger over-
travel, ep, is equal to:
ep = ed - e , = 12WraL/EA, (14-20)
573
For the rod string, having specific weight of yr in lb/cu ft, the weight in Ib is equal
to:
W, = y,LA,/144 (14-21)
Inasmuch as steel density is equal to about 490 Ib/ft3, substituting eq. 14-20 into
eq. 14-21 results ip:
(14-22)
where a is the acceleration factor which, as presented earlier, is equal to:
a=- S N 2
70,500
As pointed out by Craft et al. (1962), some investigators prefer to use the following
more empirically correct formula:
ep = 32.8L2a/E (14-23)
On substituting 30 X lo6 for E of steel in eqs. 14-22 and 14-23 gives:
40.8L2a
ep = 1.36 X 10-6L2a or ep = ~ (14-24)
E
The rod and tubing stretch caused by fluid load decreases the effective plunger
stroke, whereas the plunger overtravel increases it. Thus, the effective plunger stroke
is equal to:
sP= s + ep - ( e , + e , ) (14-25)
where Sp= effective plunger stroke, in.; S = polished rod stroke, in.; ep = plunger
overtravel, in.; e , = tubing stretch, in.; and e , = rod stretch, in. Combining eqs.
14-16, 14-17, 14-22 and 14-25 yields:
(14-26)
The above equation can be simplified as follows in the case of untapered rod:
(14-27)
574
Inasmuch as there is no tubing stretch in the case of anchored tubing, the term A ,
can be neglected (Craft et al., 1962, p. 293).
Pump-size determination
The major factor in the selection of a suitable pump size is the volume of fluid
displaced by the pump per unit length of each stroke. The diameter of the pump
bore determines the displaced volume; therefore, for a given pumping depth and
amount of fluid to be produced, there is an optimum size of pump bore which will
result in effective pump plunger travel and optimum speed of operation.
According to Craft et al. (1962, p. 299), the theoretical pump displacement Vp in
bbl/D is equal to:
1440 min/day
PD = V, = (A,, in.'
= 0.1484ApS,N bbl/day (14-28)
The factor 0.1484AP is termed the pump constant, K , which is independent of

surface operating conditions. Thus, eq. 14-28 can be written as follows:
Vp = KSpN (14-29)
TABLE 14-VII
Pump constants (from API, 1977, RP 11L, table 4.4, p. 10; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
1 2 3 4
Plunger Plgr. diam. Fluid load Pump
diame ter, squared factor a factor
d, 4 (0.340 x d i ) (0.1166X d l )
(in.) (sq in.) (Ib/ft)
1k 1.1289 0.384 0.132
If 1.5625 0.531 0.182
1; 2.2500 0.765 0.262
1; 3.0625 1.041 0.357
2 4.oooo 1.360 0.466
2a 5.0625 1.721 0.590
2f 6.2500 2.125 0.728
2: 7.5625 2.571 0.881
3; 14.0625 4.781 1.640
4: 22.5625 7.671 2.630
a For fluids with specific gravity of 1.00.

575
Plunger areas and pump constants for all API pump sizes are presented in Table
14-VII. The volumetric efficiency of the pump is defined as the ratio of the volume
of the fluid actually handled to the pump displacement:
E, = Q/v, (14-30)
where Q is the rate of well production in bbl/D.

In the case of good separation of formation gas in the hole and ample pump
submergence, the volumetric efficiency commonly ranges from 70 to 80%. Many
factors, such as fluid properties, surface operating conditions, the pump type, depth
of pump, and gas interference affect the efficiency. In the case of foamy, gaseous
production, the efficiency may be as low as 2 5 4 0 % . For wells with no gas
interference and high fluid level the volumetric efficiency may be close to 100%.
Example 14-3
Production from a pumping well is 145 bbl/D of 30"API (sp. gr. = 0.87) oil. The
l 2 - k plunger is set at a depth of 6100 f t in 2i-in. tubing (2.875 in. O.D., 2.441 in.
I.D.). The fluid is at a depth of 4800 f t in the casing annulus. The rod string consists
of :-in. and i-in. rods and operates at 19.5 spm. Pump efficiency is 80%. Calculate
the following:
(a) Effective plunger stroke.
(b) Tubing stretch.
(c) Rod stretch.
(d) Polished rod stroke.
(e) Plunger overtravel.
Solution:
(a) The total pump displacement is equal to:
1440 min/day
V, = P D = A , (in.2) X S, (in./stroke) X N (strokes/min) X
9702 in.3/bbl
= 0.1484A,SpN
and
Q = PDE, = 0.1484A,S,NEV
2
A, = ~ / 4 ( l $ ) = 2.405 in.2
576
Thus:
Q - 145
sp= 0.1484ApNE,
c
(0.1484)(2.405)( 19.5)(0.80)
= 26 in.
(b) A, = ~ / 4 ( 2 . 8 7 5-
~ 2.4412) = 1.812 in.2
5.20GDApL - (5.20)(0.87)(4800) (2.405) (6100)

et = = 5.860 in.
EA t (30 X 106)(1.812)
Assuming that L , and L, are equal to 3233 ft and 2867 ft, respectively:
er= i5.20 x 0.87 x 4800 x 2.405

30 X l o 6
(d) S, =S + ep - e , - er
Therefore:
Sp= 26 = S + 0.311s - 5.860 - 21

Solving for S :
S = 40 in.
= 0.311s = 0.311 X 40 = 12.4 in.
Polished rod loads calculation
In the design of surface equipment for a pumping installation, the anticipated

maximum or peak polished rod load must be estimated as accurately as possible.
Five major factors affect the net polished rod load: (1) the dead weight of sucker
rods, (2) fluid load, (3) buoyant force resulting from submergence of sucker rods in
the fluid, (4) acceleration load of sucker rods, and (5) frictional forces.
577
As shown before, the weight of a tapered rod string is equal to:
W,= M I L , + M , L, + .. * (14-31)
where M is the weight per unit length (lb/ft) and L is the length (ft).
The maximum and minimum acceleration loads of the rods can be expressed as
follows:
Minimum acceleration load = - Wra ( 14-32)
Maximum acceleration load = W,a (14-33)
The volume of rod string is equal to:
V, = volume = weight/specific weight = W,/y, (14-34)
Inasmuch as specific weight of steel is usually assumed to be 490 Ib/cu ft, V , in cu

ft is equal to:
V, = W,/490 (14-35)
For a fluid having specific gravity G, the buoyant force, B,, on the rods, which is
equal to the weight of displaced fluid, can be determined as follows:
B, = - ( WI/490)62.4G= - 0.127WrG (14-36)
The negative sign indicates the upward direction of this force. The fluid load is
equal to the weight of the fluid column which is supported by the plunger. The
volume of fluid, V, (cu ft), is the difference between (1) the volume of a column
having the sucker-rod string length and the plunger base, and (2) the volume
occupied by the rods:
V, = (LA,/144)-( W,/490) (14-37)
where L is the sucker-rod string length (ft) and A , is the plunger area (in2). Thus,
the fluid load on the polished rod during the upstroke is equal to:
W,= 62.46[( ~ ~ ~ 1-4(W,/49O)]

4 ) = 0.433G(LA, - 0.294y) (14-38)
The frictional forces, F,, can be estimated from the dynamometer tests. They are
positive during the upstroke ( + F,) and negative ( - F,) on the downstroke, resulting
from their opposition to the direction of motion of the body. Thus, the maximum
(or peak) polished rod load, W ,,
, during the upstroke is equal to:
W,, = W,+ W, + W,a + F, (14-39)
578
whereas the minimum polished rod load, Wmin,which occurs during the downstroke,
is equal to:
Wmin= W, - W,(Y- 0.127W,G - Ff (14-40)
Inasmuch as the frictional forces usually can be neglected, the above equations can
be simplified as follows (Mills, 1943a,b):
w, = w, + w, + W,a (14-41)
and
Wmin= W, - W,(Y- 0.127W,G (14-42)
It should be noted that the vibration loads, which are not considered in the above
equations, will be discussed later. Also, the acceleration loads resulting from the
fluid being lifted are neglected.
COUNTERBALANCE DESIGN
The first step in the design and selection of surface equipment for any beam
pumping system is the proper design of the counterbalance system.
During the first half of the crank cycle (upstroke), when the amount of polished
rod work to lift the fluid is high, the counterbalance would release the energy stored
in the second half of the cycle (downstroke). If the pumping unit were not properly
counterbalanced, the amount of work done by the prime mover during the upstroke
would be maximum and consequently the fluid will not be produced effectively and
efficiently. The counterbalance system uniformly distributes the loads and torques
exerted on the prime mover and reduces the size of the prime mover and gear
reducer.
Theoretically, the “ideal” counterbalance effect, C,, can be estimated by the
average load during a full crank cycle, namely, the prime mover carries the same
average load on the downstroke and on the upstroke. This could be expressed as
follows:
(14-43)
On substituting eqs. 14-39 and 14-40 into the above equation, the following relation
is obtained:
Ci = Wf/2 + W, - 0.127G W, ( 14-44)

519
Fig. 14-22. Counterbalance effect of the countenveight. (Modified after Craft et al., 1962, p. 301, fig. 5.4:
courtesy of Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.) Point 0 represents the crankshaft, whereas point P
represents the saddle bearing. Fp = the force in the pitman: C, = counterbalance effect; W, =
Counterweight: r = distance from crankshaft to pitman bearing: d = distance from crankshaft to the
center of gravity of the counterweight.
The above equation shows that the ideal counterbalance effect is equal to the sum of
half of the fluid load and the weight of rods in the fluid.
As shown in Fig. 14-22, the counterbalance effect, C,, caused by the counter-
weight of W,, depends on the geometry of a beam pumping unit, the stroke length,
and the weight and position of the counterweight. In addition to C,, the counterbal-
ance effect, C,, may result from structural unbalance of the surface installation. The
total counterbalance effect C, at the polished rod, therefore, is equal to:
c,= c, + c, (14-45)
where:
d = the distance from crankshaft to the center of gravity of the counterweight;

r = the distance from crankshaft to the pitman bearing; I , = the distance from the
saddle bearing to the tail bearing; I, = the distance from the saddle bearing to the
bridle; and W, = weight of the counterweight used with the unit, lb. (See Day and
Byrd, 1980, p. 39.)
5 80
TORQUE CALCULATION
Basically, torque for a lever arm is defined as the product of the arm length and
the force acting at the end of it, which tends to produce rotation and work. For a
pumping unit, torque is the amount of force (commonly expressed in in.-lb) caused
by the pitman pull due to well loads and by the opposing effect from counterbal-
ance moments and by the prime mover (Day and Byrd, 1980, p. 39). The torque is
being applied to the crank by the low-speed shaft of the gear reducer. In any
pumping unit, therefore, the actual peak torque must not be more than the
maximum torque rating (capacity) of the gear box or speed reducer.
Figure 14-23 shows the instantaneous torque on the gear box. The crank makes
an angle B with the vertical, which is measured clockwise from crank position at the
beginning of the upstroke. The net torque at any position of the crank is the
difference between well load torque and counterbalance torque. The torque on the
gear reducer (net torque about point 0) is equal to:
T, = Wr sin B - W,d sin B (14-47)
In the case when the geometry of the surface installation is not considered and
C, = 0, eq. 14-45 is reduced to the following form:
C, = 2Wcd/S (14-48)
On substituting eq. 14-48 into eq. 14-47 the following relation (Craft et al., 1962, p.
303) is given:
.T, = S / 2 W sin 8 - S/2 C, sin 8
or
T, = ( W - C,)( S/2) sin B (14-49)
As pointed out by Craft et al. (1962, p. 303), this equation is an approximate

expression for instantaneous torque on the gear box. A simple relationship for the
Fig. 14-23. Instantaneous torque on the gear box. (Modified after Craft et al., 1962, p. 303, fig. 5.5:
courtesy of Prentice-Hall, Inc.. New Jersey.) W = polished rod load.
581
peak torque can be derived by substitution of the highest possible values for W and
sin 8 , which are W,, and sin 90" ( = l), respectively:
(14-50)
In the design of any pumping unit installation, T, should be calculated for both
upstroke and downstroke, because under some conditions either one can be greater
than the maximum allowable torque for the unit.
Inasmuch as the counterbalance can be between 90-95% of the ideal value, a
simple expression for the peak torque prediction is as follows:
T, =
!sl
(W,,, - 0.93Ci) - (14-51)
PRIME MOVER HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS
In producing fluid (from the pump to the surface), two major power loads must
be taken into consideration: (1) hydraulic horsepower, H,, or the power required to
lift a given volume of fluid vertically, through a given distance in a given period of
time, and (2) the frictional energy loss, H,, between the pump and polished rod. The
total polished rod horsepower, HI (or P R H P ) , therefore, is equal to:
H, =H, + H, (14-52)
The polished rod horsepower is defined as the rate of the work energy transferred to
the polished rod by the pumping unit. Using the safety factor of 1.5, proposed by
Kelly and Willis (1954), the brake horsepower, H , , is equal to:
H, = 1.5( Hh + Hf) (14-53)
The hydraulic horsepower, H,, can be calculated as follows:
Q X L , X Y, x G
H, =
(33,000 ft-lb/min/HP)(24 hr/D)(60 min/sec)
= 7.36 X QGL, (14-54)
where Q = production in bbl/D, G = specific gravity of produced fluid, L , = net

lift expressed in feet of produced fluid, and y, = specific weight of water in lb/bbl
( = 350 Ib/bbl).
The total pressure differential as the fluid moves from the pump to the surface is
called net lift, L,. It is not equal to the pump setting depth because of the effects of
casing and tubing pressures.
582
If the pump is set at the working fluid level, however, the contribution of casing
pressure in lifting the fluid becomes zero. On the other hand, if the pump is set at a
depth L below the working fluid level, which is at depth D in the casing, the effect
of casing pressure is equal to ( L - 0).
The tubing back pressure, pt (psi), effect, which acts as a force against the lifting
of fluids, actually adds to the net fluid lift (ft). Thus, the net lift is equal to:
L, =L - ( L - D )+ pt/0.433G =D + pJO.4336 (14-55)
It is also necessary to consider the frictional energy loss between the pump and
polished rod. A simple empirical equation, developed by Zaba and Doherty (1956),
can be used to calculate the frictional energy loss, H , (in HP) as follows:
(14-56)
or
H , = 6.31 xlO-’W,SN ’ (14-57)
where N = strokes per minute; 33,000 = conversion factor-ft-lb/min/HP; and

12 = conversion factor-in./ft.
It is important to note here that the interested reader should consult excellent
books by Craft et al. (1962) and Brown et al. (1980).
Example 14-4
An analysis of dynamometer card shows a maximum load of 12,000 lb and a

minimum polished rod load of 4000 lb, and polished rod horsepower of 12. The well
has a 1:-in. plunger set in 2-in. tubing on 4300 f t of :-in. sucker rods. The tubing is
not anchored and the working fluid level is low. When the well is pumped at 20 spm
with a 64-in. stroke, the production is 300 bbl/D of a fluid having specific gravity
of 0.83. Calculate (1) the ideal counterbalance effect, (2) the maximum sucker rod
stress, (3) the polished rod horsepower, and (4) the peak torque if the unit is
counterbalanced to within 5% of the ideal value.
Solution:
a s - -S N 2 - 64 2o 2o = 0.363
70,500 70,500
According to Atlantic Richfield Co. Manual, for air-balanced Mark I1 systems the constant is equal to
6.25 X lo-’.
583
= 64 + 4300 4300 [40.8 x 0.363 - 5.20 x 0.83 x 2.405(1/1.304 + 1/0.442)]

30 X lo6
= 53.74 in.
W, = ML = 1.63 X 4300 = 7009 lb
W, = 0.433G( LA, - O.294Wr)= 0.433 X 0.83(4300 X 2.405 - 0.294 X 7009) = 2976
lb
W, = Wf + W,(1 + a) = 2976 + 7009 X 1.363 = 12530 Ib
+
Ci = 0.5Wf W,(1 - 0.127G) = 0.5 X 2976 + 7009(1 - 0.127 X 0.83) = 7758 lb
H , = 7.36 X 1OP6QGLn= 7.36 X x 300 X 0.83 x 4300 = 7.88 HP
H , = 6.31 X 10-'W,SN = 6.31 x l o p 7 x 7009 x 64 x 20 = 5.66 HP
Ht = 7.88 + 5.66 = 13.54 HP
Ci = +(W, + Wmin)= $(12,000 + 4000) = 8000 lb
Maximum stress = W,,/A, = 12,000/0.442 = 27,150 psi
Tp = (W,, - 0.95C)(S/2) = (12,000 - 0.95 x 8000)(64/2) = 140,800 in.-lb
API RECOMMENDED DESIGN PROCEDURE
Summarized in this section are the equations described in detail in API (1977)
R P 11L for a conventional pumping system design through trial and error methods.
The design procedure is based upon correlations, data tables, and curves which are
presented in this section.
The following three steps can be followed in designing an installation:
(1) A preliminary selection of components for the installation.
(2) Use of formulas, tables, and figures to calculate the operating characteristics
of the preliminary selection.
(3) Comparison of the calculated pump displacement and load with the volumes,
load ratings, stresses, and other limitations of the preliminary selection.
Listed below are the minimum amount of information which must be either
known or assumed:
(1) Fluid level, D ,the net lift in ft.
(2) Pump depth, L, ft.
(3) Pumping speed, N, strokes per minute.
(4) Length of surface stroke, S , in.
(5) Pump plunger diameter, d,, in.
(6) Specific gravity of fluid, G.
(7) The nominal tubing diameter and whether it is anchored or free.
(8) Sucker rod size and design.
Knowledge of these factors makes it possible to determine the following:
(1) Plunger stroke, S,, in.
584
P c
POLISHED ROD POSITION

Fig. 14-24. Basic dynagraph card. (Modified after API. 1979, RP 11L, fig. 3.1: courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute.) F, = gross plunger load: W,, = weight of rods in the fluid: Fl = peak polished rod
load (PPRL)-point I ; F2 = minimum polished rod load (MPRL)-point 6: I = bottom stroke:
3 = polished rod card for pumping speed greater than zero ( N > 0): 4 = polished rod card for pumping
speed. N 0 ; 5 = top of stroke: S = polished rod stroke, in.
( 2 ) Pump displacement, PD (or V,), bbl/D.

(3) Peak polished rod load, P P R L (or W,,), lb.
(4) Minimum polished rod load, M P R L (or W,,,), lb.
(5) Peak crank torque, P T (or T,), in.-lb.
(6) Polished rod horsepower, P R H P (or H,).
(7) Counterweight required, CBE, lb.
These variables can be determined from the following equations:
sp=[(s,/s)x s ] - [ F , / k , ) I (14-58)
where F, is the gross plunger load, and its significance is shown on a dynagraph
card (Fig. 14-24). The value of S,/S is determined from Fig. 14-25.
Fo = 0.340 X G X dp’ X D (14-59)
and
l/k, = E, X L (14-60)
where E , is the elastic constant of the tubing and can be determined from Table
14-V. In the case of anchored tubing, l / k , is equal to zero.
The pump displacement, P D , is equal to:
PD = 0.1166 x Spx N x dp” (14-61)
Peak polished rod load, P P R L , is equal to:
P P R L = W,, + ( F , / S k , ) X S k , (14-62)
585
I .7
1.6
1.5
I.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
-
SP
S
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
u.3
U P
“.I
0 0.I 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

-
N
Nb
Fig. 14-25. Plunger stroke factor, S,/S. (After API. 1977, RP I l L , fig. 4.1: courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute.)
where S k , = load (in lb) necessary to stretch the total rod string an amount equal to
the polished rod stroke, S ; W,, = weight of the rods in the fluid, which can be
determined on using the following formula:
W,, = W, X L X (1 - 0.128G) (14-63)
586
12
1.1
I0
09
08
0.7
-
Fl
Skr
06
05
a4
0 3
-
a2
0.1
I I I l l
0.
0 0. I 02 03 04 0.5 0.6
-
N
NO
Fig. 14-26. Peak polished rod load, F 1 / S k , . (After API, 1977, R P 11L, fig. 4.2; courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute.) N = pumping speed, strokes/min: No = natural frequency of straight rod string,
stroke,/min.
The weight of the rods, W, (lb/ft), can be determined from Table 14-IV, whereas
the nondimensional parameter (F,/Sk,) (peak polished rod load) is determined
from Fig. 14-26.
Minimum polished rod load, M P R L , is equal to:
M P R L = W,, - [ ( F 2 / S k , ) X Sk,] (14-64)
where F2 = M P R L factor which can be determined from Fig. 14-24. The parameter
( F2/Sk,) (minimum polished rod load) can be determined from Fig. 14-27.
Peak torque, Tp,is equal to:
Tp = (2T/S2k,) X Sk, X T, X S/2 (14-65)

587
N
-
NO
Fig. 14-27. Minimum polished rod load, F 2 / S k , . (After API. 1977, RP 11L, fig. 4.3; courtesy of
American Petroleum Institute.)
where T = crank torque, lb-in.; T, = torque adjustment constant for values of

( W , , / S k , ) other than 0.3. The latter adjustment can be obtained from Fig. 14-28,
whereas the value of ( 2 T / S 2 k , )can be obtained from Fig. 14-29.
588
Fig. 14-28. Adjustment for peak torque for values of W , , / S k , other than 0.3. (After API, 1977, RP 11L,
fig. 4.6: courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.) In order to use, multiply % indicated on curve by
[( Wr,/Sk,)-0.3]/0.1. For example, for W , , / S k , = 0.600, N/N6 = 0.200, F , / S k , = 0.188. Adjustment =
3% for each 0.1 increase in Wrf/Skr above 0.3. Total adjustment = 3 X 3 % = 9%. T, =1.00+0.09 =1.09.
If W , , / S k , is less than 0.3, adjustment becomes negative. (Nd = natural frequency of tapered rod string,
strokes/min.)
589
-
2T
S2k,
1
%I
Fig 14-29 Peak torque, 2 T / S 2 k , , for values of W r f / S k , = 3 (After API, 1977. RP 11L. fig 4 4
courtesy of Amencan Petroleum Institute ) Use torque adjustment for values of W,,/SI\ other than 0 3
~
Polished rod horsepower, P R H P , is equal to:

H , = PRHP = (F,/Sk,) X Sk, X S X N X 2.53 X (14-66)
590
Fig. 14-30. Polished rod horsepower, F 3 / S k r . (After API, 1977, R P 11L, fig. 4.5; courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute.)
The parameter ( F , / S k , ) (polished rod horsepower) can be obtained from Fig.

14-30.
The counterweight required is determined by using the following equation:
CBE = 1.06( W,, + +Fo) (14-67)

591
Fig. 14-31. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for 1;-, 1-, and :-in. three-way tapered string.
(After API, 1977, R P 11L, fig. A.l; courtesy o f American Petroleum Institute.)
In Figs. 14-26, 14-27, 14-29 and 14-30, the value of the term (N/N,) is determined
using the following equation:
N/N, = (NL)/245,000 (14-68)
where N = pumping speed, strokes/min (spm); No = natural frequency of straight

rod string, strokes/min (spm); and L = pump depth, ft. The term (N/NA) is equal
to:
592
CHANGE OF FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY

FOR I, 8 a TAPERED R O D STRINQ
Fig. 14-32. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for 1-, i-,and :-in. three-way tapered rod
string. (After API, 1977, RP 11L,fig. A.2; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)
where F, = frequency factor (a constant of proportionality), which depends upon the

rod design. The dimensionless pumping speed (N,”;) is a significant index of the
behavior of rod string. The frequency factor, F,, can be obtained from Table 14-IV.
For rod strings which are not presented in Table 14-IV, Figs. 14-31 through 14-36
can be used to determine the frequency factor from the following relationship:
F, = 1.O + % from Table 14-IV (14-70)
Sample step-by-step design calculations are shown in Table 14-VIII using the
above-shown formulas.
593
Fig. 14-33. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for :-,

i-, and :-in. tapered rod string. (After
API, 1977, R P 11L, fig. A.3; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)
DYNAMOMETER CARDS (DYNAGRAPHS)
The dynamometer card is a continuous record of polished rod load versus

polished rod position. It can be used for the determination of main design factors:
(1) polished rod load, (2) peak load, (3) peak torque, and (4)horsepower require-
ments. It also enables the evaluation of pumping well problems.
The well character and the production history should be known before any card
interpretation. It is also important to note here that it is virtually impossible to
perform a well analysis by studying a single dynamometer card.
The basic principles of card analysis are presented here. As pointed out by Day
and Byrd (1980), the following information is developed in a simple card analysis:
594
FOR a, 38i
CHANGE OF FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
TAPERED ROD STRINO
Fig. 14-34. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for i-,

i-, and :-in. three-way tapered rod
string. (After API, 1977, R P 11L, fig. A.4; courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)
(1) Torsional load on the speed reducer and prime mover; the unit’s torque factors
must be known and properly applied.
( 2 ) Minimum and peak pumping unit structural loads.
(3) Proper counterbalance.
(4) Work done by the polished rod against the elevation of the fluid and against
friction.
(5) Minimum and peak rod loads-rod stress, and load range.
(6) Number of rod load fluctuations per crank cycle.
The dynamometer profile enables the operator to visualize the polished rod load
pattern as well as to evaluate the pump performance.
595
40
>
30
8
U
PERCENT OF LARGEST ROD, L t / L
Fig. 14-35. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for four-way tapered rod string. (After API.
1979, R P 11L, fig. A.5; courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.)
A unique single force signal is transmitted ( = 15,800 ft/sec) along the sucker-rod
string to the surface, where it is recorded by the dynamometer, for each stroke of
the downhole pump. Maximum and minimum rod loads, polished rod horsepower,
correct counterbalance, and torque can be obtained from these cards. In addition,
the following information can be obtained from these cards: (1) magnitude of a gas
or fluid pound, (2) frictional loss, (3) gas locking of pump, (4) condition of the
travelling and standing valves, (5) overtravel or undertravel of the pump plunger;
and (6) degree to which the well is pumped-off.
VISUAL DIAGNOSIS OF OPERATING CONDITIONS
The dynamometer card will be a rectangle (Fig. 14-37) for an idealized pumping
system in the presence of the following conditions: (1) no vibrational or frictional
forces within the system, (2) no time lag in transmitting motion from surface to the
plunger, ( 3 ) no rod elongation due to fluid load transfer, (4) the standing valve
opens and the travelling valve closes instantaneously at the beginning of the
upstroke, (5) the travelling valve opens and the standing valve closes at the
beginning of the downstroke, and (6) no acceleration forces-well is pumped very
slowly.
Fig. 14-36. Percentage increase in fundamental frequency for specific rod string combinations. (After API,
1979, RP 11L. fig. A.6; courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.)
591
In Fig. 14-37, the line A B represents the upstroke, where the load remains
constant and the polished rod load is equal to the fluid load plus the weight of rods
in the fluid. The line CD represents the downstroke where the load remains
TABLE 1CVIII
Example design calculations for conventional sucker-rod pumping system (from API, 1977, RP 11L, p. 6;
courtesy of American Petroleum Institute; and Axelson, 1982, p. 62; courtesy of Axelson, Inc.).
Object: To w i r e for-Sp. PD. PPKL. MPRL. PT.PRHP. and CRF:

Known or Assumed Data:
598
TABLE 1CVIII (continued)

COMPANY: A-a-D CO . WELL NUMRI<R: I3tCH
PUMP SIZE: 2'/r ( 2 ) TYP1::- SPM: 14 L: 60"
1. Rod Load ( . 4 i r ) Rod W e i g h t / F t . X Pump Depth F t . WR
-SIZE
_ _ NU\lBEI?
_ FEE7' IVEIGliT P E R FOOT TOTAL ROD WEIGHT
1-1/8" X 3.59
1" /300 X 2.84 7692.
2.16 3240
2200 X 1.63 lC8G
TOTAL FEET yo00 GRAND TOTAL
2. F l u i d Load (Net) Weight of F l u i d / F t . X L i f t / F t . X S p . G r . = WON
IJ7* X-X-. so00 1.0 = S B S O Lbs.

'ON seS0 Lbs.
V a l u e s on p a g e 65 a r e g i v e n i n F l u i d Load/ C F t .
3. S t a t i c Load WR + WON = SL
/ o s / ~+ s8So = 16368 16368 Lbs.
4. Impulse F a c t o r L N ~ T
70,500
( 6 0 ) (14 1 2 = .I6 T * 16 Lbs.
70,500
5. Dynamic Rod Load ( 1 + T) WR = RDY

(1 + . I G ) X lOr/ 8 = 12,200 Lbs.
Peak P o l i s h e d Rod Load [ ( l + T) WR ] + WON = PL
- -
(1 + * I b 1 x l o t i 8 + 58SO = / 8 , o r 0 Lbs
Minimum Rod Load WR (.76 T) = ML
I Oh1 8 X (.76 ./b j = 6 3 / 0 Lbs.
Load Range P L - ML = RPR
/ BOSO 63iO - = 117CCO Lbs.
Peak Torque R p ~ X (LJ4) = P.T. (est.)
f1ly.O b0 ) = 176, 100 Lbs.
( 7
10. P o l i s h e d Rod H . P . LN R P R = i4ppR (est.)
750,000
11. Production 0 . 1 4 8 4 X Ap(; X Lp X N = B/O

0.1484 x 3.19 X 4/,CX /4 = '%?I
____
12.
13. S t r o k e Loss - 1 2 (WOC)
14
599
0
0 ACTUAL CARD
A
-
0
D
t
Fig. 14-37. Example of an ideal and actual dynamometer card for a beam pumping unit
constant; the rod string is falling freely and the polished rod load is equal to the
weight of the rods in the fluid.
For an actual pumping system, however, it is impossible to achieve the ideal
conditions and the shape of the card deviates greatly from a full rectangle,
depending on existing conditions. A typical pumping cycle on a dynamometer card
is shown in Fig. 14-38. An illustration of a typical dynamometer card for a
crank-counter-balanced unit is presented in Fig. 14-39.
The shape of dynamometer cards is influenced by the following: (1) fluid
conditions, ( 2 ) pumping depth, (3) pumping speed, (4) abnormal conditions of the
pump, (5) pumping unit characteristic and geometry, and (6) frictional forces.
Several operating problems can be diagnosed through examination of dynamometer
cards: (1) plunger undertravel and overtravel, ( 2 ) fluid leakage from travelling or
standing valve, (3) fluid pound, (4) gas lock, (5) sticking plunger, (6) restriction in
the well, (7) excessive friction, (8) vibrations, (9) synchronous pumping speeds, and
(10) abnormal load conditions. (See Eickmeier, 1967.) Some of the above conditions
are illustrated in Fig. 14-40. a-g.
As mentioned before, the shape of the dynamometer card is a good indicator of
the performance of pumping equipment. Detailed analysis of the dynamometer card
Maximum
Lood
; , TA V V
6
9\
8 Minimum
Lood
Stroke
Fig. 14-38. A typical dynamometer card. (Modified after Russel, 1953; courtesy of World Oil.)
1 = polished rod down, 2 = travelling valve closing, 3 = recoil, 4 = rods and fluid are being lifted,
5 = deceleration of walking beam, 6 = polished rod up, 7 = standing valve is taking over load, 8 = rods
and plunger are falling through the fluid, and 9 = deceleration of walking beam. Load scale: 1 in.
= 12,500 Ib.
600
TOP DEAD CENTER
COUNTERBALANCE YELPS
L I F T ( P ) , LOWERS REDUCER
REDUCER TORQUE TORQUE
LIFTS REMAINING
COUNTERBALANCE
MOMENT
POLISHED
ZERO
@ 0 POLISHED
ROD LOAD
n
DYNAMOMETER CARD
LOADW HELPS LIFT COUNTERBALANCE HELPS

COUNTERWEIGHTS, L I F T (3) LOWERS REDUCER
REDUCER TORQUE TORQUE
LIFTS REMAINING
COUNTERBALANCE
MOMENT
BOTTOM DEAD CENTER
Fig. 14-39. Typical dynamometer card for a crank-counterbalanced unit. (Courtesy of Atlantic Richfield
Company; fig. 3-9, p. 3-16; from Artificial Lift - Sucker Rod Pumping Manual.)
601
Well History
Nax l o a d 12,800 l b
lriin load 4,000 l b
Range 8,800 lb
4-22-42 a p ee d 1 6 spm
stroke 64 i n .
2 1/4-in. p l g r
O i l 453 b b l p e r day
Water 0 b b l p e r day
Lax l o a d 18,600 l b
Iriin l o a d 5,100 l b
Range 13,500 l b
dpeed 16 s p a
Stroke 64 i n .
PUP 2 1/4-in.plgr
O i l 189 b b l p e r day
Water 199. b b l p e r day
Max l o a d 18,600 l b
&in load 3,000 l b
Range 15,600 l b
Speed 20 spm
btroke 64 i n .
PUP 2 in.-plgr
Oil 1 5 2 b b l p e r day
kax l o a d 18,900 lb
U i n load 3,600 l b
Range 15,300 l b
Speed 22 spm
dtroke 64 in.
PUP 2 1/4 i n . p l g r
Oil 129 b b l p e r d a y
The above dynamometer c a r d s i l l u s t r a t e c h a n g i n g w e l l c o n d i t i o n s

o v e r a p e r i o d of f o u r y e a r s , F i e l d s which a r e p r o d u c e d a t a
r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r a t e u s u a l l y have a r a p i d d e c l i n e i n bottom h o l e
pressure. The horsepower used i n l i f t i n g t h e w e l l f l u i d i s a
f u n c t i o n of t h e e n c l o s e d area o f e a c h dynamometer c a r d . This
g i v e s some i d e a a s to bottom h o l e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e and t h e added
horsepower n e c e s s a r y when s a l t wtlter h a s t o be produced.
Fig 14-40 a.b.c,d.e.f,g Examples of dynamometer cards showing some uell ~onditionsand problems
(Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Compank )
Fig. 14-40.a.
-
602
Overtravel
24000 24000
m- d-
/ >
-&-
I6000 16000
-
/
8000 8000
-
24000
e z
16000
8000
__c
- NO. I
24000
8 000
NO. 4
24000
- NO. 2
24000
0
r
NO. 5
8000
6 0 0 0
/
B -
-5iz
8 000 /
- NO. 3
I
P o l i s h e d rod dynamometer c a r d s were t a k e n a t t h e same time bottom h o l e

NO.6
dynagraph c a r d s were r e c o r d e d . T h i s shows s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s i n a w e l l

pumping up. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e t h a t p l u n g e r t r a v e l i s g r e a t l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e f l u i d l o a d . T h e p l u n g e r o v e r t r a v e l d e c r e a s e s a s t h e
fluid load increases.
Card No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speed &. s t r o k e 18-52-in. 18-52-in. 16-52-in. 18-52-111. 18-52-in. 18-52-111.
Plunger s t r o k e 62 i n . 60 in. 58.5 in. 57 i n . 57 i n . 53 in.
Overt r a v e l 10 in. 8 in. 6.5 i n . 5 in. 5 in. 1 in.
Time 3:lO 3:40 4:lO 4:40 5:lO 5:40
Fio IA-Anh
603
Undertravel
TOTAL DEPTH 4050 f t FOR MATION X-
D A I L Y P R O D ~ C T I O N :0 1 1 - WATER- SP. G R A V . ~ ~ ~
S T R O K E LENGTH 64 in* S . P . M . 16 A.V.E. 3 7 DCt
FLUID LEVEL: STATIC PUMPING B.H.P.
I
W E L L C L A S S I FICATION: AGITATOR PUMPER l-
a
DOES WELL POUND No CASING HEAD P R E S . V e n t e d W
C O R R O S I V E CONDITIONS: PITTING Yes H2S-
CASING SIZEL~LFEET TUBING SIZE 3 in. Li4
W
G A S ANCHOR No TUBING ANCHORED No LL
S U C K E R RODS: l''1000 f t 718"- 3/4" 5/8" m
0
PUMPING UNIT Twin Crank MOTOR M u l t i - C v l i

UNIT RATING: LOAD 25,000 lb PEAK T O R Q U E 285°00"dyi*-lb_
!-
GEAR BOX: S I N G L E DOUBLE RATIO
Max l o a d 22000 l b
Min l o a d 4700 l b
Range 17300 l b
Speed 16 s?m
Stroke 64 i n .
P o l rod hp 20.6
Time 9:oo HiLl
hiax l o a d 23700 l b
lviin l o a d 4500 l b
Range 19300 l b
Speed 1 7 spm
atroke 64 i n .
P o l r o d hp 25
Time 1o:oo IUtI
Fig. 14-4O.c.
604
Fluid Pound
Max Load 14500 lb

Min Load 2800 lb
Range 11700 lb
Speod 18.5 spm
Stroke 54 in*
P o l Rod hp 10.1
Time 8:40 AM
6000 I
Sucker Rods
1500 f t
2000 f t
--
7/8 in.
3/4 in.
Pump 1 3/4 i n . bore RLB
App vol eff 2 7 . 7 p c t
It i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d by most p r o d u c e r s t h a t d e t r i m e n t a l
s t r e s s e s a r e imparted t o t h e mechanical equipment of a pumping
w e l l when i t i s poundinq f l u i d . I n o r d e r t o v i s u a l i z e more
e a s i l y what hapnens when a w e l l i s pounding, the above example
Is g i v e n a s an i l l u s t r a t i o n .
The p o l i s h e d rod t r a v e l s from "a" t o "b" b e f o r e t h e t r a v e l i n g
v a l v e in t h e pump opens. This means t h e approximate t o p t h i r d
of the pump b a r r e l i s f i l l e d w i t h gaseous f l u i d , which m u s t b e
compressed t o a p r e s s u r e i n excess o f t h e f l u i d weight above
t h e t r a v e l i n g v a l v e b e f o r e t h e t r a v e l i n g v a l v e w i l l open. I n
t h i s c a s e (3500 f e e t pumping d e p t h ) t h e pressure amounts t o
about 1400 p s i . A t p o i n t "b" t h e p r e s s u r e below t h e t r a v e l -
ing v a l v e must exceed 1400 p s i . When t h e t r a v e l i n g v a l v e i s
opened t h e f l u i d l o a d i s i n s t a n t l y t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e sucker
r o d s t r i n g t o t h e t u b i n g . The f l u i d weight i s now supported
by t h e s t a n d i n g v a l v e i n s t e a d of t h e t r a v e l i n g valve. In this
c a s e we have a sudden r e d u c t i o n i n l o a d amounting t o 8950 l b .
Fig. 14-40.d.
enables determination of: (1) the load range, (2) average loads, (3) counterbalance,
(4) torque; and (5) the polished rod horsepower. (API l l L 2 , 1969.)
The procedure for the loads determination is shown on Fig. 14-41, where
D,= maximum deflection (in.), D, = minimum deflection (in.), A , = lower area of
card (in.*), A , = upper area of card (in.,), and L = length of the dynamometer card
(in.). If the calibration constant of the dynamometer card is C (lb/in. of card
height), then:
Maximum load =C x D, (14-71)

605
Min l o a d 6,000 l b
Range 7,000 lb
Speed 18 spa
Stroke 60 i n .
Time 8 : 4 5 Ai
GAS LOCK
Min l o a d 4,000 lb
Range 11,000 l b
Speed 18 spa
Stroke 60 in.
Time 1 0 : 4 5 AM
GAS POUND
Range 12,000 lb
Speed 18 spm
Stroke 60 in.
Time 11:05 Ahil
PUMPING
These c a r d s show th e normal c y c l e , which i s o f t e n ex p eri en ced

when a well i s in t h e semi-flowing s t a g e . The shape of t h e
card i s alm o st c o n t i n u o u s l y changing a s t h e well flows and
pumps d u r i n g v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s o f time.
Fig. 14-40.e.
Minimum load =CX D, (14-72)
Range of load = C( D,- D 2 ) (14-73)
Average upstroke load = C( A , +A , ) / L (14-74)

606
Excessive Friction
&
;-
Range 17,800 l b
12ooo- Speed 22 spm
dtroke 44 in.
soon P o l rod h p 18.8
6ooo
30 ring pump plunger
3000
18000
15000 Max l o a d 17,000 l b

I2000
tdin l o a d 2,000 l b
Range 15,000 l b
9000 Speed 23 spm
6000
Stroke 44 in.
P o l rod hp 18.5
3000
15 r i n g pump p l u n g e r
I5000
12000 Max load 14,800 lb
Min l o a d 3,000 l b
Range 11,800 l b
Speed 23 spm
3000
Stroke 44 in.
P o l rod hp 15.4
V
7 ring pump plunger
t h e s e examples a r e g i v e n t o show how e x c e s s i v e friction i n

t h e pump can a f f e c t t h e Deak Dolished r o d l o a d and p o l i s h e d
r o d horsepower. I n t h i s - case- t h e only changes made were in
t h e number o f r i n g s used on t h e pump plunger. The pump w&s
new i n each case.
Fig. 14-40.f.
607
Heavy Pumper
O-I
TOTAL D E P T H 4009 ft FORMATION- Iiunton Lime -
D A I L Y P RODUCT ION: 011 35 __ WATERSC SP. G R A V 4 0 2-
S T R O K E LENGTH 74 in* S.P M . 20 A.V E. 7 8 . 5 u c t
FLUID LEVEL: STATIC PUMP I NG LOW B.H.P.
W E L L CLASS1 FICATION: AGITATOR PUMPER I
I-
DOES WELL POUND No CASING HEAD P R E S . Q
W
C O R R O S I V E CONDITIONS: PITTING No H2S No -0
4- I
CASING S l Z E r l F E E T TUBING S I Z E 2; i n * -I-

W
GAS ANCHOR No TUBING ANCHORED 90 __ w
lL
S U C K E R RODS: 1” 7 / 8 ” 3 9 5 0 ft 3/4“ 5/0”--
TYPE STEEL Carbon .35; N i c k e l . 6 5 ; Chromium .40: Molybdepnrn;
OJY 2
PUMP 28 i n . X 2 f i n . X 1 6 . 5 ft PLGR. S I Z E 2% i n . a
ffl 6 -
PUMPING UNIT Twin C r a n k MOTOR bl- cyl 3
UNIT RATING: LOAD 25.000 PEAK TORQUE 305.000 in.-&? 0 r
GEAR BOX: SINGLEpp DOUBLE X RATIO 3 1 . 4 I-
8-
10-
Max Load 16,900 lb

Min L09d 4,000 lb
Range 1 2 , 8 0 0 lb
Speed 17 spn
Stroke 74 i n .
P o l r o d hw 19.7
Time 11:15 AFb
L”ax l o a d 19,000 l b
Yin load 2,500 lb
Range 16,200 lb
Speed 20 spn
Stroke 74 i n .
Pol r o d h p 33.5
Time 12:oo FT!
~~ ~
Fig. 14-40.g.
608
Counter bolonce
Fig. 14-41.Dynamometer card showing areas and deflections needed for calculating loads. (Modified
after Zaba, 1962; courtesy of Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa, Okla.)
Average downstroke load = CA,/L (14-75)
If the polished rod stroke length and the pumping speed are known, the polished
rod horsepower can be calculated as follows:
SXN
PRHP=C(A L (14-76)
2/ 33,000(12)
where S = stroke length, in.; N = stroke per minute, SPM; A , = area of dynamome-
ter card, in.2; and L = length of the card, in. (See Day and Byrd, 1980, p. 67.)
The counterbalance effect from dynamometer cards is determined using the
following procedure:
(1) The counterbalance ( C B ) line should be drawn on the card at the position of
maximum counterbalance effect, i.e., when the crank arm is horizontal on the
upstroke at 13 equal to 90" and 270". The angle- is measured in the clockwise
direction.
(2) The ideal counterbalance effect, CB,, is approximately equal to:
PPRL + M P R L
CB, = (14-77)
2
(3) The actual counterbalance effect, CB,, is equal to:
CB, = C X D, (14-78)
(4) The correct counterbalance effect, CB,, can be determined from the following
relationship:
CBc = :(average upstroke load + average downstroke load) (14-79)
If the counterbalance line is not drawn, the approximate correct counterbalance

can be determined from the following equation:
CB, = C ( A , +A2/2)/L (14-80)

609
Fig. 14-42. Fagg's approximate method for calculating instantaneous torque. (After Fagg, 1950: courtesy
of the Soc. Pet. Eng. of AIME: also in: Craft et al.. 1962, p. 344. fig. 5.31: courtesy of Prentice-Hall Inc.)
This relationship gives the same result as eq. 14-79 above. (See Brown et al., 1980, p.
67.)
Instantaneous torques throughout the pumping cycle can also be determined
from the dynamometer cards. An approximate method proposed by Fagg (1950)
requires only information from a dynamometer card. In this method, simple
harmonic motion is assumed for the rods, i.e., a uniform angular velocity for the
crank. I t is also assumed that the pitman is vertical all the time. The geometry of the
surface installation is ignored. This method is generally sufficiently accurate and can
be easily used by the field engineer (Craft et al., 1962, p. 344).
Figure 14-42 illustrates the approximate method for instantaneous torque de-
termination (also see Fig. 14-43). The line of counterbalance effect and zero load are
shown by C and D , respectively. Points A and B represent the beginning of the
upstroke and the beginning of the downstroke, respectively. The angle 6 is between
the crank and the vertical, and is measured clockwise from the crank position at the
beginning of the upstroke. After points A and B are projected vertically onto the
zero load line, a semicircle is drawn having diameter A B . Points on the dynamome-
ter card corresponding to given crank angles are then determined as follows: (1)
Radii are constructed in order to divide the semicircle into equal segments ( e g , 15"
each). (2) The intersections of the radii with the semicircle are projected vertically.
(3) These projections intersect the load curve at instantaneous values of polished rod
load, W , at various crank angles 8. The instantaneous torque can be calculated from
the following equation (see Craft et al., 1962, p. 345):
T = ( W - C ) ( S / 2 ) sin B (14-81)
I t should be emphasized that on the upstroke (point A to point B ) crank angle

varies from 0 to 180°, whereas on the downstroke (point B to point A ) crank angle
varies from 180-360" (Craft et al., 1962, p. 345).
610
0.
Counterbalancing
TOTALDEPTH 4325 f t FORMATION W i l C O X
DAILY PRODUCTION: 011 l2 WATER= SP. GRAV.&
STROKE LENGTH 64 S.P.M .LA.V.E. 76 Dct
FLUID LEVEL: STATIC L O W PUMPING L O W B.H.P.
I
W E L L CLASSIFICATION: AGITATOR PUMPER X l-
e
DOES W E L L POUND No CASING HEAD PRES. &PO W
CORROSIVE CONDITIONS: PITTING H2S-:
CASING SIZE-FEET TUBING SlZE&Li.L- w
GAS ANCHOR No W
TUBING ANCHORED No Lc
SUCKER RODS: 1" 718'' 2000 3/4''2300 518" v)
TYPE STEEL Carbon .35; Nickel .S5; Chromium .40; Kolgbdeny
PUMP 2 1/2 in. PLGR. SIZE 2 in* O V 4
PUMPING U N I T m d frant MOTORS-r 5 6
0
UNIT RATING: LOAD PEAKTORQUE I
I-
GEAR BOX: SINGLE DOUBLE RATIO
1c
I3000 COUNTERBALANCE
10500 EFFECT A T
8000 POLISHED ROD
18Oo15O0 120° 900 60' 30. 0

18O021O0 240° 270. 300. 330. 360.
CRANK ANGLE
APPROXIMATE METHOD
I n order t o b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e how chanqes i n counterbalance v a r i e s

t h e peak torque, t h e same dynamometer card was used t o p l o t torque
curves based on 8,000 l b , 13,000 l b and 10,500 l b e f f e c t i v e counter-
balance a t t h e polished rod, A counterbalance e f f e c t of 8,000 l b
shows the well i s undercounterbalanced and has a peak torque of
300,000 i n . - l b on the upstroke and 150,000 i n . - l b on the downstroke.
Negative torque occurs a t each end of t h e s t r o k e . With a counter-
balance e f f e c t of 13,000 i n . - l b the well i s overcounterbalanced
and has a peak torque of 300,000 i n . - l b on t h e downstroke and
150,000 i n . - l b on t h e upstroke. Negative torque occurs a t t h e
end of the upstroke and the beginning of t h e downstroke. A counter-
balance e f f e c t of 10,500 l b shows t h e well i s c o r r e c t l y counter-
balanced having equal peak torque on t h e up and domstroke. This
i s a l i t t l e under 250,000 in.-lb.
Fig. 14-43. Approximate method of counterbalancing. (Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Co.)
611
Pumping efficiency determination
In any pumping unit installation, the pumping equipment performance must be

evaluated. A detailed analysis of the dynamometer card is of great help in this
evaluation (Marsh and Watts, 1938). The required measurements are: (a) area
between load loop and zero load line; (b) area within the load loop; (c) distance
above the zero load line of points on the loop, showing maximum and minimum
loads (Fig. 14-41); and (d) length of the load loop. Upon establishing the instrument
constant for the dynamometer, one can determine the load range, average loads, and
correct counterbalance of the unit. In addition, polished rod horsepower can be
calculated if the polished rod stroke length and the pumping speed are known.
The surface efficiency is calculated from the polished rod horsepower and the
power input to the prime mover. The subsurface efficiency is determined from the
polished rod horsepower and hydraulic horsepower, which is calculated from the net
lift ( L " ) ,production rate (Q), and specific gravity of the fluid (G).
PROBLEM WELL TESTING
Determination of an oilwell productivity is indeed a complicated task. Problems

related to tubing, rods, casing, formation, and subsurface pump could all cause
reduction in productivity. In such a case, the proper use of a dynamometer card to
evaluate the well performance and obtain basic load-time relation can aid in
resolving the problem. Merryman and Lawrence (1958) and API (1977) have
presented an excellent classification of problem wells and methods of isolating the
cause of an unsatisfactory performance. The API recommended procedures for
problem well analysis are presented in Fig. 14-44.a,b,c,d,e,f,g.
ENERGY OPTIMIZATION
With continually increasing demand for petroleum, there has been an increased
interest in optimizing lifting costs in sucker-rod pumping systems. Only a fraction of
the power that is consumed by the prime mover of a sucker-rod system, is expended
in lifting fluid (hydraulic horsepower). Mathematically, this can be presented by the
following equations:
P, = PRHP X E, (14-82)
where P, = prime mover power consumption (HP), P R H P = polished rod horse-

power, and E, = surface efficiency.
P R H P = H , t- H f (14-83)
where H , = hydraulic horsepower and H , = frictional horsepower.

Information to be collected prior to
weighing operations: m
N
1. Production: daily oil, wtr, gas, allowable.
2. Pump: size and type.
3. Rods: size and type, length of each string.
4. Tubing: size, type and seat.
5. Mud anchor: size and type.
6. Gas anchor: size and type.
7. Producing interval and TD or PBTD.
8. Motor or engine: size.
9. Fluid: specific gravity.
10. Auxiliary equipment.
11. LS and SPM.
12. Pertinent well treating data.
13. Daily pumping time and schedule.
14. Power consumption.
15. Calculations: Rod weight in air.
Rod weight in fluid.
Fluid weight on pump (pounds)
Volumetric pump capacity
(bbls/day).
Weigh well, record load diagram, and

make traveling valve and standing valve tests.
u Classify card.
Valves good
fluid weight
satisfactory
Valves good,
fluid weight
Indicated
Standing valve (SV)
or
1-1 SV recorded PI
satisfactory Traveling valve (TV)
Leak
Page A Page B Page C Page D Page E
Fig. 14-44. a. A systematic approach to the problem-well tests. (After API, 1983, pp. 9-15, figs. 5-1 through 5-7; courtesy of the American Petroleum
Institute.) page A: p. 613; B: p. 614; C: p. 615; D : p. 616; E: p. 617.
I VALVES GOOD
YI.UID WEIGHT SATlSFACTOItY I
d
Test TV & SV
several times
Check rod, tubing, pump
design, Calculate pump
F- Pounding fluid.
Observe card for a short time

at one position. efficiency. to prevent misinterpreting
I If TV indicates leak severe gas compression as a fluid
at one position and
Intermittent
leak indicates does not a t another,
that ball is then the barrel has
a worn spot.
Mechanical design Mechanical design

immediately.
I I
1-1
valve and pres- equipment as
I
Pump all load oil
- pound fluid in relation
design (LS, SPM, and
pumping time) a s economics justify. before pump pounds to shut-in time.
economics justify. fluid.
Will build up pres- to pound fluid.

sure and hold. Well producing
I
Well producing
Tubing leak. Operational design Gas compression. a t capacity.
could be improved. Card shape will
verify. IBridee before tubing 1
J perforations inlet.
High pressure tubing Gas anchor or

leak. Additional pump inlet par- o r mud anchor
pressure tests will partly plugged.
verify.
i
Tubing perf01 itions bridged. 1
m
c)
W
Fig. 14-44.b.
I VALVES GOOD
FLUID WEIGHT LESS THAN
SATISFACTORY I
I Fluid oound test. I
b
Not pounding fluid.
I
I I
I I
I-
Tubing partially
loaded from ;-.L I orpGmpinlet. I
design if additional
production is required.
Verify by retesting
after time lapse to
check load increase.
%-
intermittent flow.
i
after time lapse to is result of fluid
check load increase. pound beating gas
L I out of the fluid.
Shut wing valve
and pressure up
tubing.
lapse to evaluate
mechanical design. fluid pound section
Will not
pressure up.
to circulation from Load tubing from

tubing to casing outside source to
through wellhead or verify. Will pressure
flow connections. up and hold.
U No tubing
leak.
Fig. 14-44.c.
INDICATED VALVE LEAKS
TV or SV
I
1
Traveling valve Standing valve
leak indicated.
t I I I
Special design
large fluid
slippage Pump.
- 1. Leaking traveling valve.
2. Worn plunger or barrel.
3. Leaking component parts
Tubing leak.
Close wing valve.

Re-weigh after a Run fluid pound test.
calculations, im-
prove operating short time.
design.
Close flowline Re-test well when Pull pump when

valve and pres- efficiency justifies.
sure-up tubing.
I
Will not pressure up. Will pressure up and hold.

I
Pressure tubing with
outside source.
I Will pressure
Re-pressure several times
Pull and inspect pump. to eliminate possibility of
If no failure is visible, high pressure or intermit-
drop SV and pressure tent leak.
up from outside source.
Pull and repair pump.
Tubing leak.
I
Pull and inspect tubing.
I
No tubing leak, no pump
seat leak. Probable
valve, plunger or barrel
leak not visible in field.
Fig. 14-44.d.
I ONLY SV OR TV RECORDED
I
I SV or rod weight only.
plus fluid weight.
b
I
Special pump Well flowing
only rod plus through pump. t o pump, leak in
fluid weight pump seat, or
recorded.
1Tubing parted
I necessary. below pump.
-
Rods parted Leak in Special pump,
low. Tubing near pump or component only rod weight
weight approx- pump parted. parts of recorded.
imaiely equal various
t o calculated
fluid weight be relieved by low-
and supported ering pump and If necessary shut
by pump. tapping bottom. well in for short Situation can often be
I"""i]
time and re-weigh relieved by lowering
pump and tapping bottom.
IPressure tubing
from outside
source to verify. I pressure. perforations.
Pressure tubing with
I outside source.
1
I
11fnot.1
I
with small volume o r hold pressure.

I Will build up and
hold pressure.
the pump can often
be seen on the dynar of fluid and pump
mometer a s the casing
leak, pump is seated and no
standing valve and pressure up leak exists in pump at o r
tuhinc with an outside Ronrce. helnw the
- . etandine
. ~ -o~~valve.
~~~ ~ ~
[""i""'
Will not pressure up.
I1
[Leak in pump above standing
p l v e orlower rods parted.
Low tubing Bad seating
Probable pump failure t h a t
joint of tubing is not visible in field.
Pump seating in Possible high pressure split,
tubing above the damaged or improper sized
I I Pull tubing. I
seating nipple.
1
__
seat CUDS. etc.
I
1
* Note: Bent joint of tubing ahove the
spdting nipple may not pass
a pump, but it may pass a
short staiidinE valve and per-
mit the tubing to hold fluid
and pressure.
Fig. 14-44.e.
ABNORMAL LOAD
INDICATED BY VALVE
MEASUREMENTS
Severe plunger restriction such calculated fluid weight.

as collapsed or pinched barrel,
j
I sand. scale, etc.
J
r I
I I
Pump Pump stuck
length
shorter
than
stroke.
-
in top portion
of stroke.
-
Too many rods
in the hole.
*
Distinct
- Static weight
J
Maximum weight Distinct impact

impact will measure reachesorexceeds
a t bottom same a t any
- of stroke.
I 8
stroke
position.
I
weight of rods in
fluid near top of
stroke.
I
Loosen stuffing
1
L Raise rods to verify. 1
I I
~
ABNORMAL LOAD
INDICATED BY CARD
SHAPE
greater than rods equal to rods plus

plus fluid verifies fluid verifies too
Fig. 14-44.f
5
4
I
1
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO PROBLEM WELL TESTS
WITHOUT WEIGHT MEASUREMENTS
I
I
Check casing pressure.

Bleed and maintain at
minimum permissible
Pressure up and bleed several

time to eliminate chance of
high pressure o r intermittent
Pull the rods and pump

and inspect the pump.
If no failure is visible,
drop a SV and pressure
the tubing.
pull pump. If the rods

and pump are in good
condition and the gas
anchor is clean, then
the tubing perforations
are plugged or the
the bottom hole conditions.
pass a free SV snd permit

pressuring up of the tubing,
but may not pass a pump.
Fig. 14-44.g
619
Examination of eqs. 14-82 and 14-83 shows that energy losses can occur either as
a result of surface inefficiencies or frictional losses downhole.
Surface efficiency
Both the prime mover and the pumping unit determine the surface efficiency of a
sucker-rod pumping system. The overall surface efficiency is a function of both the
average (constant torque) efficiency of the prime mover and the variation in the
torque which are placed upon the prime mover. The torque load is directly related
to the current. The surface inefficiencies increase with increasing span between the
IRMS and the average current, i.e., with increasing torque range (Eickmeier, 1973).
The torque range of the prime mover is influenced by both the prime mover and
the geometry of the pumping unit. In general, with the increasing slip of the prime
mover, the prime mover is more evenly loaded. Air-balanced and Mark type
pumping units tend to produce more even loading than do conventional units.
The optimization of surface equipment is generally a step that should be taken
when the equipment is originally installed, because the power savings that can be
incurred by replacing a prime mover or a pumping unit will not justify the expense
of the new equipment.
Subsurface efficiency
The hydraulic horsepower in eq. 14-83 can be determined using the following
equation (Day and Byrd, 1980, p. 43):
H, = 7.36 X 10-6QGL, (14-84)
The frictional horsepower can be determined empirically using eq. 14-57 (Day and
Byrd, 1980, p. 44):
H , = 6.31 X lO-’W,SN (14-85)
Equations 14-84 and 14-85 indicate that if a well is pounding fluid, resulting in a
low pump fillage, then the amount of frictional horsepower per barrel of fluid lifted
will be greater than in the case of = 100% pump fillage. By combining eqs. 14-82
and 14-83, a power savings that can be incurred by volumetrically downsizing, can
be determined as follows:
PRHP, PRHP,
ps=--- (14-86)
ES, ES 2
where Ps = power savings (HP), and the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate initial and final
operating conditions, respectively. It is assumed that when a unit is volumetrically
downsized to increase pump fillage and reduce lifting costs, the surface efficiency
100 , I , I , , , , , I , , , , , 1 ,
- k--------
WITH ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
----- -=-
80 -
\WITH BRONZE BUSHINGS
-I
-
-
-
-
-
Fig. 14-45. Relationship between speed reducer efficiency and horsepower loading. (Courtesy of Lufkin
Industries.. Inc.),
T X N
Nominal H.P. =
63,000 X 1.57
API torque rating Nominal horsepower rating API torque rating Nominal horsepower rating
in Ib at 20 SPM in.-lb at 20 SPM
40,000 8 456,000 93
57,000 11 640,000 130
114,000 25 912,000 185
160,000 33 1,280,000 260
228,000 46 1,824,000 370
320,000 65 2,560,000 526
and the total fluid lifted will remain constant. Thus, eq. 14-86 can be rewritten as
follows:
(14-87)
The value for the surface efficiency, E,, is either known from field experience or can
be estimated from Fig. 14-45. The power savings, P,,predicted by this equation and
those actually measured in field tests were in close agreement in the case of wells
where only stroke lengths and stroke rates were changed. In the wells where pumps
were changed to smaller ones, the power savings were greater than those predicted
by eq. 14-87, because this equation does not take into consideration power savings
by changing to a smaller pump (see Byrd and Beasly, 1974; Byrd, 1971).
In order to predict power savings in wells in which pumps are changed, another
method of determining polished-rod horsepower is required. It should be kept in
mind that the API (1977) RP 11L method will not work in these instances because
its correlations are based on 100%pump fillage (see Bommer, 1981).
621
Dynamometers can be used in order to determine the polished-rod horsepower in

pumped-off wells. These measured polished-rod horsepowers can then be correlated
in order to estimate the polished-rod horsepowers of similar wells in the field.
Testing
In the case volumetric downsizing to optimize pumping efficiency is going to be

undertaken on numerous wells in the field, then it may be desirable to conduct
power consumption tests in order to determine the amount of power that is actually
being saved. In such a case, two test methods are available.
One method of testing involves the use of kilowatt-hour meters, which are similar
to those used in residences for electrical billing purposes. The meter is first attached
to the pumping unit prior to any downsizing operation. The unit is then allowed to
pump for a period of time (for about a week) in order to determine the initial power
consumption. After the pumping system is ;ohmetrically downsized, once again it
is allowed to pump for a period of time to determine the final power consumption.
These kilowatt-hour meters are usually detented, i.e., they are racheted and will
respond only to current flowing toward the prime mover. In some instances, when a
unit is improperly balanced, the prime mover may actually be generating power
during part of the stroke. As a result, the meter will indicate more power consump-
tion than is actually occurring.
The second test method involves the use of (1) a current (ampere) probe, (2) a
voltage probe, (3) a power-factor transducer, and (4) a computer with graphical
capabilities. The current and voltage, which are measured throughout an entire
stroke, are plotted by the computer. The power-factor (which is the cosine of the
phase angle between the current vector and the voltage vector) is measured by the
power-factor transducer and is then plotted versus position in the stroke. The real
power consumption at any position in the stroke can be determined by the
computer by multiplying the instantaneous values of power-factor, current (amperes),
and voltage (volts). Real power can then be plotted versus the position in the stroke.
Thus, an average power consumption can be determined.
Pump-off controls and timers
In volumetrically oversized systems that are pounding fluid, it may be more

desirable to install a pump-off control or a timer than it is volumetrically downsize
the system by decreasing (1) the stroke length, (2) the stroke rate, and/or (3) the
pump size. A pump-off control is a device that will shut down the pumping unit for
a given period of time once a pumped-off condition is sensed by the controller. On
the other hand, a timer will cause the unit to pump for a preset period of time and
then be shut-off for another preset period of time. Some of the available pump-off
controllers lend themselves quite well to field-wide automation. Many controllers
may result in greater production due to their dynagraph generating capacity, which
enables early detection of downhole problems.
622
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Several basic factors must be considered in the selection of materials: strength,

abrasion, corrosion resistance, and cost.
Corrosion
The most important factor controlling a corrosion cell is the environment. If the
environment is neutral, corrosion will not occur in subsurface pumps to any
appreciable degree.
The most common types of corrosion encountered in subsurface pumps are: (1)
pitting corrosion, ( 2 ) erosion corrosion, (3) stress corrosion, (4) galvanic corrosion,
(5) sulphide stress cracking corrosion, (6) corrosion fatigue, and ( 7 ) hydrogen
embrittlement. (See Axelson, 1982, pp. 37-44.)
( 1 ) Pitting and concentrated cell corrosion

Pitting corrosion and concentrated cell corrosion both result in pitting of metals.
Pitting corrosion is the loss of metal at a localized area rather than over the entire
surface. It may be caused by many different conditions in a subsurface pump.
Pitting sometimes occurs in subsurface pumps because of the breakdown of (a)
protective films, (b) coatings, (c) platings, (d) scale, and (e) non-metallic deposits, or
by ineffective inhibitor treatment. The introduction of oxygen into a moist H,S
environment promotes and accelerates this condition. Pitting may occur beneath
non-metallic deposits, in the form of concentrated cell corrosion, or may appear in
the form of crevice type corrosion at thread reliefs or subsurface pump thread
connections. This type of corrosion can be retarded or checked by the proper
selection of materials or by use of durable coatings or platings and effective
inhibitor program. If left unchecked, however, this type of corrosion can be
extremely troublesome, because it takes place in limited areas with accelerated rate
of penetration.
(2) Erosion corrosion

Erosion corrosion starts when damage is caused to the built-in defense mecha-
nism of the material. Most materials employed in the manufacture of subsurface
pumps have a built-in defense mechanism. They tend to form a protective film that
retards or checks the advance of corrosion. Damage to this protective film initiates
or accelerates corrosion. High-velocity impingement of corrosive-abrasive-laden
fluid is responsible for many such failures in subsurface pumps. This type of
corrosion failure can best be avoided by selecting the type of sucker-rod pump that
will minimize high velocities and by employing abrasive-resistant platings or coat-
ings in critical areas.
(3) Stress corrosion

Stress corrosion failure is the result of an interaction between a corrosive media
and imposed stresses. Stresses may be applied, residual, or a combination of both.
623
This type of failure may occur in subsurface pump threaded connections where a
combination of applied and residual stresses are high. To avoid this type of failure,
one must select subsurface pumps that will minimize the stress at critical dynamic
points and eliminate overtorque of threaded connections.
(4) Galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion takes place when two dissimilar metals are in electrical
contact with each other in an electrolyte. The less noble of the two metals is
attacked to a greater degree than if it were exposed alone. This type of attack is
known as galvanic corrosion because the entire system acts as a galvanic cell. By
referring to the galvanic series, which gives an indication of the rate of corrosion
between different metals or alloys when they are in contact in an electrolyte, one
can determine the possibility of galvanic corrosion. The metal close to the active end
of the galvanic series will act as a cathode and will be protected. As an example, an
aluminum fitting in a brass or monel part will corrode while the monel part will be
unaffected. This type of corrosion can be prevented by not coupling dissimilar
metals or by using a nonconductive couple.
(5) Sulfide stress cracking

Sulfide stress cracking is usually associated with a spontaneous brittle failure of a
ductile material which occurs as a result of an interaction between a moist hydrogen
sulfide environment and an applied stress. Both ingredients must be present for
such failures to occur. Materials heat-treated to high yield strengths (above 90,000
psi) with Rockwell hardness greater than 23 R, are more prone to suffer this form
of corrosion failure. In order to avoid this type of failure, one must select materials
with low hardness and minimize the applied stresses wherever possible.
(6) Corrosion fatigue

Corrosion fatigue is more common in metals having high hardness values.
Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomenon that usually occurs in carbon steels and
low-alloy steels, heat-treated to high hardness levels above R, 23. Such steels are
more prone to allow diffusion of atomic hydrogen into the steel lattice, which results
in brittlement and leads to a brittle type of failure. This type of failure can best be
avoided by selection of a corrosion-resistant material at low hardness levels and
proper handling of components during the electroplating process.
(7) Material strength

One of the most important considerations in the selection of the material is its
strength. Materials are usually selected for their corrosion and/or abrasion resis-
tance, while ignoring the strength of the material. The yield strength of the basic
materials used in the manufacture of subsurface pumps are as follows: (1) 300 series
stainless steel: 35,000 psi minimum, ( 2 ) 400 series stainless steel: 40,000 psi
minimum, (3) yellow brass: 50,000 psi minimum, (4) carbon steel: 60,000 psi
minimum, (5) monel: 70,000 psi minimum, and (6) alloy steel: 90,000 psi minimum.
624
There are variations of these strengths within each common classification above.
As an example, some barrel tubes, which are manufactured from an Admiralty type
brass, have strengths comparable to monel. Maximum setting depth for barrel tubes
based on their strength of material are presented by Axelson (1982). They can be
used as a reference for making proper selection of materials knowing the yield
strength.
Carbon steels and low-alloy steels are used in non-corrosive or very mildly
corrosive and non-abrasive environments. In selection of carbon steel, the use of
free-machning steels with a high sulfur content should be avoided. The
nickel-copper alloys (monel) and the 7-30 brass, or yellow brass and Admiralty
brass are basically recommended for use in H,S and brine environments. Monel is
usually the best material in the case of high H,S concentration. The 300-series
stainless steels are usually selected for environments containing high percentages of
CO, in brine. Brass has been employed successfully in this type of environment. If
both CO, and H,S are present, monel is about the only material which can
satisfactorily resist corrosion. Common materials used in manufacture of pump
components are briefly described here:
Carbon Steel:
Regular-”on-corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Hardened-”on-corrosive, moderately abrasive environment.
Chrome-plated-Non-corrosive, severely abrasive environment.
Metal spray-Non-corrosive, moderately to severely corrosive environment.
Metal spray with protected threads in 1.D.-Severely corrosive and moderately
to severely abrasive environment.
Alloy Steel:
Regular- Moderately brine corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Hardened- Moderately corrosive, moderately to severely abrasive environment.
Nitralloy N hardened- Moderately corrosive, moderately to severely abrasive
environment.
Stainless Steel:
300 series- Moderately to severely corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
4/6 chrome regular- Moderately brine corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
4/6 chrome hardened-Moderately brine corrosive, moderately abrasive en-
vironment.
440 series-Mildly corrosive and abrasive environment.
Brass :
70/30 (yellow)- Moderately corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
85/15 (red)-Moderately to severely brine corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Admiralty brass-Moderately corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Admiralty brass, chrome-plated- Moderately corrosive, severely abrasive en-
vironment.
Monel:
R-400 regular -Severely corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Chrome-plated-Severely corrosive and severely abrasive environment.
625
K-500-Non-abrasive, severely corrosive environment.

Cast Sections
Grey-white iron, regular-Non-corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
Grey-white iron, hardened-Non-corrosive, non-abrasive environment.
DiHard, eutectic, etc.-Moderately to severely corrosive and abrasive environ-
ment.
Cast Materials;
Cobalt alloy (Rexalloy, Stoody, Stel1ite)-Severely corrosive, moderately to
severely abrasive environment.
Carbide, tungsten-Severely corrosive and abrasive environment.
Carbide, titanium or chrome- Severely corrosive and abrasive environment. T h s
applies to the ball only.
The seat always must be made from tungsten-carbide.
According to Axelson (1982, p. 42), balls and seats used in subsurface pumps are
of the flat type. Although the ball and seat is a relatively small item, it is the heart of
the sucker-rod pump. All balls are purchased from one or two ball manufacturers in
the U.S.A.
Inhibitors
Basically, a corrosion inhibitor may be any chemical which, when added to a
corroding system, minimizes or prevents metal loss. The most common types of
inhibitor used in pumping wells are either oil-soluble or water-soluble. Inhibitors
minimize equipment failure and reduce the cost of operation of a particular
installation by decreasing the number of times that the particular pump must be
pulled for replacement of parts which have been corroded. This includes the
sucker-rod string as well.
There are two basic methods used to inject the inhibitor into a producing well:
(1) continuous treatment and ( 2 ) batch treatment. In the continuous treatment
method, the inhibitor is pumped into the system continuously by means of a pump,
which may be electrical or gas-driven, or may be operated by the beam unit itself. In
the continuous treatment method, the inhibitor must be flushed down the annulus
in order to comingle with the produced fluid and return through the production
column.
Batch treatment involves addition of an inhibitor on a periodic basis for the
purpose of corrosion control. The most successful batch treatment is achieved when
an inhibitor which is introduced into the well slowly feeds into the production
column. One advantage of the batch type treatment is that the tubing and the pump
are exposed to a high concentration level of inhibitor and, therefore, have the best
chance of being covered by the protective film of the inhibitor.
Another type of batch treatment is to introduce the inhibitor into the well, flush
it around the bottom, and then circulate out through the production column.
Laboratory tests can be conducted to determine the best type of inhibitor to be
used in a particular environment. The actual field service, however, is' the best
method of establishing effectiveness of an inhibitor. It is also of utmost importance
to determine whether the inhibitor will change the wettability of rocks or not.
626
INSTALLATION A N D OPERATION
As pointed out by Axelson (1982, p. 43), all of the care used in the manufacture
and assembly of the pump is wasted unless it is carefully transported to the well and
installed free of dirt, foreign matter, and mechanical damage. When transporting the
pump, it is important to protect it from bending, dropping, or other damage. Also, a
pump should not be disassembled at the wellsite and should not be laid on the
ground prior to installation. If the pump is laid down at the wellsite, it should be
placed off the ground on some type of support and be adequately supported at least
every six feet. Prior to running the pump, it should be checked for freedom of
plunger action. In addition, a final inspection should be made to insure that all
caps, plugs, and protective wrappings are removed. All necessary tools and equipment
should be in place when preparing to run the pump. Extreme care should be
exercised in picking up the pump. The use of a short pony rod is advisable. Pumps
over 20-ft in length require special handling. A proper wrench should be carried on
the service unit for connecting the pony rod to the top of the pump.
In tubing-pump installation, the barrel, which is already in place, is run with the
tubing, whereas the plunger is run with the sucker-rod string. This requires extreme
care so that the plunger is not damaged when running to bottom. When installing
insert type pumps, extreme care should be used in handling the pump, particularly
long pumps. They should be hoisted in such a manner as not to bind the plunger in
the barrel tube or produce a permanent kink or bend in the barrel tube. When the
pump is lowered into the well, extreme care should be exercised when coming close
to the fluid level. If the pump is lowered too rapidly into the fluid, the jarring action
can cause the plunger to jam into the barrel or cause some other damage. The pump
must be lowered very slowly into the fluid. Once the pump is below the fluid level, it
will not fall as rapidly in the fluid as it did in the open tubing. The speed of
lowering, therefore, must be slowed down until the pump is seated in the seating
nipple. It is necessary to approach the seating nipple very slowly. After the pump is
settled in the seating nipple, the pump must be jarred two or three times to insure
that the hold-down is engaged. Great care must be exercised not to jar the pump so
hard as to cause mechanical damage.
During initial operation of the pump, it is necessary to watch and listen for any
unusual signs of improper operation. It must be spaced properly and should not
pound either at the top or the bottom. It should also be checked periodically to
insure that the travelling and standing valves are spaced as close as possible without
bumping. If production begins to fall off, the pump should be pulled as soon as
possible.
(1) Outline the minimum amount of information needed for a sucker-rod pump-
ing unit installation design.
627
(2) Describe in detail the importance of counterbalance effect and the reasons
for counterbalancing a pumping unit system.
(3) Explain the torque factor for a beam pumping system and how one can
obtain torque from a dynamometer card analysis.
(4) List the typical problems in a downhole pump performance, which could be
observed (or detected) by analyzing a dynamometer card profile.
( 5 ) Describz briefly the following: net lift, effective plunger stroke, plunger
overtravel, cyclic load factor, dynagraph, fluid pound, and gas lock.
(6) A pump having If-in. plunger is to be set at 6550 ft using a two-way tapered
(API Rod No. 76) rod string. The stroke length is 64 in. and the average specific
gravity of the well fluid is 0.83. The tubing is anchored and the pump is to be set at
the fluid level. Determine the following:
(a) Length of each system of the tapered rod string.
(b) The pumping speed at which polished rod stroke length and effective plunger
stroke length will be equal.
(7) An airbalanced pumping unit is producing 750 bbl/D of fluid (550 bbl/D of
oil and 200 bbl/D of water). The oil specific gravity is equal to 0.80. The well depth
is 6500 f t and the pump is set at a depth of 5600 ft. The plunger, having a diameter
of 2.5 in., is to be set in a 3.5-in. anchored tubing. The rod utilizes a rod string
consisting of li-in., 1-in. and ;-in. rods and operates at 10 spm with a surface
stroke of 168 in. Calculate: (a) rod stretch, (b) tubing stretch, (c) plunger overtravel,
and (d) effective plunger stroke.
(8) A certain pumping unit is producing 600 bbl/D of a fluid having a specific
gravity of 0.90. Pump setting depth is 5100 ft and pumping fluid level is 3200 ft. The
tubing pressure is 60 psi. Determine: (a) the net lift of the fluid, and (b) the overall
efficiency of the pumping system, if the fuel requirement for the prime mover is 4
Mcf/D of a gas having a net heating value of 1000 Btu/scf.
(9) Design a sucker-rod pumping system given the following information:
Fluid level = 5000 f t
Pump depth = 5000 f t
Pumping speed = 16.3 spm
Stroke length = 64 in.
Plunger diameter = 1: in.
Fluid sp. gr. = 0.86
API rod no. = 64
Tubing size (unanchored) = 2 in.
Production = 200 bbl/D
Maximum allowable stress = 26,000 psi
628
APPENDIX 14.1- -USEFUL FORMULAS (COURTESY O F LUFKIN INDUSTRIES. INC.)
STROKES PER MINUTE BELT LENGTH
S
M
pX
d=
&
!? PL=ZCD-l57(D*d)--
R D 4 X CD
Example:
Example
RPM = 1170 Revolutions per minute of prime mover
R = 30.12 (320D Gear Reducer) CD = 65 43 Inch Center Distance of Shafts
D = 47 Inch Pitch Diameter of Gear
d = 12" Pitch Diameter of Prime Mover Sheave Reducer Sheave
D = 47" Pitch Diameter of Gear Reducer Sheave d = 14 5 Inch Pitch Diameter of
1170 12 Prime Mover Sheave
SPM = X- = 9.9
30.12 47
~
PL = 2 X 65.43 I 1.57 (47 -- 14.5) -

PRIME MOVER SHEAVE DIAMETER
PL = 231 45 Inches
d = SPM X R X D
use C225 or D225 Belts Depending on Sheaves
RPM Selected
Example:
HORSEPOWER OF PRIME MOVER
SPM = 12 Strokes Per Minute
R = 30.12 Ratio (320D Gear Reducer) Foi High Slip Electric Motors and
D = 47" Pitch Diameter of Gear Reducer Sheave Slow Speed Engines
RPM = 1170 Revolutions Per Minute of Prime Mover
H P = BPD X Depth
56000
t o r Normal Slip Electric Motors and
Use nearest size available depending upon belt section Multi cylinder Engines
and number of grooves in sheave
H P = BPD X Depth
45000
BELT VELOCITY
Multiply HP by 0 8 for Mark II Units
.i; X d X RPM
V = .12_
Example'
Limit Between 2000 and 5000 feet per min
Belt Velocity less than 2000 FPM results in poor belt life BPD = 217 @ 1 0 0 ~ pump
o efficiency
Belt Velocity greater than 5000 FPM requires
dynamically balanced sheaves Depth = 5600 Feet pump setting
Assume High Slip (Nema D) Motor)
Example:
HP = = 21.7. use 25 HP Motoi
d = 14.5 Inch Pitch Diameter
RPM = 1170 Revolutions per minute of Prime Mover
Maximum Strokes Per Minute Based
v = 3.1416 X 14.5 X 1170 =4441 FPM on the Free Fall Speed of the Rod
12 Conventional Units
CENTER DISTANCE
CD = J( U +p)' T (AB - b)'

SPM = . 7 d q
Air Balanced Units
also = J( UU - q)' + (AA - b)' SPM= 63 JF

Example: Mark II Units __
Assume Hi.Prime Electric Motor
Driven C.320D.256 100 Conventional Unit
SPM= 56 d F
UU = 30.375 (See General Dimensions)
W = 34.25 (See General Dimensions) Example
AA = 5 3 (See General Dimensions) Assume C 320D 256 100 Unit
b=8 (Assume 25-HP, Frame 324T Motor)
CD = d( 30.375
-
+ y ) '(53 - 8)' SPM = 7 Jg = 17 15 SPM Maximum
C D = 65.43 Inches
DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS IJSED

SPM = Strokes Per Minute V= See General Dimensions
RPM = Revolutions Per Minute of Prime Mover AB = See General Dimensions
R= Gear Reducer Ratio UU = Sec General Dimensions
D= Gear Reducer Sheave Pitch Diameter, Inches W= See General Dimensions
d= Prime Mover Sheave Pitch Diameter. Inches AA = See General Dimensions
v = Belt Velocity, Feet per Minute b= Prime Mover Backing (Vertical Distance
-. =
. ~ -2 . 1-A. l-f i- fPil from Mounting Feet to Center t o Shaft). In
PL = Belt P i t i h 'Length, Inches HP = Horsepower
CD = Shaft Center Distance, Inches BPD = Barrels Per Day at 100% Pump Efficiency
U = See General Dimensions Depth = Pump Setting. Feet
L = Stroke Length, Inches
629
APPENDIX 14.11-PUMPING UNIT DESIGN CALCULATIOKS (COURTESY OF LUFKIN IN-

DUSTRIES, INC.)
FO88-C PUMPING UNIT DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Ro.1
Comp.nv: Well Name: h e :
Fielw Count+ state:
Ro
-in-: BBL'S/Dw ..Fluid Grivity 1.0 Pump Dmpth 8.650 Ft. -Stroke Length 1 6 8 l n d m
Plvnpr um,: I"4 Inches - Tubing Size: Inches - Rod Sirs: 06 - Pumping Speed 7.6 SPM
A L L TYPES OF UNITS
1. F o - ~ p ~ h ~ G ~ ~ I " i d L o ~ x, ~ a b I ~ l 9.005
1.041 - ~ ~ - ~
2 SKR = 1000 xStrokeilEr.Table2 x Depth) = 10W x 160 +I.OOO~1-x - 27.746

3. FolSKR = 9.005 .+ 27.746 = .325
4. N/No = SPM x Depth + 245000 = 7.6 x 0.650 + 245,000 = .268
5. N/No'= lN/Nd+Fe. Table 2 = .260 i I. I64 1-230
6. BPD (100% sff.1 - Pump Conrt. Table 1 x SPM x Stroke x SP. Table 3 ,357 x 7.6 x 168 x ,771 . = 351
7. WRF - Rod Wniaht. Tabla 2 x Depth x E4.128 x GI -
2.186 x 8.650. ~ . ( . 1 2 8x L d I 16,481
8. WRFISKR -16.481 + 27.746 = .594
9. T A = l + F , T n b i s 7 x l ~ - . 3 1 x 1 6 j = l ~ - . x~( 7.594
5 -.3)x 101- .978
CONVENTIONAL UNITS
10 PPRL = WRF + IF(, Table 4 x S K R l = _ 1 6 . 4 8 1 +I' .497 x 27.746 I = 30.270

11 MPRL = WRF- (F2,Table5xSKRI = 16.481 -1 .177 x 27.746 I= 11.570
12 C8L = 1.06 x IWRF + F d 2 I = 1.06 x ( 16.481 t I = 22.243
13 PT = T. Table6x SKR x Stroke12 x T A = . x 27.746 x x -978 - 793,200
14 Rod Stress - PPRL-Area. Table 8 = 30, 270 + .785 = 38.561
AIR BALANCED UNITS
15 PPRL = WRF + Fo + .85x(Fl,TabIe4 x S K R - F d = M + % ! ? & .85 x l&x21.746-9.0061= 29.553

16 MPRL - PPRL- IF1, Table 4 t FZ. Table 51 x SKR = * I77 I x 27.746 = 10.652
29.553-@l+
17 CBL=l.06xlPPRLtMPRLl-2=1.06 x I 10.852
29.553 l+2= 21.415 +
18 PT=T.Table6 x SKR x Stroke12 x T A x .96 = .340 x 27.746 x 04 x .978 x .96= 761. 500
19 Rod Srrerr = PPRL-Area, Table 8 = 29.353 + .705 37.647 -
MARK II UNITS
20 16.481 + 9.00s + . 7 5 X ( ~497x Z ? ; H ~ % O O ~ I -29.075

PPRL = W R F t F o t . 7 5 x l F l , T a b l e 4 x S K R - F o f =
I21 MPRL=PPRL--IFl,Table4tFZ.Table5IxSKR= 29.075 - 1 -497 + .I17 1 x 27.746 = 10.374

22 CBL=1.WxlPPRL+1.25xMPRLI12=1.Wxl 29.075+ 1.25 x 10.374 I + 2 = 21.862
23 PT -(PPRL x .93-MPRLx1.21 x S t r o k e i 4 = l Z9.07Sx.93 - 10.374 x1.2) x & t 4 = 612. 800
24 Rodsirerr = PPRL+Area,TableS = 29.075 i -785 = 37.038
25. NOTE 00 Not Use Lerr Than One Sire Smaller Reducer Than Requlred For Conventional Unit
630
Pap. 2 BRAKE HORSEPOWER REOUIRED BASED ON 100% VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:
Conventional and Air Balanwd Unitr. Mark II Units

For slow speed engines E high slip elnctric motors For slow s p o d engines E high slip nlnctric motors
56.000 56,000
For multi-cylinder engines & normal slip electric motors For multi-cylinder engines E normal slip nlectric motors
Depth 8650 Ft. x EPD 351 = 68 BHP Dnpth 8.650 Ft. x EPD 35I x .8 -&BHP
45.m 45.000
EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS TABLE 1
Fo = Fluid Load on Full Plunger A r w Plunger Fluid Lord Pump
-- -
SKR = Load r e q u i r d to strntch thn rod string t o an amount equal to the stroke Iongth Din. Ib. per ft. Constant
FolSKR Percent of the rtroka length which thm fluid load wlll stretch tho rod string 1.1116 0.384 0.19
NINo Ratio of SPM t o natural frequancy of straight rod string
N/No' Ratio of SPM t o natural frnqwncy of tapered rod string
BPD = Barrels per day production a t 100% volumetric dficisncy
-
WRF = Weight of rod string i n fluid
TA Torque adjustmnnt for pnek torqua for values of WRFISKR other then .3
1.114
--C 1-314
1.112
2
2.114
g1.360
1.721
&
0.162
0.466
0.590
PPRL = Pnak polishd r o d load, poundr 2-112 2.126 0.728
-
MPRL = Minimum polished rod lord, pounds
CEL Counterbalanm required, pounds
2-3/4 2.571 0.881
--
PT = Pnek reducer torque, inch pounds
Wr Average Weight of rods i n air, pounds par foot
G Spncific Gravity of p r o d u d fluid
33/4
4314
ROD AND PUMP DATA
4.781
7.671
1.840
2.630
TABLE 2
Rod Wt. Elastic Frequency Rod String, % of Each Sire
Rod Plunger Ib. per ft. Constant Factor
No. Die. Wr Er Fe 1 718 3/4 518 1I 2
44 All 0.726 .oar99 1.Ooo 100.0
54 1.06 0.908 ,00167 1.138 44.6 66.4

54 1.25 0.929 ,00163 1.140 49.5 50.5
54 1.50 0.657 .00156 1.137 56.4 43.6
54 1.75 0.990 .00153 1.122 64.6 95.4
54 2.00 1.027 .00146 1.095 73.7 26.3
55 All 1.135 .00127 1.000 100.0
64 1.06 1.164 ,00138 1.229 33.3 33.1 33.5

64 1.25 1.211 .00132 1.215 37.2 95.S 28.9
64 1.50 1.275 DO123 1.184 42.3 40.4 11.3
64 1.75 1.341 ,00114 1.145 47.4 45.2 7.4
65 1.06 1.307 ,00114 1.098 34.4 65.6

65 1.25 1.321 .00113 1.104 37.3 62.7
66 1.50 1.343 .00111 1.110 41.8 58.2
65 1.75 1.369 .w109 1.114 46.9 53.1
65 2.00 1.394 .00107 1.114 52.0 48.0
65 2.25 1.426 .00105 1.110 58.4 41.6
65 2.50 1.460 .00102 1.098 86.2 34.8
65 2.75 1.497 .oO099 1.082 72.5 27.5
66 All 1.634 .M)o88 1.m --I

100.0
75 1.06 1.566 .00100 1.191 --- 27.0 27.4 46.6

75
75
1.25
1.50
1.604
1.664
.00087
.00094
1.193
i.im --..I
29.4
33.3
29.8
33.3
40.8
33.3 --
75 1.75 1.732 .00089 1.174 37.8 37.0 25.1
75 2.00 1.603 ,00085 1.151 42.4 41.3 16.3
75 2.25 1.875 .O0080 1.121 46.9 45.8 7.2 -I
76 1.06 1.602 .00082 1.072 28.5 71.6

76 1.25 1.614 ,00061 1.077 --.-I 30.6 69.4
76 1.50 1a 3 3 .OM)80 1.082 33.8 66.2 I
76 1.75 1.855 .OWSO 1.088 37.5 62.5

76 2.00 1.880 .00079 1.093 41.7 58.3 -I-
76 2.25 -1.808 ,00077 1.096 46.5 53.5

76 2.50 1.934 .OOO76 1.097 €4.6 49.2 I -I-
76 2.75 1.967 .w75 1.094 66.5 43.5

76 3.25 2.039 ,00072 1.078 88.7 31.3
76 3.75 2.119 .OOO69 1. w 7 82.3 17.7
631
TABLE 2 (Continudl paw 3
Rod Wt. Elastic Frequency Rod String. % of Each Sizm

Rod Plunger Ib.per ft. Constant Factor
No. Din. W, E, Fe 1-114 1.118 1 718 314 518
77 All 2.224 ,00065 1.000 .... 100.0 --

85 1.06 1.883 ,00087 1.261 22.2 22.4 22.4 33.0
85 1.25 1.943 .00084 1.253 _........ 23.8 24.2 24.3 27.6
85 1.50 2.039 ,00079 1.232 26.7 27.4 28.8 19.2
85 1.75 2.138 ,00074 1.201 .......... .... 29.6 30.4 29.5 10.5
&gtis
96 1.06 2.658 ,00074 1.151 22.6 23.0 54.3
86 1.25 1.156 -........ 24.3 24.5 61.2
86 1.50 .......... 26.8 27.0 46.3
+
86
86
1.75
2.00
2.247 .00068
1.161 ..........
29.4
32.8
30.0
33.2
40.6
33.8
86 2.25 2.315 ,00066 1.153 36.9 36.0 27.1
86 2.50 2.385 ,00063 1.138 ........ 40.6 39.7 19.7
86 2.75 2.455 ,00061 1.119 44.5 43.3 12.2
87 1S O 2.413 ,00061 1.062 27.7 72.3

87 1.75 2.430 .00060 1.066 30.3 68.7
87 2.00 2.450 .00060 1.071 33.2 66.8
87 2.25 2.472 ,00059 1.075 36.4 63.6
87 2.50 2.496 ,00059 1.079 39.9 60.1
87 2.75 2.523 ,00058 1.082 _ ........ 43.9 56.1 -I-
87 3.75 2.641 .00056 1.078 .......... 61.2 38.8 -.-- --.

87 4.75 2.793 ,00052 1.038 83.6 16.4
88 All 2.904 .00050 1.000 .......... 100.0 -.

96 1.06 2.382 .00067 1.222 19.1 18.2 18.5 42.3
96 1.25 2.435 ,00066 1.224 .......... 20.5 20.6 20.7 38.3
96 1.50 2.511 .00063 1.223 22.4 22.5 22.8 32.3
96 1.75 2.507 ,00061 1.213 ........ 24.8 25.1 25.1 25.1
96 2.00 2.703 ,00058 1.196 ........ 27.1 27.9 27.4 17.6
96 2.25 2.806 .00055 1.172 .......... 29.6 30.7 29.8 9.8
97 1.50 2.707 .OW58 1.131 22.5 23.0 54.5

97 1.75 2.751 ,00055 1.137 ........ 24.5 25.0 50.4
97 2.00 2.801 ,00054 1.141 ......... 28.8 27.4 46.7
97 2.25 2.856 ,00053 1.143 28.4 30.2 40.4
97 2.50 2.921 ,00052 1.141 32.5 33.1 34.4
97 2.75 2.988 ,00050 1.135 38.1 36.3 28.6
98 1.75 3.103 ,00047 1.051 25.7 74.3

98 2.00 3.118 ,00047 1.065 .......... 27.7 72.3
98 2.25 3.137 ,00047 1.058 30.1 68.9
98 2.50 3.157 ,00046 1.062 32.7 67.3
98 2.75 3.180 .00046 1.066 .......... 35.8 84.4
98 3.75 3.289 ,00045 1.074 49.7 50.3
98 4.75 3.412 .OW43 1.064 65.7 34.3
99 All 3.676 .wa39 1.OOo .... 100.0
107 1.50 3.085 .00051 1.195 19.4 19.2 19.5 41.9

107 1.75 3.158 ,00049 1.197 21.0 21.0 21.2 36.9
107 2.00 3.238 .00048 1.195 22.7 22.8 23.1 31.4
107 2.25 3.338 ,00046 1.187 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0
107 2.50 3.435 ,00045 1.174 26.9 27.7 27.1 18.2
107 2.75 3.537 ,00043 1.156 29.1 30.2 29.3 11.3
108 1.75 3.41 1 .wo44 1.111 20.9 21.4 57.7

108 2.00 3.452 ,00043 1.117 22.6 23.0 54.3
108 2.25 3.498 ,00043 1.121 24.5 26.0 5a5
109 2.50 3.548 ,00042 1.124 26.5 27.2 46.3 -- I-
108 2.75 3.603 ,00042 1.126 28.7 29.6 41.6

108 3.75 3.873 ,00038 1.108 40.6 39.5 19.8 --
--
109
109
109
2.50
2.75
.3.75
3.91 1
3.930
4.020
,W037
.OW37
.00036
1.048
1.051
1.063
27.2
29.4
39.9
72.8
70.6 -
I-
60.1
109 4.75 '4.120 ,00035 1.066 51.5 48.5
632
-4
TABLE 5.
FZ, MIN. POLISHED ROD L O A D
FolSKR
TABLE 8.
.3 .4 ,5 .6 Area
n. n
. o
. o RodSile SS 1;
-
,019 015 ,022 ,025 1 12 0 196
,045 ,039 .05 ,055 518 0 307
08 073 083 ,086 314 0 442
,125 12 ,119 718 0.601
N!No 128 154 ,165 ,161 ,158
.20(>.r ,195-
,241 235 ,235
275 .27 ,263 2 7
+@ A18
1.114
cz? 1.227
,306 .3w 29 3
364 .35 ,339 .34
433 ,413 ,384 .38
,415 .45 .42 .41
633
REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute, 1977. Design Calculations for Sucker Rod Pumping Systems. A.P.I., Dallas,
Tex., RP 11L, 24 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1983. A. P.I. Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Subsurface Pumps.
A.P.I., Dallas, Tex., RP l l A R , 41 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1979. A. P.I. Specifications for Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps and Fittings.
A.P.I., Dallas, Tex., Spec IlAX, 62 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1969. A.P.I. Catalog of Analog Computer Dynamometer C a r d . A.P.I.,
Dallas, Tex., Bull., 11L2, 77 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1970. A.P.I. Bulletin of Sucker Rod Pumping System Design Book. A.P.I.,
Dallas, Tex., Bull., l l L 3 , 575 pp.
Atlantic Richfield Company, 1984. Artificial Lift Sucker Rod Pumping Manual (A collection of notes and
discussion). ARCO, Houston, Tex., 437 pp.
Axelson, Inc., 1980, 1982. Pump and Rod Engineering Manual. Manual M-63. U S . Industries, Longview,
Tex., 92 pp.
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1950. Sucker Rod Handbook. Handbook 282, 213 pp.
B o w e r , P.M., 1981. Sucker rod pumping systems design -another look. 56th Annu. Fall Tech. Conf.
Exhibition, SOC.Pet. Eng. of AIME, San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 5-7, 6 pp.
Brown, K.E., Day, J.J. Byrd, J.P. and Mach, J., 1980. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. 2a.
PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., 720 pp.
Byrd, J.P. and Beasly, W.L., 1974. Predicting prime mover requirements, power costs, and electrical demand
for beam pumping units. 25th Annu. Fall Meet., Pet. SOC.of C.I.M., Calgary, PSCIM 374035.
Byrd, J.P., 1977. Pumping deep wells with a beam and sucker rod system. In: Deep Drilling and Production
Symp. Soc. Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., Amarillo, Tex., SF'E 6436, 37 pp.
Byrd, J.P., 1966. Polished rod dynamometers and the construction of a theoretical dynamometer card.
Presented at the Deep Well Drilling, Production and Maintenance Institute, sponsored by the Univ.
of Kansas, April 19, 28 pp.
Byrd, J.P., 1971. A technique for measuring and evaluating the performance of a beam pumping system. 43rd
Annu. Conf. Pet. Electr. Power Assoc., Houston, Tex., 6 pp.
Byrd, J.P., 1983. The Beam and Sucker Rod Pumping System. (A collection of memos and papers dealing
with certain aspects of beam driven, sucker rod pumping system.) Lufkin Industries, Tex., 203 pp.
Craft, B.C., Holden,,W.R. and Graves Jr., E.D., 1962. Well Design: Drilling and Production. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 286-368.
Day, J.J. and Byrd, J.P., 1980. Beam pumping: design and analysis. In: K.E. Brown (Editor), The
Technology of Artificial Lift Methoak, Vol. 2a. PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., pp. 9-94.
Doty, D.R. and Schmidt, Z., 1981. An improved model for sucker rod pumping. 56th Annu. Fall Tech.
Conf. and Exhibition, Soc. Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 5-7, 7 pp.
Eickmeier, J.R., 1973. Pumping well optimization techniques. Canad. J. Pet. Tech., April-June: 53-63.
Eickmeier, J.R., 1967. Diagnostic analysis of dynamometer cards. J. Pet. Tech., 19(1): 97-106.
Eubanks, J.M., Franks, B.L., Lawrence, D.K., Maxwell, T.E. and Merryman, C.J., 1958. Pumping Well
Problem Analysis. Chastain, Midland, Tex., pp. 155-181.
Fagg, L.W., 1950. Dynamometer cards and well weighing. Trans. Soc. Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., 189:
165-174.
Gibbs, $G., 1977. A general method for predicting rod pumping system performance. 52nd Annu. Fall
Meet., Soc. Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., Denver, Colo., Oct. 8-11, SPE 6850, 19 pp.
Gibbs, S.G., 1963. Predicting the behavior of sucker-rod pumping systems. J . Pet. Tech., 15 (7): 769-778.
Griffin, F.D., 1975. A n update on pumping unit sizing as recommended by API-RP-IIL. 26th Annu. Meet.
Pet. SOC. C.I.M., Banff, June 11-13, 15 pp.
Kelly, H.L. and Willis, R.M., 1954. Manual for selection of beam pumping equipment - part 3. Pet.
Eng., Sept.: B77-B97.
Lufkin Industries, 1983. Lufkin Pumping Units Catalog No. 82-83. Lufkin Industries, Lufkin, Tex., pp.
25-28.
634
Marsh, H.N. and Watts, E.V., 1938. Practical dynamometer tests. Drill. Prod. Pract. A P I , pp. 162-182.
Mills, K.N., 1939. Factors influencing well loads combined in a new formula. Pet. Eng., Apr.
Mills, K.N., 1943a. Standardization committee report on pumping equipment and engines (Exhibit A,
well-load formulas). Prod. Bull. API., 230:442-462.
Mills, K.N., 1943b. Counterbalancing and determining peak loads on pumping units. World Oil, 14:
176-186.
Neely, B., Gipson, F., Clegg, J., Capps, B. and Wilson, P., 1981. Selection of artificial lift method. 56th
Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition, SOC.Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., Oct. 5-7, San Antonio, Tex., SPE
10337, 6 pp.
Russel Jr., J.H., 1953. Interpretation of dynamometer cards. World Oil, 24: 175-188.
Szilas, A.P., 1975. Production and Transport of Oil and Gas (Developments in Petroleum Science, 3.).
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 630 pp.
Treadway, R.B. and Focazio, K.R., 1981. Fiberglass sucker r o d - a fururistic solution to today’s problem
wells. 56th AMU. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition, SOC.Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., Oct. 5-7, San Antonio,
Tex., SPE 10251, 4 pp.
Zaba, J., 1943. Oil well pumping practices. No. 3-Sucker-rod pumping system. Oil Gas J . , 42: 67-78.
Zaba, J., 1943. Oil-well pumping practices. No. 4-Sucker-rod load measurement. Oil Gas J . , 42: 34-39.
Zaba, J., 1962. Modern Oil Well Pumping. Petroleum Publishing, Tulsa, Okla., 818 pp.
Zaba, J. and Doherty, W.T., 1956. Practical Petroleum Engineers Handbook. Gulf Publishing, Houston,
Tex., 4th Ed., pp. 487-542.
635
Chapter 15
HYDRAULIC SUBSURFACE PUMPS
PHIL WILSON and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN (EDITOR)
INTRODUCTION
Subsurface hydraulic pumps are downhole pumps powered by high-pressure fluid

directed to them from the surface. There are two types in common use: (1) the
positive displacement piston pump, driven by a hydraulic reciprocating subsurface
-FLUID LEVEL
s ENGINE
- PUMP
Fig. 15-1. Schematic diagram of piston pump, free type

636
SHUT OFF PUMP IN 0PERAT E PUMP OUT

AND BLEED
fi A fi I
-
-
FLOW
LINE
J
t
STANDING STANDING
IA LV E VALVE
:LOSED CLOSED
Fig. 15-2. Schematic diagrams showing operation of parallel free pump.
engine directly connected to the pump, and (2) the jet pump. Only the piston-type
hydraulic pump is discussed here.
Figure 15-1 shows a typical hydraulic subsurface pump installation. Two strings
of tubing are shown: (1) for directing the high-pressure power fluid to the engine,
and (2) for conducting the return power fluid plus produced fluid to the surface. In
this type of installation, the pump is free to be circulated in and out of the well. T h s
“free pump” principle is a unique feature of subsurface hydraulic pumps and is
further illustrated in Fig. 15-2.
The “shut-off and bleed” function of the “free pump” system is shown at the left
in Fig. 15-2. The U tube is full of low-pressure power fluid, which is retained in the
tubing by the closed standing valve. The power fluid is shut-off at the surface and
the large tubing is opened at the top allowing the “free pump” to be inserted.
The next function shown is “pump in”, whereby the pump, with its packer and
nose assembly, is being circulated to bottom. The large tubing is closed at the top by
the insertion of the pump catcher which locks in place. The standing valve is still
closed and the 4-way valve at the surface is positioned to direct power fluid into the
large tubing and the return fluid into the flowline. The flow of power fluid down the
large tubing carries the pump to the bottom.
631
8
Tubing -
Fig. 15-3.Complete hydraulic pumping system.

638
The “operate” function is shown next: The pump is seating at the bottom,
metal-to-metal, on the standing valve and at the top by an O-ring in a seal collar.
The flow of power fluid down the large tubing is operating the engine, while the
production, mixed with exhausted power fluid, is returning up the small tubing. The
standing valve is now open and its ball is being held off seat by a magnet.
The “pump out” function is shown at the right in Fig. 15-2: The power fluid is
directed down the small tubing, by the surface 4-way valve, thereby forcing the
pump off of the standing valve. When the pump unseats, the rush of fluid trying to
exit forces the ball off of the magnet and on the seat. With the standing valve now
closed, the U tube necessary to surface the pump is provided. The swab cups of the
packer and nose assembly provide the efficiency necessary to circulate the pump to
the surface, where the fishing neck of the assembly engages the pump catcher. With
the pump latched, the tubing strings can be bled off and the catcher used to remove
the free pump.
A complete hydraulic “free pump” system is shown in Fig. 15-3. The various
elements of this system are discussed in the order shown from A through F.
SUBSURFACE PUMPS-PISTON TYPE
Originally, the subsurface pump was designated “production unit”, but in

practice it was usually referred to as a pump. This caused confusion because the unit
consists of an engine as well as a pump, and it was continuously necessary to refer
to the operation of the engine separately from the operation of the pump. The
problem was solved by identifying the engine as the “engine-end’’ of the pump and
the pump as the “pump-end’’ of the pump. These commonly accepted terms are
used in the following discussion.
The engine-end of a Kobe type A pump is shown in Fig. 15-4. High-pressure
power fluid enters from the top and is shown being directed to the top of the piston.
Exhausted power fluid from the lower side of the piston is being directed by the
relieved area of the engine valve to the discharge port.
When the piston reaches the end of the downstroke, the reduced diameter at the
top of the valve rod allows high-pressure fluid to enter under the valve as shown in
Fig. 15-5. Inasmuch as the valve has a larger area at its bottom than at its top, the
high pressure causes it to move upwards.
With the engine valve in the up position as shown in Fig. 15-6, the flow paths to
the piston are reversed. The piston, therefore, begins the upstroke.
When the piston reaches the end of the upstroke, as shown in Fig. 15-7, the
reduced diameter near the lower end of the valve rod connects the area under the
valve to the discharge, or low-pressure, side of the engine. With high pressure on the
top of the valve and only exhaust pressure at the bottom, the valve will move to its
down position and the cycle will be repeated. The rate of flow of power fluid
determines the pump speed. Pump speed is measured in cycles per minute and is
referred to as “strokes per minute”.
639
DOWNSTROKE END OF DOWNSTROKE
ENGINE
VALVE,
-
VALVE
ROD
ENGINE
PISTON -
ROD -
MIDDLE
CONNECTS TO PUMP PISTON
Fig. 15-4.Cross-section of engine-end: downstroke.

Fig. 15-5. Cross-section of engine-end; end of downstroke.
START OF UPSTROKE END OF UPSTROKE
Fig. 15-6. Cross-section of engine-end: start of upstroke.

Fig. 15-7. Cross-section of engine-end; end of upstroke.
640 DOWNSTROKE
EXHAUST
,VALVES
Fig. 15-8.Cross-section of pump-end; downstroke.

UPSTROKE
Fig. 15-9. Cross-section of pump-end; upstroke.

641
DOWN STROKE UP STROKE
- ENGINE
PISTON-
- PUMP
PISTON-
Fig. 15-10. Cross-section of complete pump: downstroke and upstroke.
The pump-end of the unit is shown in Fig. 15-8 making a downstroke. This pump
is double-acting, i.e., it pumps on the upstroke and on the downstroke. The arrows
show that well fluid is entering on the left and filling the upper part of the cylinder,
while the well fluid below the piston is being discharged through the ball check
valve at the lower right.
On the upstroke, shown in Fig. 15-9, well fluid is filling the lower part of the
cylinder and is being discharged from the upper end.
The complete pump is shown in Fig. 15-10. The hollow rods serve two purposes:
(1) to balance the areas, and hence the forces, on the upstroke and downstroke; and
(2) to provide clean high pressure power fluid to the pump piston for lubrication
and for washing sand out of the piston-cylinder fit.
The Kobe type A pump is also shown in Fig. 15-11 along with a pump
specification table. Figures 15-12 through 15-24 show other pumps currently avail-
642
able from the various manufacturers. Some of these pump schematics are difficult to
analyze because of the various internal passageways and engine valve designs. A
simplified approach is shown in Fig. 15-25. T h s is the Kobe type A pump
previously covered. The engine valve, pump valves, and fluid passageways are all
shown external to the piston and cylinder. As a further simplification, the engine
valve is schematically illustrated as a rotating valve.
Figure 15-26 shows all of the various engine-ends and pump-ends in this
simplified format. The engine-ends at A , B , and C use a 4-way, 2-position, engine
valve, whereas those at D, E , F, and G use a 3-way, 2-position, engine valve. A
3-way valve requires the pressure in one end of the cylinder to be the same on the
upstroke and on the downstroke. The pressures for the upstroke are shown in the
left half of the cylinders and the pressures for the downstroke are shown in the right
half of the cylinders. In some of the pump-ends, the pump valves must be shown
internally.
The Kobe type A single pump-end pump (Fig. 15-11) is illustrated at A and H in
Fig. 15-26. The engine valve is at the top of the pump and is shifted hydraulically.
The top rod (called valve rod) acts as a pilot valve for shifting the main valve. This
pump is double acting, i.e., it pumps on the upstroke and on the downstroke.
The Kobe type A double pump-end pump (Fig. 15-12) is illustrated at A and I
in Fig. 15-26. It is similar to the pump in Fig. 15-11 except it has an added pump
piston. This piston is in parallel hydraulically with the other pump-end piston so it
doubles the pump-end volume capacity.
The Kobe type B single pump-end pump (Fig. 15-13) is illustrated at A and H in
Fig. 15-26. It is similar to the type A pump except some passageways that are
internal in the type A pump are external to the type B pump. This allows the type B
cylinders to be larger than the type A cylinders. Hence the type B pump has greater
capacity.
The Kobe type B double pump-end pump (Fig. 15-14) is illustrated at A and I in
Fig. 15-26. The comments regarding Figs. 15-11, 15-12, and 15-13 are applicable to
this pump also.
The Kobe type D single pump-end pump (Fig. 15-15) is illustrated at B and H in
Fig. 15-26. It has two engine pistons (in parallel hydraulically) for greater engine-end
capacity. The previous comments are applicable to this pump.
The Kobe type D double pump-end pump (Fig. 15-16) is illustrated at B and I
in Fig. 15-26. The previous comments are applicable to this pump also.
The Kobe type E pump (Fig. 15-17) is illustrated at C and J in Fig. 15-26. The
engine valve is in the middle of this pump and is shifted hydraulically. The rod acts
as a pilot valve for the main engine valve. It is somewhat awkward to refer to the
engine-end and the pump-end of this pump because the engine is in the middle. The
inboard ends of the pistons are the engine and the outboard ends are the pump.
More descriptive terms would be “upper and lower engines” and “upper and lower
pumps” or “ upper and lower pump-ends”.
The Guiberson Powerlift I1 pump (Fig. 15-18) is illustrated at C and J in Fig.
15-26 and is similar to the Kobe type E pump.
643
SPECIFICATIONS-
KOBE TYPE A PUMP-SINGLE ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP END
DI LACEMENT Max.
At EPD Der SPM Rated
Rated Speed
Speed Eng. Pump (SPW
139 2 15 115 121
,............... 254 2 15 2 10 121
2x1-llle .............' 1546 393 2 15 3 25 121
2x11~-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .I 647 254 3 30 2 10 121
393 3 30 3 25 121
256 5 02 2 56 100
367 5 02 3 67 100
492 5 02 4 92 100
703 5 02 7 03 100
492 7 13 4 92 100
703 7 13 7 03 100
486 9 61 5 49 87
646 9.61 7 43 87
821 9 61 9 44 87
1218 9 61 14 00 87
821 14 17 9 44 87
1218 14.17 14 00 87
1108 21 44 14 40 77
1617 21 44 21 00 77
2502 21 44 32 50 77
1617 32 94 21 00 77
2502 32 94 32 50 77
Fig. 15-11. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type A pump; single-engine, single-pump-end,
644
..j:j :j.
:;
@fl
:.: (I
:j :.:
.... ,
': 4
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMP SIZE At BPD per SPM Rated
DESCRIPTION RATIO Speed Eng.

2 x 1%. -1 x 1 . . .. . . .. . . 1.290 508 3 30
2xl%.-l%. X l ........ 1.647 647 3.30
z ~ i ~ ~ - -x li hv. ~ ~ ...... 2.000 786 3.30
.. . . . . , ,
,
3 x 134-1 % x 1% ,800 972 14.17 11.18
3 x 1%--1% x 1% , , .. . .., 1.351 14.17 18.88
.:.;.:
3xl%-l%xl'h
31 l%-l% x 1%
........
. .......
~ 1.675
2 000
~ lzli
2436
114.17
14 17
23.44
28.00
4 x 2'18-2 x 1% . . . . . . . . . . I 1 094 I 2725 1 32 94 35.40
4 x 2W-2 x 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 x 2%-2H x 2 . . . . . . . . . .
4x2%-2#x2h ........ 1 1.299
1.850
2.000
3234
4119
5005
32 94
32.94
32 94
42.00
53.50
65.00
Fig. 15-12. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type A pump; single-engine, double-pump-end.
645
SPECIFICATIONS-
KOBE TYPE B PUMP-SINGLE ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP END
I DISPLACEMENT
i Max.
1
i
PUMPSIZE At 1 BPDperSPM Rated
Raled Speed
DESCRIPTION RATIO Speed
544 4 54 4.50
744 10 96 7 44 100
1086 100
Fig. 15-13. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type B pump: single-engine, single-pump-end.
646
SPECIFICATIONS-
KOBE TYPE B PUMP-SINGLE ENGINE, DOUBLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMP SIZE At BPD p e r SPM Rated
OR PIE Ribd Speed
DESCRIPTION RATIO Speed Eng. Pump (SPM)
2 x 1%-13% x 11%~ ...... 1.380 751 4.54 6.21 121
2xl%-l~hxl~h ,....... 1.680 913 4.54 7.55 121
2X1~l~-I~!~x1"~ ........ 1.980 1076 4 54 8.W 121
2% x 1%-1% x 1 % . . . .. . . 1.336 1452 10.96 14.52 100
... ...
2 % x 1%-1 114 x 1 'h , 1.652 1794 1096 17.94 100
2%x1~f4-lhxl~l, ....... 1.957 2136 10.96 21.36 100
3 x Z'h-178 x 1'18 ,.. . , . , , 1.454 2726 21.75 31.34 87
3x2'4-2'hxIh ........ 1714 3213 21.75 36.94 87
3~2'/~-2'hx2'/1 ........ 1.974 3700 21 75 42.53 a7
Fig. 15-14. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type B pump; single-engine, double-pump-end.
641
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMP SIZE At BPD por SPM Rated
OR
DESCRIPTION
PIE
RATIO
Rated
Sped
- En@. Pump
Speed
(SPM)
2 x 1%. x l 3 h - l a ~ e ... . . 407 381 7 79 3 15 121
Z x l S i i xl%--l'h ....... 581 544 7 79 4 50 121
2'hXl'li. X l ' A - l ' h ..... 411 744 17 99 7 44 100
2% x 1',e x I a A - I a A . .. . . 608 1086 1799 1086 100
3xl%x2%-1% ........ 449 1357 35 74 15 96 87
3 x 1% x 2%--2'h .. . ... .. 606 1874 35 74 21 55 87
Fig. 15-15. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type D pump; double-engine, single-pump-end.
648
SPECIFICATIONS-
KOBE TYPE D PUMP-DOUBLE ENGINE, DOUBLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT Max.
OR PIE Rated Speed
2 X 1 % 1 xI%-l%. Xl'h. ,802 751 7.79 6.21 121
2 X I % # xl%-1% XlYw . ,976 913 7.79 7.55 121
2x1'111 x l % - l W x l % .. 1,150 1076 7.79 8.90 121
2%X1%1 XI%-l%XlW. ,813 1452 17.99 14.52 100
2%xl%. x l U - l % x l ' l ~ , ,976 1794 17.99 17.94 100
2112 x IV?, x 1v+1*1, x 1 31, . 1.196 2136 17.99 21.36 100
3x1~/4x2H-I%x1% ... ,882 2726 35.74 31.34 87
3 x 1 % x 2'/1-2% x 1% . .. 1.039 3213 35.74 36.94 07
3x1Ux2%-2~/~x2% ... 1.197 3700 35.74 42.53 07
Fig. 15-16. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type D pump; double-engine, double-pump-end.
649
I I
1
i PUMP SIZE
SPECIFICATIONS-
K 0 6 E TYPE E PUMP
DISPLACEMENT
EPD per SPM Rated
Rated Speed
DESCRIPTION RATIO
2397
4015
ICOUII~LY
Kobe Inc --Subsidiary 01 Baker lnlernslional Corp )
Fig. 15-17. Specifications and cross-section of a Kobe type E pump.

650
1 SPECIFICATIONS-
DISPLACEMENT Max.
OR PIE Rated Speed
2 Il%e.. ................ ,524 597 12.10 5.53 108
2 X f % . .................. ,725 826 12 10 7.65 106
2x .................. 1.147 1560 26.35 30.00 52
2% X l'h ................. ,725 1322 17.69 12.59 105
.................
2'h I l ' h
2% I 1% .................
503
1 146
918 1769 8.74 . 105
2500 43 97 50 50
Fig. 15-18. Specifications and cross-section of a Powerlift JI pump.

651
SPECIFICATIONS-
P VERLIFT I PUMP . SINGLE ENGINE. SINGLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT Max .
PUMP SIZE At I BPD Der SPM Rated
I OR I P/E 1 ..
Rated I
RATIO Speed Eng .
2 x 14 x 1
2 x 1% x 1 ' 2
...............
............. 1ii 312
450
~ 1508
15 08
645 35
35
121
~
528 ! 1508 1508 35
2'2 x 2 x 1"l
.............
.............
.............
:: ~
264
467 ' 30 80
30 80
++J
80 547 1 3080
............. I 93 637 I 30 80
............ 831 30 80 3080
3 x 272 x 1% 643 43 71 2142
3
3
x
x
2% x 2
2h x
.............
............ 98
840 I' 4371 2798
3541
21.4 ~
1062 4371
3 x 2 % x 2'h ............ 1 121 1711 I 4371 4371
4 ~ 2 x"2 ~. . . ~. . . . . . . . . .57 60 35
I 4 ~ 2 " ~ a x 2 h
4X2"/?8 X2'h
............ 72
........... , .89
~
. 1%
1311
6035
60 35
2798
3541
4371
30
30
30
4 ........ 2% ............ j 1810 60 35

5290
8035 ~ 30
rCOurtesy Guibernon Division .D i e ~ ~ Industries
ei Inc I
Fig . 15.19 . Specifications and cross-section of a Powerlift I pump; single.engine. single.pump.end .

652
SPECIFICATIONS-
OILMASTER F, FE 6 FEE PUMPS
j C o ~ r I a l yARMCO-National Production Systems)
Fig. 15-20. Specifications and cross-section of an Oilmaster F, FE, and FEB pumps.
653
SPECIFICATIONS-
OILMASTER VFR PUMP -
SINGLE ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMPSIZE At EPD pmr SPM Rated
OR PIE RIM SpHd
DESCRIPTION RATIO S W ~ng. Pump (SPM)
VFR201611 ............ 62 318 4 24 2 12 150
VFR201613 ............ 87 444 4 24 2 96 150
VFR 201616 ............ 1 32 673 4 24 4 49 150
VFR 252015 ............ 74 6% 8 89 5 25 120
VFR 252017 ............ 1 00 858 8 89 7 15 120
VFR 252020 ............ 1 32 1119 8 89 9 33 120
VFR 302424 ............ 1 28 1612 1299 1344 120
(Courtesy A R M C O - N ~ ~ I Production
O~~I System1
Fig. 15-21, Specifications and cross-section of an Oilmaster VFR pump; single-engine, single-pump-end.
654
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMP SIZE At BPD per spm Rated
OR PIE Wed Speed
VFR20181813 .......... 54 444 686 296 150
VFR 20181818 .......... 81 673 6 86 449 150
VFR25202015 .......... 41 630 I5 16 525 120
VFR 25202017 .......... 56 858 1516 715 120
VFR 25202020 .......... 73 Ill9 15 16 933 120
Fig. 15-22. Splecifications and cross-section of an Oilmaster VFR pump; tandem-engine, single-pump-end,
655
SPECIFICATIONS -
OILMASTER V-11 PUMP-SINGLE ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT Max.
PUMP SIZE At I BPD per SPM Rated
OR P/E Rated Speed
V-25-11-118 ................... 1.18 1419 5.33 6.31 225
V-25-11-095 ................... .95 1299 6.66 6.31 206
V-25-11-076 , , ,. . , , , , , , , , ,. , , ,
, 76 550 5.33 3 93 140
V-25-11-061 ................... .El 550 6.66 3.93 140
656
The Guiberson Powerlift I pump (Fig. 15-19) is illustrated at E and K in Fig.

15-26. The engine valve is in the engine plunger and is shifted mechanically at each
end of the cylinder. This pump does not use the upper rod (illustrated by dashed
lines at E ) . Power fluid is discharged through the (middle) rod. This pump is single
acting.
The Oilmaster F, F E and FEB pumps (Fig. 15-20) are illustrated at E and L in
Fig. 15-26. These pumps also do not use the upper rod. The engine valve is in the
engine plunger and is slufted hydraulically when the valve senses “no-flow’’ at the
end of each stroke. This pump is double acting.
The Oilmaster VFR single engine pump (Fig. 15-21) is illustrated at E and K in
The upper rod is the pilot valve for the main valve. This pump is single acting.
The Oilmaster VFR tandem engine pump (Fig. 15-22) is illustrated at F and K
in Fig. 15-26. This pump is similar to that illustrated in Fig. 15-21 except it has two
engine plungers. These are in parallel hydraulically for doubled engine capacity.
Comments regarding Fig. 15-21 apply to this pump.
The Oilmaster V11 pump (Fig. 15-23) is shown at E and M in Fig. 15-26. The
engine valve is at the top of the pump and is shifted hydraulically. The upper rod is
the pilot valve for the main valve. This pump is double acting.
The Oilmaster V21 tandem engine pump (Fig. 15-24) is shown at G and N in
The upper rod is the pilot valve for the main valve. The engine-end of this pump is
similar to Fig. 15-26F except that the underside of the bottom engine piston is
exposed to produced fluid rather than power fluid. This pump is double acting.
It is obvious that the pump-ends at H , I , and J in Fig. 15-26 are double acting
because they pump on the upstroke and on the downstroke. The pump-end at K is
obviously single acting because it pumps on the upstroke only. The pump-ends at L ,
M , and N are double acting, but this fact is not apparent because they pump only
on the downstroke; they are sometimes referred to as “differential double-acting’’
pumps. A simple way to determine if a pump is single or double acting is to divide
the pump-end displacement per SPM (from the specification table ) by the engine-end
displacement per SPM. If the result is equal to the value in the P / E column of the
specification table, then the pump is double acting (allow 2-3% variation for
operation of the engine valve of Kobe pumps). The results will be 20-30% less than
P / E for single-acting pumps. This test compares the pressure ratio ( P / E ) to the
volume ratio and is a measure of the unproductive work performed by the
engine-end.
Example problem 15-1
The pump-end displacement per SPM for the first pump in Fig. 1 5 - l l ’ i s 1.15 and
the engine-end displacement per SPM is 2.15; therefore:
1.15
volume ratio = -= 0.535
2.15
651
SPECIFICATIONS-
OILMASTER V-21 PUMP-TANDEM ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP END
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP SIZE BPD per SPM Rated
Rated
DESCRIPTION
V-25-21-075 ...................
1072 10 00 6.31 170
550 8 38 3.93 140
V-25-21-041 ................... 550 10 00 3 93 140
(Courtesy ARMCO-Nation81 Production Syslernri
Fig. 15-24. Specifications and cross-section of an Oilmaster V-21 pump; tandem-engine, single-pump-end.
658
I-
UPSTROKE - - DOWNSTROKE
Pl=HIGH PRESSURE POWER F L U I D

Pz=EXHAUST PRESSURE POWER FLUID
P3=PRODUCTION DISCHARGE PRESSURE
P4=PRODUCTION INTAKE PRESSURE
Fig. 15-25. Simplified schematic diagram showing the operation of the Kobe type A pump.
a
h
c
/ I
1-1
1 1 - 1
I
1
1
P
Y
L
7
==T
'
L
659
Fig. 15-26. Simplified schematic diagrams showing the opcrations of various engine-ends and pump-ends
660
This compares with the P / E value of 0.545. The 2%’ difference is the unproductive
power used to shift the engine valve.
The pump-end and engine-end displacement values for the first pump in Fig.
15-19 are 6.45 and 15.08, respectively; therefore:
6.45
volume ratio = -- 0.428
15.08
This compares with the P / E value of 0.52. The 21% difference is the unproductive
power used to make the downstroke of the pump.
PUMP SELECTION
Selecting a pump for a given well is a simple and straightforward process using
the specification tables in Figs. 15-11 through 15-24. One must select a pump (1)
that fits the given tubing size, (2) that has sufficient capacity for the well. and (3)
that will not operate at excessive pressure. Selection also involves price, brand
preference. mechanical feature preference, and delivery and service availability.
The “pump size or description” columns of the specification tables indicate what
size tubing the pump will fit in. For instance, the Kobe and Guiberson pumps start
with the nominal sizes:
Nominal size Tubing size

(in ) (In )
2 2: OD
2: 2 i OD
3 3; OD
4 4; OD
The Oilmaster pumps use the following code in the first two digits:
Code Tubing size

(in.)
20 2; OD
25 2; OD
30 3 f OD
The above information allows one to choose a pump to fit the given tubing size,
whereas the following equation allows one to choose a pump with sufficient capacity
for the well:
= Minimum pump displacement = (Q, X B ) + Qs

(15-1)
Qp 0.85 x 0.85
661
Example
Pump Intake Pressure = 400 psia
Oil Temperature = 100°F
Oil Gravity = 3 5 O API
Gas Specific Gravity = 0.7
Solution GOR = 65 scf/B
SOLUTION GAS-OIL RATIO A T PUMP INTAKE PRESSURE

( F r o m AIME Jour. Pet. Tech. T.P. 2931, 1950)
Fig. 15-27. Bubble point pressure correlation. (Modified after Borden and Rzasa, 1950, fig. 1, p. 346;
courtesy of the SOC. Pet. Eng. of AIME.)
where: Q, = required rate of oil production, Q6 = required rate of water production,

and B = formation volume factor.
When choosing a pump, it is good practice to choose a pump that will operate at
less than 85% of its maximum rated speed. In addition, a pump volumetric
efficiency, usually 85%, should be assumed to allow for fluid slippage due to the
pump wear over a period of time. These are the factors (0.85 X 0.85) in the
denominator of eq. 15-1.
The formation volume factor, B , should be obtained from actual PVT tests on
the particular well fluid to be pumped; however, in the absence of this data, Figs.
15-27, 15-28, 15-29, and 15-30 can be used. Hydraulic pumping installations can be
designed to require the pump to handle (compress) the free gas or they can be
designed to allow the free gas to be vented (through the casing annulus or through a
separate string of tubing) to the surface separately from the pumped fluid.
PBOPERTIES OF NATURAL HYDROCARBON MIXTURES OF GAS AND LIQUlO
Formation Volurrrc of Bubble Poiot Irtprid m

m
N
EXAMPLE
GOR = 6 5 scf/B
Gas Sp. Gr. = 0.7
Oil Gravity = 3 5 0 API
Temperature = lOOOF
B = 1.037
Copyright 1947
Chevron Rerearch Corn-
Reprinted by Psrrnmnmon
B, FORMATION VOLUME of BUBBLE POINT LIQUID -
Fig. 15-28. Oil formation volume factors of California natural hydrocarbon mixtures of gas and liquid at bubble point. (After Standing, 1952; courtesy of
Reinhold Publishing Corp.)
P R W f R T I E S OF NATURAL HYDROCAKEON MIXTURES OF GAS A N D LIQUIU
Form;rtion Volrimc nf Gas Plus Liquid Phases
EXAMPLE
GOR = 200 scf/B

Gas Sp. Gr. = 0.7
Oil Gravity = 350 API
Temperature = lOOOF
Pressure = 4M) psia
E = 1.1
m
m
w
Fig. 15-29. Total formation volume factors of California natural hydrocarbon mixtures of gas and liquid. (Alter Standing, 1952; courtesy of Reinhold
Publishing C'orp.)
664
THEORETICAL VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCIES OF CASING PUMPS
Gas Gravity=0.8, Oil Gravity=40° API, Bottom Hole Temperature=150°F

3000
2500
2000
.
1500
8 1000
ui 900
I 800
3
VI
700
r
P 600
W
Y 500
6
+
z 400
P
I
2 300
250
200
150
I
FORMATION SHRINKAGE FACTOR - S
I . 4
01
.10 .20 .30 .40 .50 'I .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00
20 I
I 4
c
3
40 ;
.20 .30 .40 .50
, .60 j ,
.70 .80 .90 1.oo
I
K
Lu
c
a
.20 .30 .40 .50
.60 --d= .80
.90 1.00
B 60 : 4
.30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .a0 .90 1 .oo
80 + ; +
.40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1 .oo
Fig. 15-30. Determination of theoretical volumetric efficiencies of casing pumps.
If gas is to be vented, one can usually assume B = 1.0. To be precise, however,

one should use Fig. 15-27 to arrive at the solution gas,/oil ratio at pump intake
pressure. With this value, Fig. 15-28 can be used to determine the formation volume
factor, B , for the produced oil. (The formation volume factor for water is taken as
1.O.)
665
Example:
If gas is being vented, pump intake pressure is 400 psi, oil has 35”API gravity,
the pump intake temperature is 100”F, and the gas gravity is 0.7. Fig. 15-27
indicates a solution gas/oil ratio of 65 scf/bbl. From Fig. 15-28, the formation
volume factor is equal to 1.037. If 100 bbl/D of oil and 100 bbl/D of water are to
be produced, the minimum required pump capacity from eq. 15-1 becomes:
100 X 1.037 + 100 = 282 B/D

Qpmin = 0.85 X 0.85
If free gas is to be compressed by the pump, Fig. 15-29 can be used to obtain the
formation volume factor of the oil plus free gas. For example, if the gas/oil ratio in
the above example is 200 scf/B and the free gas is not being vented, Fig. 15-29 gives
a formation volume factor of 1.7. Again, using eq. 15-1, minimum pump displace-
ment is equal to:
+
100 x 1.7 100 = 374 B/D
Qp min =
0.85 X 0.85
Figure 15-30 has been obtained from Fig. 15-29 at the specific conditions shown.
This chart takes into account the water produced but is made for “formation
shrinkage factor”, which is the reciprocal of formation volume factor. If symbol, S ,
is used for this shrinkage factor, eq. 15-1 becomes:
Q . = Qs’Q6
(15-1.a)
pmn (0.85 X 0.85) X S
In the above example, Fig. 15-30 gives a value of S of approximately 0.71. The
minimum required pump capacity thus becomes:
200
Qp
= 389 bbl/D
= (0.85 X 0.85) X 0.71
When S is less than 0.5 or when [ ( Q , X B ) + Q 6 ]is more than [2 X (Q, + Q 6 ) ] ,it
indicates that the pump will be required to handle more gas than liquid. Under
these circumstances one should consider either (1)changing the tubing arrangement
to vent the gas or (2) allowing a greater pump intake pressure (flowing bottomhole
pressure).
Vogel’s reference IPR curve for solution-gas-drive reservoirs (Fig. 15-31) il-
lustrates that as the flowing bottomhole pressure is reduced, the incremental
increase in production rate is decreased. For example, a deep well with a static
reservoir pressure of 3000 psi (20.7 Pa) is to be produced at 1000 psi (6.89 Pa)
flowing bottomhole pressure. Figure 15-31 shows that at this pressure (pwf/p,
= $$$ = 0.3) one will be producing at 85-90% of the capacity of the well. To obtain
the 10-15% additional production rate may require considerable additional
666
1 .oo
VOGEL'S C U R V E FOR
INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP
FOR SOLUTION-GAS D R I V E RESERVOIR
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.2c
I
C
3 0 40 0.60 0 80 '0
PRODUCING RATE AS A FRACTION OF MAXIMUM PRODUCING RATE
q,/iq,iMAX.
Fig. 15-31. Relationship between the bottomhole pressure (as a fraction of reservoir pressure) and
producing rate (as a fraction of maximum producing rate) for solution-gas drive reservoir.
equipment costs, because as the flowing bottomhole pressure decreases the value of
B increases rapidly.
It was discussed above how to choose a pump: (1) to fit the tubing and (2) with
sufficient capacity (displacement). Now one must (3) choose a pump that will not
require excessive surface pressure. The following equation, which is derived in a
later section, enables one to determine the surface power fluid pressure, ps:
(15-2)
where G4= fluid gradient of produced fluid, A p / h ; h , = pump setting depth;

h4 = height of fluid above pump; P / E = pressure ratio of pump; and Fp = friction
in pump.
667
Solving this equation for pressure ratio gives:
P, - F p
P/E = (15-2.a)
G4(h1
Good practice is to select a pump that will not require over 3500 psi (24.1 Pa).
Pressures up to 4000 psi (72.6 Pa) are occasionally found in practice, but 4500 psi
(31.0 Pa) and above are rare. The quantity in the specification tables that relates to
surface operating pressure is found in the P / E column. This quantity is called the
“pressure ratio” or simply “ P over E”. It is the ratio of the effective pump area to
the effective engine area. Substituting ps = 3500 psi and Fp = 400 psi (2.76 Pa), an
average value, into eq. 15-2.a, one obtains:
3500 - 400 - 3100
P/E(max.) = (15-3)
G4(h1 - h4) G4hl - G 4 h 4
In SI units:
24.1 - 2.76 - 21.3
P/E (max.) = (15-3 .a)
G4(h1 - G4h1 - G4h4
The quantity ( h , - h,) is the net lift or working fluid level in the well. When the
pump is pumping from beneath a packer, there is no “working fluid level” in the
well. It is, therefore, helpful to expand the denominator to (G,h, - G4h,) as shown
in eq. 15-3. Flowing bottomhole pressure ( p4 = G4h4) can then be used instead of
working fluid level. Thus, the pump selection procedure can be summarized as
follows:
(1) Select a pump to fit the given tubing size.
(2) Select a pump to fit the given production rate (eq. 15-1).
(3) Select a pump to operate at less than 3500 psi (24.1 Pa) surface pressure (eq.
15-3).
Given :
Oil production = 100 bbl/D (15.9 m3/D)
Water production = 100 bbl/D (15.9 m3/D)
GOR = 500 scf/bbl (90 m3/m3)
h , = 8000 ft (2440 m)
h , = 2000 ft (610 m)
G4 = 0.4 psi/ft (0.00904 Pa/m)
Tubing size = 29 in. O D (7.3 cm)
Find:
(A) The suitable pumps in Fig. 15-11 if gas is vented.
(B) The suitable pumps in Fig. 15-11 if gas is not vented.
668
Solution:
(A) Assume B = 1.0
Minimum p u q p displacement, Qp min = 2oo = 277 bbl/D

0.85 X 0.85
3100
P/E(max.) = = 1.29
0.4( 8000-2000)
According to Fig. 15-11, from 2i-in. pumps the second, third, fifth, and sixth
meet the above criteria. The fifth pump has the lowest P / E and, consequently, the
lowest surface operating pressure. Thus, it would probably be the ideal choice.
(B) Flowing bottomhole pressure = 0.4 (2000) = 800 psi
From Fig. 15-30, S = 0.62; thus:
200
Minimum pump displacement, Qp min = = 446 bbl/D
0.85 X 0.85 X 0.62
3100
P / E (max.) = = 1.29
0.4(8000) - 800
According to Fig. 15-11, three 2i-in. pumps meet these criteria.

If the well is 12,000 f t (3600 m) deep and the pump is set on bottom, the pump
submergence, h , , will become 6000 ft (1830 m). This does not affect the pump
selection if gas is to be vented. But if gas is not vented, a new value for p , and S (or
B ) must be found:
p4 = 0.4(6000) = 2400 psi
From Fig. 15-30, S = 0.95 (approximately); thus:
200
Minimum pump displacement, Qp min = = 291 bbl/D
0.85 x 0.85 x 0.95
3100
P / E (max .) = = 1.29
0.4(12000) - 2400
In this case, one can choose the second, third, fifth, or sixth pumps from Fig.
15-11. The maximum surface operating pressure and the maximum P / E value are
not altered by setting the pump deeper. This example shows why it is almost always
desirable to set hydraulic pumps as deep as possible. For a gas vented system, if the
working fluid level is say 6000 ft, the surface power fluid flow rate and pressure will
be the same whether the pump is set at 6000 ft, 12,000 ft or any other depth
(neglecting friction of course). When the pump is required to compress gas, deeper
setting depths provide higher pump intake pressures, which in turn provide higher
values for S (lower values for B ) , and, therefore, improved pump loading condi-
tions.
To select a surface pump, it is necessary to know the power fluid flow rate and
669
TABLE 15-1
Pump selection procedure and the first approximation of surface power requirements
To find Use
Pump to fit in given tubing (size) Pump specification tables, Figs. 15-11 through 15-24
( Q 5 X B)+Q6 Q5+Q6
Pump with sufficient capacity or (eq. 15-1)
0.85 x0.85 0.85 X0.85 X S
Pump to operate below 3500 psi P / E (max.) = 3100/(G4h, - G 4 h 4 ) (eq. 15-3)
Surface power fluid pressure P , = G ~ ( ~ I - ~ ~ ) PFD /E+ (eq. 15-2)
( Q 5 B + Q 6 ) 91 - ( Q 5 +Q6)qi
Surface power fluid rate (eq. 15-4)
'I= 0.85x0.90xq4 0.85x0.90x9,xS
pressure required by the subsurface pump, or pumps, which have been selected.
Equation 15-2 will give a suitable first approximation for the surface pressure
required. (Equation 15-28 in a later section, with substitutions from Fig. 15-59, will
give the precise value of p,). The following equation (derived in a later section) will
give the value for power fluid flow rate, Q,:
(15-4)
where: q, = engine-end displacement factor; and q4 = pump-end displacement fac-

tor. Other quantities have been previously defined.
The downhole pump specification tables list the values for q, and q4 in bbl/D
per SPM (strokes per minute). In the denominator, the 0.85 is the pump-end
efficiency and 0.90 is the engine-end efficiency.
Table 15-1 summarizes pump selection procedure and the first approximation of
surface power requirements. If these calculations are 75% below surface and
subsurface pump maximum specification ratings, then it will usually be safe to omit
the precise calculations covered in a later section.
Given: Same data as in Example problem 15-2 (B)
Assume: Fp = 400 psi
Find:
(A) Surface power fluid rate.
(B) Surface power fluid pressure.
( C ) Surface power required.
Solution:
In the solution of problem 15-2 (B) it was found that only one pump, the
2i-in. x l&-in. - l&-in., is suitable. This pump has a P / E = 1.0, q4 = 7.03, and
q1 = 7.13. S was found to be equal to 0.5.
670
(A) From eq. 15-4:
200 x 7.13
= 530 bbl/D
= 0.85 X 0.90 X 7.03 X 0.5
(B) From eq. 15-2:
p s = 0.4(6000)(1 .O) - 400 = 2000 psi
( C ) A useful hydraulic equation is:
Q (bbl/D) Xp (psi) X 0.000017 = Horsepower

530 X 2000 X 0.000017 = 18 H P
Class problems
(1) Given: Production rate = 700 bbl/D (no water)

Working fluid level = 7000 ft from surface
G4 = 0.36 psi/ft
Tubing size = 2i-in. O D
GOR = 500 scf/D
Pump setting depth = 12,000 ft
Maximum surface pressure p s = 3500 psi
Pump must handle all the gas.
Find: List the pumps capable of producing t h s well.
(2) Giuen: Same data as in Example problem 15-2 except pump setting depth = 10,000
ft.
Find: List the pumps capable of producing this well.
TUBING ARRANGEMENTS
The most common type of tubing arrangement is the casing “free type” shown in
Fig. 15-32. In this arrangement all the gas must be handled by the pump. For this
reason some of the following well conditions usually exist:
(1) Low gas/liquid ratio.
(2) Near-zero pump intake pressure is not required because:
(a) Excessive production rate may bring in too much sand.
(b) Excessive production rate may increase water/oil ratio.
(c) Incremental increase in oil production is not economically justified by
increased operating costs.
(d) Maximum well capacity (1)is not desired, (2) is not allowed, or (3) is beyond
equipment cap ability.
671
The “parallel free” type system is shown in Fig. 15-33. This arrangement allows
the gas to be vented to the surface through the casing annulus. The size of tubing
string for returning the production and power fluid is usually smaller than the size
of power fluid tubing string because of casing size limitations. If the fluid flow rates
involved present an undue fluid friction problem, an arrangement such as the one
shown in Fig. 15-34 (reverse-circulation system) can be used. In t h s system, the
power fluid goes down the small string and production plus power fluid returns up
the large string. T h s requires a hold-down to keep the pump on seat while pumping
and requires that a releasing tool be dropped before circulating the pump out.
Another alternative, which is a “casing free” type system with gas vent, is shown in
Fig. 15-35. In this arrangement the small string is used to vent the gas to the surface.
Figures 15-36 and 15-37 can be used for calculating the amount of gas that can be
vented in t h s type of system.
Up to this point, the writer covered only the “open power fluid” (OPF) systems.
In Fig. 15-38, the “parallel free closed power fluid” (CPF) arrangement is shown. In
this system the power fluid is not commingled with the production-it is returned
to the surface through a third tubing string. This system and its slight variation as
shown in Fig. 15-39, is used extensively in California, U.S.A., for the following
reasons:
(1) Gas must be vented because near-zero pump intake pressures are required.
(2) Closed power fluid systems are used because:
(a) Fine sand is produced, which is difficult to remove by settling tanks.
(High pump repair costs result from solids in the power fluid.)
(b) Because many oil fields in California are in ecologically sensitive areas, water
is preferred as the power fluid. With hydraulic piston pumps (as opposed to
hydraulic jet pumps), usually a lubricant must be added to power water. The CPF
system conserves the lubricant, whereas in the OPF system the lubricant must be
continuously replenished. In many cases, fresh water is used as the power fluid.
Figure 15-40 shows a “casing free” CPF system, in which the produced fluid is
conducted to the surface through the casing annulus and power fluid is returned
through the side string of tubing. In this type of system, it is also possible to return
power fluid through the casing annulus and produce through the side string. This
latter arrangement would allow corrosion inhibitor in the power fluid to protect the
inside walls of casing.
Many combinations of the above arrangements are possible in dual-completed
wells. Figure 15-41 shows an arrangement where the two pumps are run in tandem
in one tubing string to produce a dual-zone well, whereas in Fig. 15-42 two pumps
are run in tandem to produce twice the capacity from a single-zone well. This is a
“casing free” OPF type system; however, all of the previously discussed arrange-
ments can be made to accommodate single-zone tandem pumps.
Figure 15-43 shows how a conventional subsurface safety valve can be used with
hydraulic pumps. This valve is the kind typically installed below the mud level in
offshore flowing wells. In this case, the valve is installed just above the packer. The
actuating line is connected to the power fluid tubing just above the pump (10-20 ft).
8-n
CASING F R E E PARALLEL F R E E
r
r
rn
rn
rn
n
I13
%D
V
I-
Fig. 15-32.Casing free type system.
Fig. 15-33.Parallel free type system.

PWR. FLD.
PWR. FLD.
PROD. +
Fig. 15-34. Parallel reverse-circulation type system.
Fig. 15-35,Casing free type system with gas vent,

674
PRESSURE-DROP IN P.S.I.
Pressure drop through 1 ” gas v e n t line I C O u r t e w A R M C O - N a t i o n a l Production SvrternP)
Fig. 15-36. Determination of pressure drop through 1-in. gas vent lines. (Courtesy of ARMCO-National
Production Systems.) Gas gravity = 0.60; average temperature = 150°F.
615
PRESSURE-DROP IN P.S I
Pressure drop through 1-114" gas vent lines ICourtesy A R M C O - N a t i o n a l Production S y i f e m d
Fig. 15-37. Determination of pressure drop through 1:-in. gas vent lines. (Courtesy of ARMCO-National
Production Systems.) Gas gravity = 0.60; average temperature = 150'F.
676
CPF CPF
CPF
'y 'c -=
K
i
1
;i
i
\ I
Pump unseated
Pump Unseated - by power Gas
By Produced Fluid return fluid Pumped
PARALLEL FREE PARALLEL FREE CASING F R E E
Fig. 15-38. Parallel free closed power fluid (CPF) system. Pump is unseated by produced fluid.
Fig. 15-39. Parallel free closed power fluid (CPF) system. Pump is unseated by power return fluid.
Fig. 15-40. Casing free CPF system.

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m y >
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?s EzZ
4 4 PWR. FLD. UPP. PUMP
2 3 =0
v y ? PROD. UPPER PUMP
Ei B N PROD. LOWER PUMP +
2 2 0 PWR. FLD. BOTH PUMPS
5' 5' $
Ei Ei
%
!
3
e3 - I
5' $
0 0
R m
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PWR. FLD.-
:: fZ I Ez BOTH PUMPS
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678
S A F E T Y VALVE-,
requires high pressure
to open and to keep
open. Spring closes
valve when pressures
are balanced.
Fig. 15-43. Use of conventional subsurface safety valve with hydraulic pumps
When the pump is operating, the actuating pressure is the surface operating pressure
(1000-3500 psi). When the surface pump is shut down for any reason, the hydro-
static pressure in the tubing and casing equalize, and the valve closes, shutting-in the
tubing and casing at the packer. Some valves, sensitive to the pressure beneath
619
B
L
W Z
OPF OPF $9
Gas
Pumped
!-Liquid
F I X E D INSERT FIXED CASING FIXED CASING
Fig. 15-44. Fixed insert type system.
Fig. 15-45. Fixed casing type system.
Fig. 15-46. Fixed casing type system with separate gas vent tubing string.
680
them, will remain open if the hydrostatic pressure in the actuating line and tubing is
above the pressure below them (bottomhole pressure). This does not present any
problem because the only possibility of the well flowing is when the bottomhole
pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure, in which case these valves will close. If
the safety valve is for 2i-in. tubing and the pump and tubing above it is 2; in. in
diameter, the safety valve can be the wireline retrievable type.
Figures 15-44, 15-45, and 15-46 show “fixed” type pumps. These arrangements
require a tubing string to be screwed into the top of the pump and hence are not
“free pumps”. Figure 15-44 shows the so called “fixed insert”, i.e., the arrangement
used with the first hydraulic pump ever installed (Kobe pump, Inglewood, Cali-
fornia, 1932; now in the Smithsonian Institute). This arrangement is occasionally
used for one or both zones of a dual well. Figure 15-45 shows a “fixed casing” type
system, which is used where the required pump capacity cannot be obtained with a
pump that will fit inside the existing tubing. In Fig. 15-46, a “fixed casing” type
system with separate gas vent tubing string is demonstrated.
WELLHEADS
Wellheads for hydraulic pumps can be simple and compact with a low profile.
They can be closely spaced and can be below ground level. Wellheads are topped by
a 4-way valve that provides the following functions:
(1) Directs power fluid down the power tubing and production to the flowline
for the “pump-in and operate” position of the valve.
(2) Directs power fluid down the proper tubing (or casing) and returns fluid to
the flowline for the “pump-out’’ position of the valve.
(3) Provides a safety device to prevent high pressure from accidentally being
applied to the casing.
(4) Shuts surface line and provides a means to bleed pressure from the tubing for
the “shut-off and bleed” position of the valve.
(5) Provides a means to catch, hold, and release the pump.
COXTROL MANIFOLDS
A central control manifold is usually used to regulate the flow of power fluid to
the individual wells of a multiple-well installation. These manifolds are usually
located at a central location near the surface pumps, but can be located at satellite
locations. In some cases, the control valves are attached to each wellhead.
Control manifolds are available from the hydraulic pump manufacturers and
consist of modular header sections that can be readily added to or subtracted from
the manifold. Each header section has a “constant flow” control valve that auto-
matically compensates for pressure variations to keep the rate of flow of power fluid
to each well constant at the initial manual setting. In addition, the manifold
681
contains high-pressure meters, gauges, and a back pressure regulator to keep a

constant pressure on the surface pumps.
SURFACE PUMPS
The surface pumps commonly used are designed specifically for power fluid
service and are supplied by the downhole hydraulic pump manufacturers. For
high-pressure clean oil service, these pumps usually use metal-to-metal plungers and
liners and ball-type valve components which require little or no maintenance. For
water service, plungers and liners with packing are usually used. Most pumps are
skid mounted with electric motors or gas engines and include relief valves, back
pressure regulators, gauges, safety switches and pulsation dampeners. Sometimes
suction charging pumps are used.
Suction lines are the most critical components of a surface pump installation.
These lines should be one size larger than the pump inlet connection. A flow
velocity of one foot per second is a good rule of thumb, and all valves should be full
opening. Bypass and relief lines from the high-pressure side of the pump should not
tie into the suction line, because t h s can cause pulsation (hammer) in the fluid end
of the pump due to gas flashmg out of solution. A pulsation stabilizer installed on
the suction side of the pump as close to the cylinders as possible is good insurance.
Many pump discharge pulses and vibrations are cured by a pulsation stabilizer on
the suction side of the pump. Charging or booster pumps are also an aid to proper
loading of surface pumps.
Elbows and tees should be kept to a minimum on the discharge side of the pump
also. These offer a reflecting surface for pressure pulse waves and are the source of
many vibrations. Sometimes just changing the geometry of discharge lines will
eliminate troublesome vibrations. This happens when the geometry of the lines
create a conduit tuned to a harmonic of the pulse wave length. Although most
system vibrations are hydraulic in nature, sometimes they are caused by misalign-
ment of the prime mover and pump or by loose foundation bolts.
POWER FLUID CLEANING SYSTEM
Power fluid quality, especially solids content, is an important factor contributing

to pump life and repair costs. Power fluid leakage through a pump’s fits and
clearances is a function of wear caused by abrasive solids and of the viscosity of the
power fluid. The permissible solids content varies somewhat depending upon the
definition of “acceptable pump life” and also on the viscosity; however, 10-15 ppm
is usually acceptable for 30-40” API gravity oils. For heavier oils, more wear and,
consequently, more solids may be tolerated, whereas for water, less wear and less
solids are usually the rule. The maximum particle size should not exceed 15 pm,
whereas the maximum salt content of oil should not exceed 12 lb/1000 bbl.
682
There are two basic types of power fluid systems:

(1) The closed power fluid (CPF) system, where the surface and subsurface
power fluid stays in a closed circuit and does not mix with the produced fluid.
(2) The open power fluid (OPF) system, where the power fluid mixes with the
production downhole and returns to the surface as commingled power fluid and
production.
The choice of oil or water for power fluid can be based on a number of factors.
Following is a list of most of the factors involved in this choice:
(1) Water is preferred for safety and environmental reasons.
( 2 ) For CPF installations, the addition of chemicals to power water for lubrica-
tion and corrosion control is not a large cost factor. (Fresh water is frequently used
in CPF installations.)
(3) For OPF installations, the addition of chemicals to power water can be a
significant cost factor because the power water is commingled with the produced
fluids. This requires continuous injection of chemicals which will add to the
operating costs.
(4) Treating power oil is seldom a large cost factor mainly because it seldom
needs chemical additives for lubricity. One exception is when high-gravity oils are
used at very h g h bottomhole temperatures. When these two factors produce a
viscosity below 1.0 centistoke (see Fig. 15-62) a lubricant may be necessary for long
pump life.
( 5 ) Maintenance on surface pumps is less when using oil, because metal-to-metal
plungers and liners are usually used instead of packing. Also valves last longer and
are usually ball-and-seat type rather than disc or poppet type, which are usually
used for water. Additionally, the low bulk modulus of water causes much larger
pressure pulses than oil, and these pulses are detrimental to pipe connections as well
as contributing to fatigue failures of pump components.
(6) Subsurface pumps are sensitive to viscosity and lubricating qualities of the
power fluid. Because water has practically no lubricating qualities at bottomhole
temperatures, it can, if not adequately treated, contribute to short pump life.
Leakage of power fluid past the various sliding fits in the pump is a function of the
viscosity and is greater with water than with most crude oils.
(7) Testing a well for oil production is subject to an added source of error when
oil is used for power fluid. (This statement is not true when using the “wellsite
power plant”.) In an OPF system, the power oil must be metered in and subtracted
from the total returned oil, and small errors in metering can be significant when the
ratio of power oil to produced oil is large, e.g., when the well is producing a large
percentage of water. For instance, if the ratio of power oil to produced oil is 10 : 1,
an error of 2% in the power oil meter translates into a 20% error in measuring the
produced oil.
(8) Usually the surface pressure required will be less when using power water as
compared to using power oil.
(9) Although hydraulic pumps handle viscous crudes (7-20”API) very well, it is
advantageous to use a higher gravity oil for power fluid and an OPF system. This
683
-
S U R F A C E PUMP
WELLS
Fig. 15-47. Surface facilities of CPF system.
commingles the two crudes at the discharge of the pump, thus diluting the heavy oil
for ease in transporting it at the surface.
CPF SYSTEM
In the CPF system, an extra downhole conduit must be provided for returning
the spent power fluid to the surface. This causes the system to be more expensive
than the OPF system and consequently its use is not widespread. The bold lines on
Fig. 15-47 show the surface facilities for a CPF system. Because the power fluid
tank is relatively small, this system is popular for urban locations and offshore
platforms where surface space is at a premium. For example, it is quite popular in
California, U.S.A.,due to the many townsite and offshore well locations. Frequently
CPF systems use water for the power fluid because it is less hazardous and presents
fewer ecological problems than high-pressure oil. In the case of water, however,
corrosion inhibitors and lubricants must be added, and all oxygen must be removed
-considerations that add to the operating costs. Figure 15-47 shows two wells on
this system, but there is no reason that 30 or even 100 wells cannot be placed on a
system of this type.
Power jluid tank (CPF)
In most downhole pumps, the pump-end is lubricated with the power fluid and
consequently part (typically 2-10%) of the power fluid is purposely “leaked” to the
684
production. This loss of power fluid must be replaced with clean fluid. The purpose
of the power fluid tank in Fig. 15-47 is to remove abrasive particles from the
make-up fluid and part of the recirculated fluid.
One misconception concerning the CPF system is that the power fluid will
remain clean because it has no source of contamination. In actual practice, however,
this is not true due to the following reasons:
(1) The power fluid tank does not completely remove all of the solid particles
from the make-up fluid-cleanliness is relative, not absolute.
( 2 ) The power fluid is not completely non-corrosive. Again, this factor is relative,
not absolute. The products of corrosion are generally abrasive solids.
(3) When fluid containing solids, even a very small percentage of solids, is leaked
through a long closely-fitted clearance space as in a downhole pump, the solids tend
to be held back. This means that the fluid emerging from the fit is cleaner than the
fluid trying to enter the fit. The tendency, then, is for the power fluid circuit to lose
clean fluid and to retain the solid particles.
Over a period of time, the above three factors allow the power fluid in the closed
circuit to become “dirtier” than the fluid emerging from or the fluid entering the
closed circuit, unless a part (10% is reasonable) of the recirculated power fluid is
continuously cleaned, as in Fig. 15-47 by the power fluid settling tank. This
“continuous cleaning of part of the recirculated power fluid” is an important feature
in the design of the CPF system.
When water is used for the power fluid, filters may be used instead of settling
tanks for the cleaning process. These filters should remove particles down to 10 pm.
When oil is used, experience has shown that the settling tank should be large enough
to keep the upward velocity of the oil below 1 ft/hr for oils below 30”API gravity
and below 2 ft/hr for oils above 30”API gravity.
OPF SYSTEM
In the OPF system, only two downhole paths are needed, one for conducting
power fluid to the engine and one for conducting spent power fluid plus production
to the surface. These conduits can be two strings of tubing or one tubing string and
the tubing-casing annulus. Simplicity and economy are the important features of
the OPF system. When water is used for power fluid in the OPF system, the
chemicals added (for lubrication, corrosion inhibition, and oxygen scavenging) are
generally lost when mixed with the production and, consequently, must be added
continuously. The bold lines on Fig. 15-48 show the surface facilities for an OPF
system with two wells. Central plants of this type can be used for any number of
wells. Usually, the triplex pump and control manifold are located at the central tank
battery, whereas control manifolds can be located at satellite locations. Even triplex
pumps can be located at satellite locations if a small pump is used at the battery to
get the fluid to the suction of the triplex pump. Satellite manifolds and satellite
pumps reduce the length of high-pressure surface power fluid lines.
Fig. 15-48. Surface facilities of OPF system.
Power fluid tank (OPF)

The OPF power fluid tank shown in Fig. 15-49 has been proven over the years to
represent an excellent design. This design and one with a slight modification are
almost universally used.
Oil generally enters the gas boot in surges and contains gas not removed in the
treater, i.e., gas that was in solution at the 30-psi treater pressure. The purpose of
the gas boot is to remove the last remnants of gas which would otherwise keep the
tank stirred up. The top section of the boot should be 36 in. in diameter to be
effective; however, even with this diameter, surges frequently occur that cause the
oil to be carried over the top through the gas line. To prevent this oil carry-over
from going into the top of the tank, and thereby bypassing the settling process, a
loop with riser is used to tie the boot gas line to the tank gas line.
Dead oil (gas-free) then enters the bottom of the tank which should have a level
spreader. The oil entering here is power oil plus production. At the vertical
midpoint, production is drawn off through the outside riser that keeps the tank full.
From the midpoint up, the power oil settling process takes place. The settling out
light solids are carried with the production to stock, whereas the heavier particles
which settle to the bottom must be removed periodically.
The one modification sometimes used is to allow the production to be taken off
the boot or between the boot and the tank, but still with a riser to keep the tank full.
This modification allows full use of the tank for power oil only, but imbalances in
the column weight of the riser and of the tank can occasionally cause seemingly
strange fluid level variations in the tank. With this modification, the solids should
GAS BOOT
3 BOLTED SECTIONS 8 x 2 0 SWAGED TO TOP 8' x 4 MINIMUM DIAMETER CONNECTED TO T A N K 12
36' SFCTION TOP SECTION SHOULD HAVE SIDE FROM BOTTOM RISES TO 18 IBOTTOM OF
DPFNlNG IY M I N D I A I LOCATED I N CENTER. CONNECTION) FROM TOP AND THEN TO STOCK AS
CLOSED EXCEPT
.
,
'// O I L FROM TREATING PLANT
FROM TRIPLEX RELIEF
IPRODUCTION LINE TO TANK WITHDRAWAL LINE

r MINIMUM DIAMETER 1' ABOVE BOTTOM OF 3" DIAMETER MOUNTED 3" OFF BOTTOM INSIDE
TANK R I M V A L V E MUST BE F U L L OPENING END OF TANK, LINE SHOULD GO TO CENTER OF TANK AND
HAVE DROP PIPE DOWN I N SUMP TO 6 OFF
BOTTOM OUTSIDE LINE SHOULD BE CONNECTED
BOTH WITH STOCK TANK IAS SHOWN UNLESS
POWER
STOCK T A N K IS HIGHER THAN 1 6 ) A N D PIT I F F L A T OIL TANK
BOTTOM TANK I S USED. INSIDE LINE SHOULD
HAVE B U L L HEADED TEE MOUNTED HORIZONTALLY
TRIPLEX SUPPLY LINES I N CENTER OF TANK
T MINIMUM DIAMETER TWO LINES ARE FLANGED
X TO 7 FROM TOP OF TANK, R U N 1 ' APART, JOINED SPREADER
ABOUT 5' FROM BOTTOM OF R I M GATE VALVES ARE
F U L L OPENING FLANGES SHOULD BE AS FAR ROUND WITH SERRATED OR PERFORATED SKIRT
FROM SlOCK DRAW OFF AS POSSIBLE NOT LESS 8 MINIMUM DIAMETER MOUNTED LEVEL 2' ABOVE
T H A N 90 DEGREES AROUND TANK BOTTOM R I M OF TANK
Fig. 15-49. Power fluid settling tank in OPF system.

687
Fig. 15-50.Wellsite power plant unit. (Courtesy of Kobe, Inc., subsidiary of Baker International Corp.)
be drained from the bottom more frequently. The boot can be placed inside the
tank; however, experience has shown cases of pitting and corrosion at the fluid
level. The outside location, therefore, is preferred.
In order to assure adequate particle settling, the power oil tank should be sized to
allow the upward velocity in the top half to be less than 2 ft/hr. This velocity is
equivalent to 1500 bbl/D in a 750-bbl, 24-ft high tank. The velocity should be lower
for oils heavier than 30"API gravity and for operations in extremely cold climates.
Treating the oil for sale to the pipeline must be done ahead of the power oil tank.
INDIVIDUAL WELLSITE POWER PLANT
The use of individual wellsite power plants is becoming more and more popular,
and these units are competitive with other types of artificial lift. Typical wellsite
units are shown in Figs. 15-50 and 15-51.
A wellsite power plant is a package of components, installed at or near a wellsite,
that accomplishes the functions normally performed at a central plant. The basic
components consist of a liquid-gas separator, centrifugal separators for removing
solids from the power fluid (oil or water), and a surface pump. These units are
portable, require a minimum of installation labor, and eliminate the need for
advance long-range planning of a central power plant. Although they are always
used with an OPF tubing arrangement, they have one feature similar to a CPF
688
Fig. 15-51. Wellsite power plant unit. (Courtesy of Guiberson Division, Dresser Industries, Inc.)
system: the net production from the well goes into the flowline while the power
fluid is recirculated at the wellsite. This feature simplifies well testing and does not
increase the load on the treating system at the tank battery. Wellsite power plant is
simple, flexible, compact, and portable, features that are of great interest to the
design engineer, the production foreman, and the lease operator.
Generally, there is a choice of having either a central system or an individual
wellsite system. Some choices are obvious, as in the case of a central system for an
offshore platform or any cluster of wells (such as in a downtown area or islands
constructed for that purpose). For those wells that are isolated or widely spaced, the
individual wellsite system will probably be preferred.
Flow schematics in Figs. 15-52, 15-53, and 15-54 show models of Kobe (Solo
Unit), Oilmaster (Unidraulic), and Guiberson (Econodraulic) wellsite power plants.
The important functions these units must perform are:
(1) Provide gas-free fluid to the surface pump.
(2) Provide means to choose oil or water for the power fluid.
(3) Remove the solids from the power fluid.
(4) Provide surge and reserve capacity for circulating a subsurface pump to the
surface after a pump failure. (Vessel sizes range from 40 in. X 10 ft to 5 ft X 20 ft.)
If a well produces 600 bbl/D of water, 200 bbl/D of oil, and uses 2000 bbl/D of
power water, these flow rates are shown on the simplified schematics of Figs. 15-55,
15-56, and 15-57.
689
RELIEF VALVE
Q
FROM
WELL
0
'
I \ RELIEF VALVE
I
TO
WELL
FLOW LINE-
-P O -METER
a - P D METER
CLOSED CLOSED
t OPEN FOR RESERVE POWER O I L SUPPLY

OTHER V A L V E S SHOWN
I A I FLOAT.OPERATED DUMP V A L V E
(61 VESSEL BACK-PRESSURE V A L V E
ICI M E T E R BY-PASS V A L V E
Fig. 15-52. Kobe Solo wellsite power plant unit.
ACCUMULATOR
RESERVOIR
ANK
ERY
Fig. 15-53, Oilmaster Unidraulic wellsite power plant unit.

690
CHECK
VALVE
L 29
-. POWER
FLUID
PUMP
DAMPENER CHECK
MOTOR - 1- ::NTROL PANEL
Fig. 15-54. Guiberson Econodraulic wellsite power plant unit.
r
I
'
I \I I
2000
Fig. 15-55. Flow rates (flow diagram) in a Kobe Solo unit, assuming water production of 600 bbl/D, oil
production of 200 bbl/D, and use of 2000 bbl/D of power water.
691
I I I
-1 I I -9
2000
- - 2000
Fig. 15-56. Flow diagram in an Oilmaster Unidraulic unit, assuming water production of 600 bbl/D, oil
production of 200 bbl/D, and utilization of 2000 bbl/D of power water.
Removing solids from the power fluid is usually accomplished by cyclone

centrifugal separators (Fig. 15-58). These cyclones require 30-60 psi pressure drop
from inlet (feed) to top outlet (overflow). The ratio of overflow to underflow out of
the apex of the cone is controlled by the relationslup of overflow pressure to
underflow pressure. Usually, the overflow must be 5-10 psi greater than the
underflow pressure to insure a positive rather than a negative underflow rate. The
cyclone internals, feed nozzle, vortex finder, and apex can be sized to accommodate
various rates of flow.
I \ 2200
1
0
0
N
0
800
L - 2000
-- 600
-- 2000
wELb
Fig. 15-57. Flow diagram in the Guiberson Econodraulic unit, assuming water production of 600 bbl/D,
oil production of 200 bbl/D, and utilization of 2000 bbl/D of power water.
692
OVERFLOW
(CLEAN LIQUID)
VORTEX FINDER -L
FEED NOZZLE (2)

LIQUID ROTATION DEVELOPS
H I G H C E N T R I F U G A L FORCES
THROUGHOUT CYCLONE
(1) /
FEED INLET
PRESSURIZED L lQ U l D
ENTERS T A N G E N T I A L L Y
CONE A N G L E
(4)
LIQUID MOVES INWARD SUSPENDED SOLIDS
A N D UPWARD AS S P I R A L L I N G DRIVEN TOWARD W A L L
VORTEX A N D DOWNWARD I N
ACCELERATING SPIRAL
UNDERFLOW
(SOLIDS A N D LIQUID)
Fig. 15-58. Cyclone centrifugal separator
In Fig. 15-55, the underflow rate is controlled by valve number ( I ) . Valve

number ( 2 ) , a pump internal relief valve, is used to adjust the pressure drop across
the cyclones to 40-50 psi, which produces optimum rates through the cyclones. This
4
unit is designed to continually recycle approximately of the cleaned power fluid
back through the cyclones for additional solids removal.
In Figs. 15-56 and 15-57 the underflow is controlled by valve number ( I ) .
Cyclone internals are changed to obtain pressure drop for wells with different flow
rates.
Disposing of the underflow (solids) can be a problem on low-volume wells. In the
Kobe Solo Unit system, if the underflow is set at a rate that is constantly, or even
occasionally, greater than the production rate, the excess will go back to the vessel
and has to be separated by the cyclones a second time. In the Oilmaster Unidraulic
system, these conditions can cause the underflow to be shut-off and thereby cause
the cyclone to be ineffective. In the Guiberson Econodraulic system, these condi-
tions can cause the level in the vessel to drop.
693
POWER FLUID RATE CALCULATIONS
The pump specification tables list the engine- and pump-end displacement
factors, q1 and q4, in bbl/D per SPM. At 100% efficiency, the power fluid rate
would be ( q1 X S P M ) . Usual practice is to assume 90% engine-end efficiency so that
power fluid rate'Q, is equal to:
q1 x S P M
(15-5)
= 0.90
The pump-end displacement is ( q4 X S P M ) . As discussed in a previous section, one
must take into account the formation volume factor, B, and usually assume 85%
pump-end efficiency. Pump-end displacement, therefore, becomes:
q4 x SPM =
QsB + Qi (15-6)
0.85
(In eq. 15-1, an additional factor, 0.85, was used in order to choose a pump that
would operate at less than 85% of its maximum rated speed.)
By combining eqs. 15-3 and 15-6, one obtains eq. 15-4:
POWER FLUID PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
The various pressures, friction losses, and fluid densities involved in CPF and
OPF systems are shown in Fig. 15-59. Figure 15-60 illustrates those cross-section
areas of the Kobe Type A pump which are involved with the various pressures.
(Other pumps have different configurations.) On adding the upstroke forces on this
pump and assigning the plus sign to upward-acting forces, one obtains:
-PIA, -P2 - 'Pi -AR) -P3 ( - A R ) 'P4 ( -AR) + p l A R =
(P1 - P 2 ) ( A E - A R ) - ( P 3 - P 4 ) ( A P - A R ) =
Pump friction, Fp,is not shown in Fig. 15-60, because it does not operate against
an area. It is a function of pump speed and fluid passageways in the pump.
Inasmuch as it opposes motion it will have a negative sign and the above equation
becomes:
PRESSURES & FRICTION LOSSES AFFECTING HYDRAULIC PUMPS
694
m
W
P
'L-
-
0
ln
c
8
u
8
I
c
m
2
P, = Surface Operating Pressure, PSI
a:
c
PPR Surface Power Return Back Pressure. psi
E
=
m
Y
v)
m
3
"
PFL = Surface Flow Line Back Pressure, psi
8
C
F1, Fp, F g = Fluid Friction in Tubing, psi
Fp = Friction in Pump, psi
GI, G2, G3. G4 ~ Fluid Gradient

rn
hl = Pump Setting Depth, ft. E
=-
ln
P
5
u
P
E
P
C
5
h4 = Pump Submergence, ft. L
P
P
f '1
;1
r
i ,-
1
'1
5-
U
a"
c
c
I
tI
c?
U
P2 = P3
5
'7,
+
+
U
I,
m
P3 h l G 3 + F3 PFL
1
m
U
1
= +
Closed Power Fluid System P4 = h4G4 P4 = h4G4 Open Power Fluid System
Fig. 15-59. Pressures and friction losses affecting hydraulic pumps.

695
PRESSURES ACTING ON A KOBE TYPE A PUMP
Net
Pressure Pressure
Cross-section
Upstroke Downstroke
Area
AR
AE - AR
AR
Fig. 15-60,Pressures acting on a Kobe type A pump.

696
The quantity [ ( A , - A R ) / ( A , - A R ) ] is the ratio of net pump area to net engine

area and, for this pump, is the same for the downstroke and the upstroke. This
quantity is sometimes referred to as the pressure ratio, but more commonly it is
called the P over E ratio. The numerical values for P / E ratio are listed in the
specification tables. Inasmuch as the algebraic equation relating pump areas to P / E
ratio is different for different pumps, one must substitute P / E in the above
equation to arrive at the following general CPF equation for all hydraulic pumps:
(15-7)
Some pumps have an additional term in their CPF equation that is a function of
( p z - p 3 ) , but this term is always ignored because it is very small. For Fig. 15-13,
the term is:
Inasmuch as the value of ( p 2 - p 3 ) is usually less than 500 psi, this term is usually
less than 35 psi. (For OPF system p 2 = p 3 , so this term drops out.)
As shown in Fig. 15-59:
PI =hF1- Fl + Ps
P2 = hlG, + F2 + Ppr
P3 = hlG4 + ‘3 +Pwh
P4 = h4G4
Substituting these relationships into eq. 15-7 and assuming fluid friction, F,, F2,
and F3, and wellhead back pressure, ppr and pwh to be zero, eq. 15-7 becomes eq.
15-2:
p , - ( hlG4 - h 4 G 4 )P / E - Fp = 0
T h s is the equation which was used in a previous section to get a first approxima-
tion of surface pressure and to arrive at a maximum value for P/E (eq. 15-3).
Inasmuch as in the OPF system p 2 = p 3 , the general OPF equation for all
hydraulic pumps becomes:
(PI - P 3 ) - (P3 -P4)P/E- Fp=0 (15-8)
where (as shown in Fig. 15-59):
PI = hlG1 - 4 + Ps
P3 = h l G 3 + F3 +Pwh
P4 = h4G4
691
PRESSURE INCREASE DUE TO MECHANICAL AND
HYDRAULIC FRICTION I N PUMP AND BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY
vs
PERCENT OF RATED SPEED
200c
1500
1000
9oc
800
700
600
500
400
300
EXAMPLE
200
PUMP - Flg 15 - 13
SPEED - 50%
VISCOSITY - 1 0 C S
SP GR. - 0 8
A P = 270 x 8 = 216 PSI
100
PERCENT OF R A T E D SPEED
FIG 13- 1 7 , 1 5 - 1 9
FIG 1 5 - 1 6 t l 5 - 2 4
FIG 1 5 - 1 5 , 1 5 - 2 3
FIG is- 12,15-22
FIG 15- 1 7 15-18,15-21
Fig. 15-61. Relationship between the percent of rated speed and pressure increase due to mechanical and
hydraulic friction in pump and bottomhole assembly.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 B3 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temperature - degrees Fahrenheit
Gtavity Gravity
-
API
9.5
Field
Boscan, Venezuela
Line
8
’API
306
Field
Ventura, Calif.
10.7 Boscan, Venezuela 9 31 1 Kettleman Hills, Calif.
14.0 Maricopa, Calif. 10 364 Oklahoma City, Okla.
15.0 Wilrnington, Calif. 11 346 Kettlernan Hills, Calif.
19.8 Sansinena, Calif. 12 440 Denton, New Mexico
25.6 Scholern Alechern, Okla. 13 50 7 Kettlernan Hills, Calif.
7
- 26.8 Seal Beach, Calif.
Fig. 15-62. Relationship between viscosity of crude oils and temperature

699
0 100 200
Temperature -degrees Fahrenheit
Fig. 15-63, Relationship between viscosity of water and temperature at 0 psi
The unknowns in eq. 15-8 are pump friction, Fp;fluid friction, Fl and F,; and
the fluid gradient in the return column, G,. Pump friction, Fp, is obtained from Fig.
15-61 after obtaining SPM from eq. 15-6. The fluid gradient in the return column is
calculated after obtaining the ratio of power fluid flow rate, Q,, and produced fluid
+
flow rate, (Q, Q 6 ) ,in this column. Thus, it is necessary first to calculate Q,, by
using eq. 15-5 or 15-4. Fluid friction in the tubing is then found by use of Figs.
15-65 through 15-98.
The value of p 3 may be obtained from multiphase flow corrections; however, in
this chapter the equation p , = h,G3 + F3 +pwh is used. This equation does not
account for gas in the return column, but it offers a conservative procedure that will
provide a safe design.
Pump friction is obtained from Fig. 15-61, which represents the mechanical and
hydr'aulic friction in the pump. From the curves in Figs. 15-62 and 15-63, the power
fluid viscosity at the bottomhole temperature can be obtained to use with the pump
friction chart. Conversions from API gravity to specific gravity can be made from
Fig. 15-64. The values obtained from Fig. 15-61 show maximum values based on the
largest pump piston operating at 100% pump-end efficiency. When the fluid flow
rate through the pump-end is reduced by smaller pistons, or by gas, the total friction
will be somewhat lower than that predicted by the chart. This discrepancy is due to
700
Specific G r a v i t i e s a n d U n i t Pressure of Oil Columns
Note-First line opposlte each API gravity IS sp gr at 60'F. Second line is column pressure in psi/ft
~~~ -
Degrees
A P I 0 I .2 .3 4 .5 6 7 .8 .9
10000 9993 9986 9979 9972 9965 9958 9951 9944 ,9937
10 4331 43'8 4325 4322 4319 4316 4313 4310 4307 4304
9930 9923 9916 9909 9902 9895 9888 9881 9674 ,9888
11 4301 4295 4295 4212 4289 4286 4282 4279 4276 ,4274
9861 9854 9847 9840 9833 9826 9820 9813 9808 ,9799
12
4271 4268 4265 4262 4259 4256 4253 4250 4247 4244
9792 9786 9779 9772 9765 9759 9752 9745 9738 ,9732
13 "238 $235 4232 4229 4226 4224 4221 4218
424' 4215
9725 9718 9712 9705 9696 9692 9685 9679 9672 ,9685
14 $212 4209 4.06 4203 4200 4198 4195 4192 4189 4186
9659 9652 9646 9639 9632 9626 9619 9613 9606 ,9600
15
~183 41.80 4178 4175 4172 4169 4166 4163 4160 4158
9593 9587 9580 9574 9567 9561 9554 9548 9541 9535
16 4155 4152 4139 *'46 4143 4141 4138 4135 4132 4130
,9529 9522 9516 9509 9503 9497 9490 9484 9478 9471
17 4127 4124 4118 4113 4110
6121 4116 4108 4105 4102
,9465 ,9459 9452 9446 9440 9433 9427 9421 9415 9408
18 4099 4097 4094 4091 4088 4085 4083 4080 4078 4075
,9402 ,9398 9390 9383 9377 9371 9365 9358 9352 9346
19 4072 4069 C067 4361 4061 4059 4056 4053 4050 4048
20 9340 ,9334 9328 9321 9315 9309 9303 9297 9291 9285
4045 4043 GO40 4037 4034 4032 4029 4027 4024 4021
-. ~...~. ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ __
9279 ,9273 9267 9260 9254 9248 9242 9236 9230 9224
21 4015 4016 4014 501 I 4038 4005 4003 4000 3998 3995
9216 9212 9206 9200 9194 9188 9182 9176 9170 9165
22 3932 3933 3987 3985 3982 3979 3977 3974 3972 3969
9159 9153 9147 9141 9135 9129 9123 9117 9111 9108
23
3967 396.: ??6? 3959 3956 3954 3951 3949 3946 3944
,9100 ,9094 9088 9082 9076 9071 9065 9059 9053 9047
24 394; 3933 3936 3333 3931 3929 3926 3923 3921 3918
25 ,9042 9036 ,9030 9024 9016 9013 9007 9001 8996 8990
39:6 3913 33! I 3x8 3906 3934 3901 3898 3896 3894
__
8984 8978 8973 8967 8961 6956 8950 8944 8939 8933
26 339! 3858 3886 3883 3881 3579 3876 3874 3871 3869
8927 ,8922 ,8916 891 1 8905 8899 8894 8888 8883 8877
27 3566 3861 3832 3859 3857 3854 3852 3849 3847 3845
8871 ,8668 8860 8855 8849 6844 8838 8833 8827 8822
28 3847 38;0 3837 3835 3833 3823
3830 3828 3826 3821
,8816 981 1 8605 8800 8794 8769 8783 8779 8772 8767
29 3818 3815 3813 381 I 3809 3807 3804 3802 3799 3797
30 9762 6756 ,8751 8745 8740 8735 8729 8724 8718 8713
3795 3792 3790 I 3787 3785 3783 3781 3778 3776 3774
8708 8702 6697 8692 8686 8681 8676 8670 8685 8660
31 3'71 3/60 3767 3'65 3762 3760 3758 3755 3753 3751
8654 8649 8644 8639 8833 9628 8623 8618 8612 8607
32 3748 3746 3744 3742 3739 3737 3735 3732 3730 3728
6602 8597 8591 8586 8581 8576 8571 8585 8560 8555
33
3726 3723 3771 3719 3716 3714 3712 3710 3707 3705
34 8550 8545 8540 8534 8529 8524 8519 8514 8509 8504
3703 370' 3b99 3696 3694 3692 3690 3687 3685 3683
35 8498 6493 9488 8483 8478 8473 8468 8463 8458 8453
3680 3678 3676 3674 3672 3670 3667 3665 3663 3661
Fig. 15-64a Conversion table-'API gravity (10-35) to specific gravity and pressure gradient in psi/ft.
701
S p e c i f i c G r a v i t i e s and U n i t Pressure of O i l C o l u m n s
Note-First line opposite each API gravity is s p gr at 60°F. Second line is column pressure in Psl/tt
.4 .5 .6 .7 .I .9
___
,6448 ,6443 ,8438 ,4433 .M28 ,8423 .a418 ,8413 ,8408 ,8403
38 ,3659 ,3657 ,3654 ,3652 ,3650 ,3648 ,3646 ,3644 ,3642 ,3639
.098 ,8393 ,8388 ,8383 ,8378 ,8373 ,8368 ,063 ,8358 ,8353
37 3629 3626 ,3624 3622 ,3620 ,3618
,3637 ,3635 ,3633 ,3631
38
.ma ,8343 ,8338 ,033 ,83211 ,8324 ,8119 ,8314 ,8309 ,8304
,3616 ,3613 ,3611 3609 ,3607 ,3605 3603 3601 ,3599 ,3596
,8299 ,8294 ,8289 ,8285 .I280 ,8275 ,8270 ,8265 ,1260 ,8256
39
,3594 ,3592 ,3590 ,3588 3586 ,3584 ,3582 ,3580 ,3577 ,3576
,8251 ,8248 ,8241 ,8236 ,8232 ,8227 ,8222 ,8217 ,8212 ,8208
40 3557 ,3555
,3574 ,3571 ,3569 ,3567 ,3565 ,3563 ,3561 3559
,8203 .Il9B ,8193 ,8189 ,8184 ,8179 ,8174 ,8170 ,8165 ,8160
,3553 ,3551 3548 3547 3544 ,3542 3540 3538 ,3536 3534
,8155 ,8151 ,8146 ,8142 ,8137 ,8132 ,8128 ,8123 ,8118 ,8114
,3532 ,3530 3528 3526 3524 3522 ,3520 3518 3516 3514
,8109 ,8104 ,8100 8095 ,8090 ,8086 ,8081 ,3016 ,8072 ,8067
3512 ,3510 3508 3506 3504 3502 3500 ,3498 3496 ,3494
,3063 ,8058 .SO54 ,8049 ,8044 ,8040 ,8035 .5031 ,8026 ,8022
,3492 ,3490 3488 3486 3484 3482 3480 ,3478 ,3476 ,3474
.a017 ,8012 ,8008 ,8003 ,7999 ,7994 ,7990 ,7985 ,7981 ,7976
,3472 3470 3468 3466 3454 ,3462 3460 ,3458 ,3457 ,3554
,7972 ,7987 ,7963 ,7958 ,7954 ,7949 ,7945 ,7941 ,7936 ,7932
46 ,3453 ,3451 ,3449 ,3447 ,3445 3443 3441 3439 3437 ,3435
,7927 ,7923 ,7919 ,7914 ,7909 ,7905 ,7901 ,7896 ,7892 ,1887
47 3918 3416
,3433 ,3431 ,3429 3428 ,3425 ,3424 ,3422 3420
.7883 ,7879 ,7874 ,7870 ,7865 ,7861 ,7857 ,7852 7848 .1a44
48 3397
,3414 3412 ,3410 ,3408 ,3406 3405 ,3403 3401 3399
,7839 ,7835 ,7831 ,7826 ,7822 ,7818 ,7813 ,7809 ,7805 ,7800
49 ,3395 ,3393 ,3392 ,3389 ,3388 ,3386 3384 3382 3380 3378
,7796 ,7792 ,7788 ,7783 ,7779 ,7775 ,7770 ,7766 7762 ,7758
50
,3376 ,3375 ,3373 ,3371 ,3369 3367 ,3365 3363 3362 ,3360
-
,7753 ,7749 ,7745 ,7741 ,7736 ,7732 7128 ,7724 ,7720 ,7715
51 3358 ,3356 ,3354 3353 3350 3349 3347 3345 3344 ,3341
,7711 ,7707 ,7703 ,7699 ,7684 ,7690 ,7686 ,7582 7618 ,7674
52 ,3324
3340 ,3338 3336 3334 3332 3331 3329 3327 3325
,7669 ,7665 ,7861 ,7657 ,7653 7649 ,7645 ,7640 ,7636 ,7632
53 3307 3305
3321 ,3320 ,3318 3316 ,3315 3313 3311 3309
,7628 ,7824 ,7820 ,7816 ,7612 ,7608 ,7603 ,7599 ,7595 ,7591
54 328P
3304 ,3302 ,3300 3298 ,3297 3295 3293 3291 3289
.7W ,7583 ,7579 ,7575 ,7571 ,7567 ,7563 7559 ,7555 ,7551
55
3286 ,3284 ,3282 3281 ,3279 3277 3276 3274 3272 ,3270
~
,7547 ,7543 ,7539 ,7535 ,7531 ,7527 ,7523 ,7519 ,7515 ,7511
56 ,3269 3267 ,3265 ,3263 ,3262 3260 ,3258 ,3256 3255 3253
,7507 ,7503 ,7499 ,7495 ,7491 ,7487 ,7483 ,7479 ,7475 ,7471
57
,3251 ,3250 ,3248 ,3246 ,3244 3243 ,3241 ,3239 3237 ,3236
,7467 ,7463 ,7459 ,7455 ,7451 ,7447 ,7443 ,7440 ,7436 ,7431
58
,3234 ,3232 ,3230 ,3229 ,3227 3225 ,3224 ,3222 ,3221 ,3219
59 ,7428 ,7424 ,7420 ,7416 ,7412 ,7408 ,7405 ,7401 ,7397 ,7393
,3217 ,3215 ,3214 ,3212 ,3210 3208 ,3207 ,3205 ,3204 ,3202
.7389 ,7385 ,7381 ,7377 ,7374 ,7170 ,7366 ,7362 ,7358 ,7354
80
,3200 ,3198 ,3197 ,3195 ,3194 3192 ,3190 ,3188 ,3187 ,3185
Fig. 15-64b. Conversion table-"API gravity (36-60) to specific gravity and pressure gradient in psi/ft.
702
PRESSURE DROP IN PIPE

STANDARD
’?” PIPE (0.62” I.D.)
Fig. 15-65. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a +-in. standard pipe (0.62 in. I.D.).
the fact that approximately 25% of the total friction is in the pump-end of the
pump. This value is not well documented for all pumps, but can be used to estimate
the reduction in pump friction due to actual pump-end liquid flow rate. In equation
form, the A p from Fig. 15-61 is equal to:
where Fee= engine-end friction = 0.75 A p , and Fpe= pump-end friction = 0.25 A p .
703

3h” STANDARD PIPE (0.82’’ I.D.)
01 05 10 50 10 50 0
PRESSURE DROP-PS1/1000’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-66. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a :-in. standard pipe (0.82 in. I.D.).
In the example shown in Fig. 15-61, the A p is 216 psi; therefore:
Fee = 0.75 X 216 = 162 psi
Fpe= 0.25 X 216 = 54 psi
If it is a 2t-in. pump from Fig. 15-13 (29 in.X l a h-1: in. pump-the largest
2t-in. pump), which is operating at 100% pump-end efficiency, the Fpe= 54 psi is
correct. If, however, it is a 2 t in. x l a in-1; in. pump operating at 80% pump-end
704

1” STANDARD PIPE (1.05” 1.0.)
1000
100
-
il
u
N
P
n
a
m
I
%
s
P
3
10
10
PRESSURE DROP-pS1/1000 -MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
Fig. 15-67. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a I-in. standard pipe (1.05 in. I.D.).
efficiency, Q4 will be less than that used to construct the chart. Because the
correction to Fpe is a small quantity, it is customary to ignore it. The error thus
introduced is on the safe side. On assuming:
Fp= A p (from Fig. 15-61)
the procedure for calculating ps in the OPF system is:

705
PRESSURE DROP IN TUBING

1-%”EU API TUBING
1000
100
-
Y
0
N
z
n
m
1
3
s
0
LL
J
10
10
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO -MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
Fig 15-68 Relatlonahp between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a l i - i n EU API tublng
Find From
Step 1: Formation volume factor, B Figs. 15-27, 15-28 or 15-29
or
Step 1: Formation shrinkage factor, S Fig. 15-30
Step 2 : Pump speed, SPM eq. 15-6
Step 3: Pump friction, Fp Figs. 15-61 and 15-62 or 15-63
Step 4: Power fluid rate, Q1 eq. 15-4 or 15-5
Step 5 : Power fluid tubing friction, Fl Figs. 15-65 through 15-98
706

1-kz” EU API TUBING
0.1 05 10 50 10 50 too
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
Fig. 15-69. Relationshp between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 1:-in. EU API tubing.
GiQi + G5Q5 + G6Q6

Step 6: Return fluid gradient, G, G, =
Qi + Q, + 426
Step 7: Return fluid tubing friction, F3 Figs. 15-65 through 15-98
One can now calculate p , after rearranging eq. 15-8 to:
Step 8: ps = p 3 ( l + P / E ) - p 4 ( P / E ) + Fp- hlGl + F,

707

2-1/16" API TUBING
10 000
1000
-
Y
U
N
f
n
m
n
I
B
s
D
3
100
10
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-70. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 2&-in. API tubing.
+
Inasmuch as Q4 = Q , Q 6 , where Q, is the flow rate of produced oil and Q6 is the
flow rate of produced water:
G, = G5Q5 G 6 Q 6 ,where Q,
+ + Q6 = Q4 (15-9)
Q 5 + Q6
708

2-910" EU API TUBING
10 000
1000
-
Y
c7
N
9
a
0
m
I
3
s
0
3
100
10
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PS1/1000'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV
Fig. 15-71. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 22-in. EU API tubing.

Given:
Q, = 200 bbl/D of 40"API gravity oil
Q6= 100 bbl/D of 1.03 sp. gr. water
p 4 = 600 psi
h , = 10,000 ft
Power fluid: 40"API gravity oil
pwh= 1 5 psi
Bottomhole temperature = 180°F
709

2-78'' EU API TUBING
' - --- I
0.1 0.5 1.o 5.0 10 50 0
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV
Fig. 15-72. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 2 i - h . EU API tubing.
Assume:
252016 pump from Fig. 15-20 OPF parallel free type installation using 24-in. OD
power tubing and 2i-in. OD return tubing, with gas to be vented to the surface
through the casing annulus.
B=l.
Find:
(A) Surface horsepower using first approximation method.
(B) Surface horsepower using method outlined in this section.
From Fig. 15-20: P / E = 0.64, q 1 = 16.5 bbl/D per SPM, q4 = 10.6 bbl/D per
SPM.
710

3-%” EU API TUBING
10 000
1000
I
Y
u
N
I
0
a
m
I
3
s
D
LL
_I
100
10
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-73. Relationshp between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 3:-in. EU API tubing.
Solution:
(A) From eq. 15-9:
(0.8251) (0.433)(200) + (1.03) (0.433)(100)

G, = = 0.386 psi/ft
300
From eq. 15-2:
p , = (0.386 X 10,000 - 600)0.64 + 400 = 2490 psi

71 1

4-'P EU API TUBING
0.1 05 10 50 10 50 0
PRESSURE DROP-PS1/1000'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-74. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop in a 4:-in. EU API tubing.
From eq. 15-4:
300 16*5 = 610 bbl/D

0.85 x 0.90 x 10.6
Hydraulic horsepower = 2450 X 610 x 0.000017 = 25.4 HP
(B) Step 1: was given; B = 1.0
Step 2: From eq. 15-6:
300
SPM = = 33.3 SPM
10.6 X 0.85
712

FLOW BETWEEN P a ' ' EU TUBING & %" (1.050" O.D.) PIPE
1000
100
-
Y
a
N
If_
0
m
I
z
s
2
3
10
10
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
Fig. 15-75.Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 2i-in. EU
tubing and :-in. pipe (1.050 in. O.D.).
Step 3: From Fig. 15-62, viscosity of 40"API gravity oil at 180°F is between lines 11
and 12 at approximately 1.5 centistokes. From Fig. 15-64, specific gravity is equal to
0.825, whereas from Fig. 15-20, rated speed is 51 SPM.
Percent rated speed = 33.3/51 X 100 = 65%
From Fig. 15-61, A p is equal to approximately 410 psi, whch if multiplied by
specific gravity gives Fp:
Fp= 410 X 0.825 = 338 psi

713

FLOW BETWEEN 2-'a" EU TUBING L 1" PIPE ( 1 . 3 l S ' O . D . )
0.1 0.5 1.o 5.0 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV.
Fig. 15-76. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 2i-in. EU
tubing and 1-in. pipe (1.315 in. O.D.).
Step 4: From eq. 15-5:
33.3 X 16.5
= 610 bbl/D
0.9
Step 5 : In step 3, viscosity of the power fluid was found at bottomhole temperature;
however, to be precise for tubing friction calculations, one should estimate the
average temperature of the fluid from the bottom to the surface. If the fluid reaches
714

FLOW BETWEEN 2 - 7 w 3 II i - 1 EU
~ API TUBING
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PS111000'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-77. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 2 i - h and
1f -in. EU API tubing.
the surface at loo", which will give an average temperature of 140"F, from Fig.
15-62 the average oil viscosity is found to be approximately 2.1 centistokes. From
Fig. 15-72, at Q, = 610 bbl/D and oil viscosity of 2.1 centistokes, the pressure drop
is approximately equal to 1.6 psi per 1000 ft. Upon multiplying it by specific
gravity, Fl is found to be:
F, = 1.6 X 10 X 0.825 = 13 psi

715

FLOW BETWEEN 3-”2”&1-”r”EU APl TUBING
05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PS1/1000’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-78. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 3:-in. and
1:-in. EU API tubing.
Step 6:
G, =
(610) (0 3 2 5 ) (0.433) + (200) (0.8250) (0.433) + (100)(1.03) (0.433)
610 + 300
= 0.367 psi/ft
Step 7: The viscosity of water at 140°F from Fig. 15-63 is equal to 0.46 centistokes.
716

FLOW BETWEEN 3-'z"6 1 - ' 2 " EU API TUBING
I " I
01 05 10 50 10 50 1 I0
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO'-MULTIPLY BY SPEC, G R A V
Fig. 15-79. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 3i-in. and
1:-in. EU API tubing.
The average viscosity in the return string, v3, is equal to:
(610)(2.1) + (200)(2.1) + (100)(0.46)

v3 = = 1.92 centistokes
910
From Fig. 15-71, at 910 bbl/D and viscosity of 1.92 centistokes, the tubing friction
in the return string of 2i-in. tubing is 11 psi per 1000 ft. Upon multiplying it by
FLOW BETWEEN 3-w a z-J/s~*
EU API TUBING
1000
100
-
v)
a
l3
N
0
0
a
m
I
B
s
P
3
10
10
Fig. 15-80. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between 3;-in. and
2i-in. EU API tubing.
specific gravity, F3 is found to be:
F3 = 11 X 10 X -
0.367
0.433
= 93 psi
Step 8:
p 3 = (10,000 X 0.367) + 93 + 75 = 3838 psi

718

FLOW BETWEEN 4 - 1 ~ 3 . 32-31~33 EU API TUBING
10.000
10
Zi-in. EU API tubing.
From eqs. 15-8 and 15-9:
ps = (3838)(1.64) - (600)(0.64) + 338 - (10,000 X 0.825 X 0.433) + 13 = 2690 psi

Hydraulic horsepower = 2690 X 610 X 0.000017 = 27.9 HP
By using the first approximation method (Solution A), one arrives at a surface
hydraulic horsepower requirement that is about 10% low. [One could easily add
+
pWh(l P / E ) = 75(1.64) = 123 psi and improve the accuracy.] If the first approxi-
119

FLOW BETWEEN 4-‘2” 6 2 . ’ ~ ” EU API TUBING
10 000
1000
-
Y
s
5
n
P
m
I
3
E:
P
2
100
10
0.5 1.o 5.0 1’0 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PS111000’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV.
2;-in. EU API tubing.
mation method yields a power requirement 20% less than a standard size surface
pump, it is usually safe enough to ignore the more precise calculations outlined in
this section.
Class problems
(1) Given: Same problem as example problem 15-4, except power fluid is water
having specific gravity of 1.03.
Find: Surface hydraulic horsepower and compare to example problem 15-4A and
15-4B.
720

FLOW BETWEEN S”,l a # CSG. 6 2-’/a” EU API TUBING
10 ooc
1 OO(
-
Y
0
N
p1
n
a
m
I
3
s
0
Y
_I
1O(
11
Fig. 15-83. Relationship between the fluid flow and pressure drop when flow occurs between Sin., 18-lb
casing and 2 i - h EU API tubing.
( 2 ) Giuen: Same problem as class problem 1 above, except: return tubing string is 1$
in. in diameter.
Find: Surface hydraulic horsepower.
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
Equations 15-7 and 15-8 are frequently used to calculate the flowing bottomhole
pressure, p 4 , in existing hydraulic pumping installations. This calculation is similar
721

FLOW BETWEEN 5-”2”, 20# CSG. 6 2-%” O.D. EU TUBING
0.1 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
Fig. 15-84. Relationship between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between Sf-in.,
20-lb casing and 2;-in. O.D. EU tubings.
to finding p,, except steps 1, 2, 3 and 4 are eliminated because SPM and Q, are
given. Often the last-stroke method is used. The procedure for this method is to
close the valve on the power fluid supply line to the well and record the pressure
when the pump stops stroking. This last-stroke pressure is the operating pressure at
zero pump speed and zero fluid flow. It is the pressure where Fp, Fl and F3 are
zero. Inasmuch as it takes less than a minute for the pump to stop stroking, p4 and
h,G, do not change appreciably from their producing values. If p , , is the last-stroke
122

FLOW BETWEEN 5-’2’’, 14# CSG. (L 2-’a” O.D.EU TUBING
- I
0.1 0.5 1 .o 5.0 10 50 3
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. G R A V .
Fig. 15-85. Relationshp between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between 5+-in.,
14-lb casing and 2;-in. O.D. EU tubing.
pressure, eqs. 15-7 and 15-8 become:
P I S - Ppr
For CPF system: p4 = ~ - hlG4 -pwh (15-10)
P/E
(15-11)
123
PRESSURE DROP I N TUBING

FLOW BETWEEN S - l r " . 22# CSG. & 2-'s" EU TUBING
Fig. 15-86. Relationshp between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between the
5;-in., 22-lb casing and 2 i - h . EU tubing.
Use of these equations eliminates the need for calculating the various friction
losses in the system. This last-stroke method must not be used with a severely worn
pump, however, because fluid slippage in the pump-end of the pump can cause the
pump to continue strohng past its balance pressure.
If precise bottomhole pressure data is required, a pressure bomb can be attached
to most hydraulic pumps to record actual producing bottomhole pressures while the
pump is operating. This method is preferred to calculations based on eqs. 15-7, 15-8,
124

FLOW BETWEEN 5 - 3 4 ' , , 22# CSG. & 3-12'' EU TUBING
10 000
1000
-
Y
u
N
z
n
n
1
3
s
il
LL
J
100
10
01 05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PS1/1000 -MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig. 15-87. Relationship between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between the
5:-in., 22-lb casing and 3;-in. EU tubing.
15-10, or 15-11. The principal sources of error in calculations using these equations
are:
(1) Pump friction values are obtained using eqs. 15-7 and 15-8. Values for Fp
using Fig. 15-61 are sometimes 200-400 psi high. This is due to the fact that pump
friction varies with clearance, concentricity, and surface finish of the sliding parts,
which vary due to manufacturing tolerances and to pump wear. The values shown
on the chart are purposely on the high side of the range to allow a safety factor for
125

FLOW BETWEEN 8 - 5 8 " , 28# CSG. 6 3-'2'' EU TUBING
10 000
01 05 10 50 10 50 0
PRESSURE DROP--PS1/1000 -MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
Fig, 15-88. Relationship between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between the
6:-in., 28-lb casing and 3i-in. EU tubing.
design purposes. Using eqs. 15-10 and 15-11, solves this problem, but G, and G,
become sources of error as explained below.
(2) When gas is present in the production column, multiphase flow correlations
must be used with eqs. 15-7 and 15-8, because even a 300 scf/bbl, gas/liquid ratio
will reduce p 3 by 600-1200 psi at depths below 5000 ft. Although this error provides
a safety factor when designing an installation, it is intolerable for bottomhole
pressure calculations. Equations 15-10 and 15-11 eliminate the error in Fp, but they
also eliminate tubing friction, F3. Inasmuch as multiphase flow correlations include
7 26

FLOW BETWEEN 6-50", 28# CSG. & 4-'r" E U TUBING
10 000
01 05 10 50 10 50 0
6:-in., 28-lb casing and 4:-in. EU tubing.
tubing friction. a separate calculation must be made to determine tubing friction,

which must then be subtracted out of the multiphase flow value.
SAMPLE PROBLEM AND QUESTIONS
(1) The following well is to be equipped with a subsurface hydraulic bottomhole

piston pump, whch will operate off of the existing lease open-power oil system. A
The help extended by Charles E. Arnold is indeed greatly appreciated by the authors
727

FLOW BETWEEN 7”, 26# CSG. h 2%” O.D. EU TUBING
100,000
10,000
-
u5
2a
N
P
n
0
m
I
e
s
P
3
LL
1ooc
lot
0.1 0.5 1 .o 5.0 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/IOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY
7-in., 26-lb casing and 2;-in. O.D. EU tubing.
casting type free pump installation is desired using available 2i-in. O.D. API
tubing. Design the whole system.
Given :
(a) Well depth (both vertical and measured) = 6000 ft
(b) Pump setting depth = 5900 f t
(c) Pumping fluid level (from surface) = 5000 ft
(d) Gross production = 400 bbl/day
(e) Water cut = 25%
728

FLOW BETWEEN 7”, 2 w CSG. a 2-7s” O.D. EU TUBING
10 000
1000
-
I_J
n
a
N
9
0
Q
m
I
3
2
0
Y-
2
1oc
1(
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO -MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
Fig 15-91 Relationship between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop uhen flou occurs between the
7-1n. 26-lb and 2 i - i n 0 D EU tubing
( f ) Oil gravity = 33” API

(8) Oil viscosity at 100 OF = 46 SSU
(h) Water specific gravity = 1.05
(i) Gas/oil ratio = 0
6) Casing size and weight = 7-in., 32-lb
(k) Flowline back pressure = 60 psi
(1) Static fluid level (from surface) = 3700 ft
129

FLOW BETWEEN 7”, 26# CSG. (I 3 - ’ P O.D. EU TUBING
3
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV.
Fig. 15-92. Relationshp between the fluid flow rate and pressure drop when flow occurs between the
7-in., 26-lb casing and 3i-in. O.D. EU tubing.
Also solve this problem using gas/oil ratio of 200 cu ft/bbl.

(2) What are the four basic components in every type of artificial lift system?
(3) What is the primary advantage and disadvantage in a free-casing OPF
hydraulic pump system?
(4) What are the two basic power fluid systems?
( 5 ) Name the basic components of a hydraulic pumping system.
(6) What are the two main disadvantages of a Jet Pump? (Consult literature on
jet pumps, e.g., Trico Industries, Inc.)
730

FLOW BETWEEN 7”, 30# CSG. 6 4-’h” EU TUBING
10.000
1000
-
r:
ff
N
P
0
I
3
s
0
3
100
10
05 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO-MULTIPLY BY SPEC GRAV
7-in., 30-lb casing and Of-in. EU tubing.
(7) Engine valve is shifted (check correct answer):

(a) Mechanically by piston. (b) Hydraulically by valve rod. (c) Automatically by
packer nose.
(8) Normal power fluid loss expected in a hydraulic pump system (check correct
answer):
(a) None, (b) 20%,and (c) 5%.
(9) Running the pump too fast for the well’s production often results in (check
731

FLOW BETWEEN S’h”, 43%# CSG. 6 2%” O.D. EU TUBING
100,000
100
0.1
1 ’ ’ I
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO-MULTIPLY BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY
9;-in., 43;-lb casing and 2;-in. O.D. EU tubing.
all that apply):

(a) Pounded production valving. (b) “Governed” engine valve assembly. (c) More
production than expected. (d) Excessive wear and damage to pump. (e) Short pump
runs. (f) Pump unseating while running.
(10) What is the hydraulic horsepower (HHP) if the pump requires 1250 bbl/D
of power fluid at 3000 psi operating pressure?
732

FLOW BETWEEN 8-5s”, 43-’r# CSG. 6 3 - l ~ ”O.D. E U TUBING
01 0.5 1 .o 5.0 10 50 100

PRESSURE DROP-PS1/100O-MULTIPLY BY SPEC. GRAV.
9;-in., 43i-lb casing and 3 i - h . O.D. EU tubing.
(11) When considering jet pump sizing:

(a) What ratio gives high lift capacity?
(1) “A” ratio, (2) “C” ratio, (3) “E” ratio, (4) “H” ratio.
(b) What amount of submergence is probably necessary?
(1) 5 % , (2) 20%, (3) 50%, (4) None.
(12) If minimum surface horsepower is important, which type of pump should be
chosen?
133

FLOW BETWEEN 9-%", 43-'z# CSG. & 4-'z" O.D. EU TUBING
01 0.5 10 50 10 50 100
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lOOO -MULTIPLY BY SPEC G R A V
9;-in., 43i-lb casing and 4;-in. O.D. EU tubing.
(13) Which of the following are advantages of hydraulic pumping?

(a) Wide production range (flexible). (b) No large equipment over wellhead. (c)
Requires no attention. (d) Operating pressure allows pump intake pressure to be
accurately estimated. (e) Directional wells do not present problems.
(14) (a) For piston pumps, is the P/E ratio used to determine maximum pump
setting depth or not?
(b) They should be sized so that maximum operating speed is:
(1) Used only by foreman. ( 2 ) Is no more than 85% of maximum rated speed. (3)
134

FLOW BETWEEN lo%’’, 40.5# CSG. & 3%”O.D. EU TUBING
PRESSURE DROP-PSl/lOOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY
loi-in., 40.5-lb casing and 3i-in. O.D. EU tubing.
Within local speed limit. (4) Within OSHA specifications.

(15) (a) A nozzle to throat ratio of 1OC in jet pumps means throat is a No. -
throat.
(b) Power fluid cleanliness is less or more important in the case of jet pumps than
with a piston pump?
(c) Describe several throat materials available according to the type of service.
735

FLOW BETWEEN lo%”,40.5# CSG. 6 4%” O.D. EU TUBING
I
01 0.5 1.o 5.0 10 50 1 3
PRESSURE DROP-PSI/lGOO’-MULTIPLY BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY
lOi-in., 40.5-lb casing and 4i-in. O.D. EU tubing.
736
Fig. 15-99. Grid for Figs. 15-65 through 15-98.
REFERENCES
Coberly, C.J., 1961. Theoiy and Application of Hydraulic Oil Well Pumps. Kobe Inc., Huntington Park,
Calif., 127 pp.
Borden, Jr., G. and Rzasa, M.J., 1950. Correlation of bottom hole sample data. Trans. A.I.M.E., 189:
345-348.
Neely, B., Gipson, F., Clegg, J., Capps, B. and Wilson, P., 1981. Selection of artificial lift method. 56th
Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition of the SOC. Pet. Eng. of A.I.M.E., San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 5-7,
SPE 10337,6 pp.
Standing, M.B., 1952. Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Hydrocarbon Systems. Reinhold, New
York, N.Y., 122 pp.
Wilson, P.M., 1976. Introduction to Hydraulic Pumping. Kobe Inc., Huntington Park, Calif., 103 pp.
131
Chapter 16
ELECTRIC SUBMERGIBLE PUMPS
W.J. POWERS, CLARENCE DUNBAR, and GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN
INTRODUCTION
The electric submergible pump (ESP) is perhaps the most versatile of the major
oil production artificial lift methods. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the
reader with a broad-based understanding of the key factors in selecting, installing,
and operating electric submergible pumps. The ESP topics covered here are: electric
submergible pump system, applications, electric submergible system components,
selection data and methods, handling, installation and operation, and troubleshoot-
ing.
ELECTRIC SUBMERGIBLE PUMP SYSTEM
The Electric Submergible Pump System (ESP) is usually comprised of a down-

hole pump, electric power cable and surface controls. In a typical application, the
downhole pump is suspended on a tubing string hung on the wellhead and is
submerged in the well fluid (see Fig. 16-1). The pump is close-coupled to a
submergible electric motor, which receives power through the power cable and
surface controls.
The ESP has the broadest producing range of any artificial lift method. The
standard 60 Hz producing range of the ESP is from a low of 100 bbl of total fluid
per day up to 90,000 bbl/day. Variable-speed drives can extend the producing range
beyond these rates. Although most operators tend to associate ESPs with “high-
volume” lift rates, the average ESP produces less than 1000 bbl of total fluid per
day.
The ESPs are used to produce a variety of fluids as well as the gas, chemicals,
and contaminants commonly found in these fluids. They are currently economically
operated in virtually every known environment found in the oilfields of the world.
The oil/water ratio is, in general, not significant in assessing an application.
Relatively high gas/fluid ratios can be handled using “tapered” design pumps and a
special gas separator pump intake. Aggressive fluids (those containing H,S, CO,, or
similar corrosives) can be produced utilizing special materials and coatings. Sand
The help extended by Marshall Behrens and W. Duane Anderson was indeed invaluable.
738
and similar abrasive contaminants can be produced with acceptable pump life using
specially modified pumps and operation procedures.
The ESPs usually do not require storage enclosures, foundation pads, or guard
fences. An ESP can be operated in a deviated or directionally drilled well, although
the recommended operating position is in a straight section of the well. Because the
ESP can be up to 200 ft long, operation in a bend or “dog leg” could seriously affect
the unit’s run-life and performance by causing hot spots where the motor rests
against the casing. The ESP can operate in a horizontal position. In this case,
run-life will be determined by the protectors ability to isolate well fluid from the
motor.
These pumps are currently operated in wells with bottomhole temperatures up to
350’F. Operation at elevated ambient temperatures requires special components in
the motor and power cable that are capable of sustained operation at a high
ambient temperature.
The ESPs can efficiently lift fluids in wells in excess of 12,000 ft deep, and can be
operated in casing as small as 4: in. O.D. Many studies indicate that ESPs represent
the most efficient lift method and the most economic on a cost per lifted barrel
basis. Overall system efficiency can be as high as 68%, depending upon fluid
volume, net lift. and pump type.
The major disadvantage of the ESP is that it has a narrow producing rate range
compared to other artificial lift forms. It does handle free gas well but the impact of
large volumes of gas can be destructive to the pump. The run-life can be adversely
affected by poor quality electric power, but this is not limited to the ESP.
APPLICATIONS
The ESP has historically been applied in lifting water or in low oil cut wells that
perform similar to water wells. Within t h s apparently narrow segment, however,
there are numerous types of installations and equipment configurations. The follow-
ing equipment applications and configurations are covered in this section:
(1) Typical Installation
( 2 ) Booster/Injection
(3) Bottom Intake/Discharge
(4) Cavern Storage/Shrouded
(5) Offshore Platforms
Typical installation
A typical ESP installation is shown in Fig. 16.1. The ESP system’s major surface
and downhole equipment is presented here. In this installation, the available surface
power is transformed to the downhole power requirements by three single-phase
transformers. The transformed power is supplied by a power cable to a switchboard
and then through a junction box and wellhead-tubing support. The power cable is
run in with the production tubing string and is banded to the tubing to prevent
139
0
0
" 0
--
Fig. 6-1. Typical installation of an electric submergible pump system (ESP)

740
mechanical damage during installation and removal. The power cable is spliced to a
motor flat cable, whch is banded to the exterior of the pump-protector-motor unit.
The centrifugal pump is located at the tr>pof the downhole unit, and is hung on the
tubing string by the discharge head. Below the pump is a standard intake which
provides for fluid entry to the pump. The center component is the protector. The
protector both equalizes external and internal pressures and isolates the motor oil
from the well fluid. The lowest component is the motor which drives the centrifugal
pump. The downhole unit is landed above the perforations. This is necessary so that
fluid entering the well flows past the motor. This flow cools the motor which would
otherwise be likely to overheat and fail.
ELECTRIC SUBMERGIBLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Motor
The ESP system’s prime mover is the submergible motor (see Fig. 16-2). The
motor is a two-pole, three-phase, squirrel cage induction type. Motors run at a
nominal speed of 3500 rpm in 60 Hz operation, and are filled with a highly refined
mineral oil that provides dielectric strength, bearing lubrication, and thermal
conductivity. A standard motor is capable of operating in wells at temperatures up
to 250’F. Higher temperature capability motors for hotter wells are also manufac-
tured.
Heat generated by motor operation is transferred to the well fluid as it flows past
the motor housing. A minimum fluid velocity of one foot per second is recom-
mended to provide adequate cooling. Because the motor relies on the flow of well
fluid for cooling, a standard ESP should never be set at or below the well
perforations or producing zone unless the motor is shrouded.
Reda motors, for example, are manufactured in four different diameters (series):
3.75 in., 4.56 in., 5.43 in., and 7.38 in.. Thus motors can be utilized in casing as small
as 44 in. in diameter. Horsepower capabilities range from a low of 74 hp in 3.75-in.
series, to a high of 1000 hp in the 7.38-in. series. Motor construction may be a single
section or several sections in tandem bolted together to reach a specific horsepower.
Motors are selected on the basis of the maximum outside diameter that can be easily
run in a given casing size.
The standard motor housing material is a heavy-wall, seamless, low-carbon steel
tubing. The motor shaft material is carbon steel. The rotor(s) are supported by
sleeve bearings made of Nitralloy and bronze. The squirrel cage rotor is made of one
or more sections depending on motor horsepower and length. The motor stator is
wound as a single unit in a fixed housing length.
The standard motor thrust bearing is a fixed pad Kingsbury type. Its purpose is
to support the thrust load of the motor rotors, and to vertically align the rotor-shaft
assembly within the stators’ magnetic field while the motor is running. Axial
alignment to maintain the air gap between the stator and the rotors is maintained by
special rotor bearings.
741
Center Tandem Motor
Motor Head Showing

Power Cable Connection
Fig. 16-2. Motor of ESP system. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
742
Pump with Standard Intake
Fig. 16-3.Example of a multistage centrifugal type electric submergible pump. (Courtesy of Reda Pump
Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
143
Pump
The electric submergible pump is a multistage centrifugal type (see Fig. 16-3).
The type of stage used determines the design volume rate of fluid production. The
number of stages determines the total design head generated and the motor
horsepower required.
The materials used in manufacturing impellers include Ni-Resist, Ryton, and
bronze. Diffusers are universally manufactured of Ni-Resist. The standard shaft
material is K-monel. Optional, high-strength shaft materials are used in deep setting
applications where conventional shaft material horsepower limits are exceeded.
“Bolt-on” design makes it possible to vary the capacity and total head of a pump by
using more than one pump section. Large-capacity pumps, however, typically have
integral heads and bases.
The housing of the pump contains the impellers and diffusers and supports the
weight of the complete unit. Housings are seamless, heavy-walled, low-carbon steel
tubing. The housing is capable of containing the normal operating pressure of the
pump with an adequate safety factor. The nominal outside pump diameter ranges
from 3.38 in. to 11.25 in.
Protector
The protector’s primary purpose is to isolate the motor oil from the well fluid
while balancing bottomhole pressure and the motor’s internal pressure. There are
two types of protector design: the positive seal (Fig. 16-4) and the labyrinth path
(Fig. 16-5). The “positive seal” design relies on an elastomer fluid barrier bag to
allow for the thermal expansion of motor fluid in operation, and yet still isolate the
well fluid from the motor oil. The “labyrinth path” design utilizes differential
specific gravity of the well fluid and motor oil to prevent the well fluid from
entering the motor. T h s is accomplished by allowing the well fluid and motor oil to
communicate through tube paths connecting segregated chambers.
The protector performs four basic functions: (1)connects the pump to the motor
by connecting both the housing and drive shafts, (2) houses a thrust bearing to
absorb pump shaft axial thrust, (3) isolates motor oil from well fluid while allowing
wellbore-motor pressure equalization, and (4) allows thermal expansion of motor
oil due to operating heat rise and thermal contraction of the motor oil after
shutdown. The standard protector housing material is the same carbon steel
material as is used in motors and pumps. The drive shaft is also K-monel.
Pump intake
Two types of intakes are used to allow fluid to enter the pump. These are the
standard intake shown in Fig. 16-3 and the gas separator intake shown in Figs. 16-6
and 16-7. A gas separator intake is used when the vapor/liquid ratio is greater than
that which can be handled by the pump. If the gas remains in solution, the pump
Positive Seal Protector
Fig. 16-4. Positive-seal protector. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
745
Labyrinth Path Protector
Fig. 16-5. Labyrinth-path protector. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
746
Static Type
Gas Separator
-
Fig. 16-6. Static type gas separator intake. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products
Group.)
141
Fig. 16-7. Rotary gas separator intake. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
748
will perform normally. Once the gas/liquid ratio exceeds a value of about 0.1,
however, the pump may produce a head lower than normal. As the vapor/liquid
ratio increases above 0.1 and free gas increases, the pump will eventually “gas lock”,
which usually drastically reduces fluid production and in extreme cases can damage
the pump. The pump, however, can tolerate progressively higher vapor/liquid ratio
at higher operating pressure.
There are two types of gas separator intakes: (1) the static type (Fig. 16-6) and
(2) the KGS rotary type (Fig. 16-7). The static type induces gas separation by
reversing the fluid flow direction. At the fluid entry ports, the reversal of fluid flow
direction creates lower pressure which allows the gas to separate. The separated gas
moves up the annulus and vents at the wellhead. The fluid, which still contains some
gas, enters the separator and moves downward into the standtube. The fluid is
picked up by the rotating pick-up impeller. The impeller creates a vortex which
forces dense, relatively gas-free fluid to the outside and allows additional gas
breakout along the shaft. This provides the first stage of the pump with a higher
density of fluid than if the gas broke out in the pump.
The Reda KGS rotary gas separator (Fig. 16-7) utilizes a rotary inducer-centri-
fuge to centrifugally separate the gas and produced liquids. The well fluid enters the
intake ports and moves into the inducer. The inducer increases the fluid pressure
discharging into the centrifuge. The centrifuge forces the denser fluid to the outside.
Gas rises from the center of the centrifuge through the flow divider into the
crossover section where gas vents to the annulus and fluid is directed into the first
stage of the pump.
Power cable
Electric power is supplied to the downhole motor by a special submergible cable.

There are two different cable configurations: (1)flat (or parallel) and ( 2 ) round (see
Fig. 16-8). Round construction is used except where casing-tubing clearance
requires flat constructions’ lower profile. The standard range of conductor sizes is
1/0-6 AWG (American Wire Gauge). This range meets virtually all motor amper-
age requirements. Almost all cable types use copper conductors. Although aluminum
conductors are sometimes used in high H,S concentration wells, mechanical protec-
tion is provided by armor made from galvanized steel or, in extremely corrosive
environments, from monel.
Cable is constructed with three individual conductors-one for each power
phase. Each conductor is enclosed by insulation and sheathing material. The
thckness and composition of the insulation and sheathing determines the conduc-
tors resistance to current leakage, maximum operating temperature capability, and
resistance to withstand permeation by well fluid and gas. For example, Reda electric
power cable is rated to operate up to 400°F at 1500 psi (see Table 16-1).
Round cable is also manufactured with an “I” wire. The “I” wire serves as an
electrical link between a downhole instrument and surface reading-processing
equipment.
749
Round a n d Parallel P o w e r Cable
Fig. 16-8.Round and parallel power cable. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products
Group.)
Motor frat cable
The motor flat cable is in the lowest section of the power cable string. The motor
flat cable has a lower profile than standard flat power cable so that it can run the
TABLE 16-1
Reda cable types and applications
Cable type Configuration Maximum bottom- KVA rotary Armor

flat or round hole temperature (000)
( O F at 1500 psi)
Redalene F, R 205" 3-5 Galvanized

steel and monel
Redahot F,R 275' 3 Galvanized
steel and monel
Redalead F 350' 3-5 Galvanized
steel and monel
Redared R 400" 3-5 Galvanized
steel and monel
Polyethylene R 180" 3 None
750
Fig. 16-9. Switchboard with recording ammeter and RedalertTM motor controller. (Courtesy of Reda
Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
length of the pump and protector in limited clearance situations (see Fig. 16-1). The
motor flat cable is manufactured with a special terminal called a “pothead”. The
function of the pothead is to allow entry of electric power into the motor while
sealing the connection from well fluid entry.
Switchboard
The switchboard is basically a motor control device (see Fig. 16-9). Voltage
capability ranges from 600 V to 4900 V on a standard switchboard. All enclosures
are NEMA-3R (National Electrical Manufacturers Association), which is suitable
for virtually all outdoor applications. The switchboards range in complexity from a
751
simple motor starter-disconnect switch to an extremely sophisticated

monitoring-control device.
There are two major construction types: electromechanical and solid state.
Electromechanical construction switchboards provide overcurrent-overload protec-
tion through three magnetic inverse time delay contact relays with pushbutton,
manual reset. Undercurrent protection is provided by Westinghouse SCR (Silicone
Controlled Rectifier) relays. These features provide protection against downhole
equipment damage caused by conditions such as pump-off, gas lock, tubing leaks,
and shutoff operation.
The solid state switchboards incorporate the highly sophisticated motor con-
troller. The purpose of the motor controller is to protect the downhole unit by
sensing abnormal power service and shutting down the power supply if current
exceeds or drops below preset limits. This is accomplished by monitoring each phase
of the input power cable to the downhole motor.
The monitoring function applies to both overload and underload conditions.
When a fault condition occurs, the controller shuts down the unit. It can be
programmed to automatically restart the downhole motor following a user selected
time delay if the fault condition is caused by an underload. The programmed time
delay can be from one minute up to twenty hours. Overload condition shutdown
must be manually restarted, but t h s should be done only after the fault condition
has been identified and corrected.
A valuable switchboard option is the recording ammeter. Its function is to
record, on a circular strip chart, the input amperage to the downhole motor. The
12GAUGETANK *
12 500 UNITS 95 BIL HV BUSHINGS
2 h 5 0 UNITS I50 BIL HV B U S H I N G S 3
PAINT SYSTEM MEETS OR EXCEEDS

ASTM 5% SALT FOR 1519 HRS.
TAP CHANGER
[
HAND HOLE ACCESSTOTAPCHANGER
EXTRA CREEP BUSHINGS
2"O.D. (14 GA) COOLING TUBES
CORE a COIL BUSHING LEADS

HOLD DOWN SUPPORT
COIL BLOCK
COIL, ALL COPPER WINDING CORE, LOW LOSS MATERIAL

65°C INSULATING SYSTEM. GRAIN ORIENTED STEEL
HEAVY DUTY FRAME

CORE a COIL POSITION GUIDES
Fig. 16-10. Single-phase transformer. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group )
152
Hercules HHS Wellhead

Fig. 16-11. Hercules HHS wellhead, (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
ammeter chart record can show if the downhole unit is performing as designed or if
abnormal operating conditions exist. Abnormal conditions can result when a well’s
inflow performance is not correctly matched with pump capability or when electric
power is of poor quality. Abnormal conditions that are indicated on the ammeter
chart record are primary line voltage fluctuations, low current (A), high current, and
erratic current.
Transformer
The ESP system utilizes three different transformer configurations: (1) three
single-phase transformers (Fig. 16-10), (2) one three-phase standard transformer, or
(3) one three-phase autotransformer. Transformers are generally required because
primary line voltage generally does not meet the downhole motor voltage require-
ment. Oil-immersed, self-cooled (OISC) transformers are used in land-based appli-
cations. Dry-type transformers are sometimes used in offshore applications, which
exclude oil-filled transformers.
Wellhead
The wellhead or tubing support may be used as a limited pressure seal (see Fig.
16-11). The wellhead provides a pressure-light pack-off around the tubing and
power cable. High-pressure wellheads-up to 3000 psi-use an electrical power
feed-through mandrel to prevent gas migration through the cable. Wellheads are
manufactured to fit standard casing sizes from 4 i to 134 in.
153
SWITCHBOA
-5OMlNlMUM-
15 FEET MINIMUM
JUNCTION B O X
Fig. 16-12. Junction box. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group )
Junction box
A junction box connects the power cable from the switchboard to the well power
cable (see Fig. 16-12). It is necessary to vent, to the atmosphere, any gas that may
migrate up the power cable from the well. This prevents accumulation of gas in the
switchboard, which can result in an explosive and unsafe operating condition. A
junction box is required on all ESP installations.
Accessory options
The following covers two major accessory options: (a) the pressure-sensing
instrument and (b) a variable-speed drive.
Pressure-sensing instrument ( P S I )
The pressure-sensing instrument (PSI) provides the operator with precise down-
154
Fig. 16-13. Pressure and temperature sensing instrument. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW
Energy Products Group.)
hole pressure and temperature data. The PSI has two components: (a) a downhole
transducer-sending unit and (b) a surface readout unit (see Fig. 16-13). The
downhole transducer-sending unit connects electrically and bolts to the base of the
motor. Both pressure and temperature data are transmitted from the transducer-
sending unit to the surface read-out through the motor windings and the power
cable on a DC carrier signal. The transducer receives operating power from the
motor’s neutral winding. This allows the operation of the PSI even when the motor
is not running.
The major use of the PSI unit is determination of the producing potential of a
well. This is accomplished by determining both static and dynamic reservoir
pressures. By correlating the change in pressure with a given producing rate, a well’s
inflow performance can be accurately quantified. This, in turn, will allow equipment
selection which optimizes well production.
Variable speed drive

The variable speed drive (VSD) is a highly sophisticated switchboard-motor
controller (see Fig. 16-14). A VSD performs three distinct functions: (a) varies the
capacity of the ESP by varying the motor speed, (b) protects downhole components
755
Fig. 16-14. Variable-speed drive switchboard motor controller. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW
from power transients, and (c) provides “soft start” capability. Each of these
functions is discussed in succeeding paragraphs.
A VSD changes the capacity of the ESP by varying the motor speed. By changing
the voltage frequency supplied to the motor and thus motor rpm, the capacity of the
pump is also changed in a linear relationship. Thus, well production can be
optimized by balancing inflow performance with pump performance. This applies to
756
both long-range reservoir changes as well as short-term transients, such as those

associated with high GOR wells. This may eliminate the need to change the capacity
of a pump to match changing well conditions or it may mean longer run-life by
preventing cycling problems. This capability is also useful in determining the
productivity of new wells by documenting pressure and production values over a
range of drawdown rates. The change in voltage frequency can be made manually or
automatically. The VSD can operate automatically in a “closed loop” mode with a
programmable controller and PSI instrument.
The VSD also protects the downhole motor from poor quality electric power. The
VSD is relatively insensitive to incoming power balance and regulation, while
providing closely regulated and balanced output. The VSD will not output electric
power transients to the downhole motor, but it can be shutdown or damaged by
such transients. Given the choice, most operators would prefer to repair surface
installation equipment rather than pull and run downhole equipment. Within limits,
the VSD upgrades poor quality electric power. The VSD takes a given frequency
and voltage AC input, converts the AC to DC, and then rebuilds the D C to an AC
waveform. The shape of the waveform is a six-step square wave.
The “soft start” capability of a VSD provides two major benefits. The first is that
it reduces the start-up drain on the power system. Secondly, the mechanical strain
on the pump shafts is significantly reduced when compared to a standard start. This
capability is valuable in gassy or sandy wells. In some cases, slowly ramping a pump
up to operating speed may avoid pump damage.
The VSDs are manufactured in sizes ranging from 125 to 1000 KVA. These units
are designed for sustained operation at maximum ratings when properly applied to
a given set of pump and well conditions.
SELECTION DATA AND METHODS
The data requirements and calculation procedures required for pump selection in
a typical ESP application are presented in this section. The single most important
factor in selection of an ESP is the input data. The data used in sizing an ESP must
be accurate and reliable to insure that the unit is properly matched to the well’s
inflow performance.
The data required for selection of an ESP are: (1) mechanical data, (2) produc-
tion data, (3) fluid data, and (4) power supply.
Mechanical data
The ESP well data form (Fig. 16-15) exemplifies a specific pump selection (Jones
Oil Company; Smith No. 1 well). The mechanical data includes:
(1) Casing size and weight: 5) in. O.D.; 17 lb/ft.
(2) Tubing size, weight and thread: 2$ in. O.D.; EUE.
(3) Well depth-both measured and true vertical: 7070 ft.
151
Request For Information
Gt73
REDA P U M P COMPANY
Bartlesville, Oklahoma
GENTLEMEN:
Will you please send me complete information concerning a Reda unit for the following oil well:
DESCRIPTION:
Company J . c l ~ . ~ ~ % o i \ . . b ~ ) / Sm'ltk..b.1Well Name &! No. ............
Field or Pool Name ..... ......................... County ............................................ State . ......................
Production Formation sand .... Sand or Lime ............................. Total Well Depth ..21.0.0 ...... Fr.
Caring: .5.&. . . . In. O.D. . 1.7..-. Lbs. per Ft. ................... Liner: .................. In. O.D. . . . . . . . Lbs per EL.
T o p of Liner at .... ... ft. Bottom of Liner at ...................... ft.
Perforations: ..?025. .. to ... 7add. ft. Open Hole: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to fr.
PRESENT P R O D U C T I O N A N D P R O D U C T I V I T Y DATA:
Average Production Rate: ............... .-............. Bbl. Oil/Day wtrh dQ.0 Bbl. Water/Day.
. . Cu. Ft./Day gar produced with ............. Bbl./Day total fluid using .................. method of arriiical I l f r
with ...... i!mo ........... feet of ~..L./s. . . . . . . . In. O . D . E U E I M . Tubing.
Static Fluid Level .385f . . . . ft. from top. Static Bottom Hole Pressure ................ P.S.I. at . . ft
Producing Fluid Level ..... f t . from top while producing A..a.o.. ....... Bbl./Day total fluid.
Productivity index is ....... Bbl./Day per P.S.I. of draw-down or t 238/
Bbl./Day per foot of draw-down
Fluid gradient 1 s 7'763. P.S.I./Ft.
From all observations i t is estimated this well is capable of producing 500 ..... Bbl./Day total fluid from a
producing fluid level of .z?s/ . feet from the cop.
GENERAL INFORMATION:
Well has had a history of problems due to the following checked condmonr: 0 Sand Production, L! Severe Corrosmn,
0 Paraffin, 0 Other such as . . . . . . . . . .
P S.I. back pressure IS maintained on the caring annulus, which 1: nol (cross out o n e ) vented
Gravity of 011 . . "API Specific gravity of brine .../!I 1.

. Bottom Hole Temperature 0 'F 14
Viscosity of Oil: ...... SSU a t ............... "F a n d ........... SSU at the bottom hole temp. of . 'F
Electric Power Supply: 3 .... phase, .6.O..... cycle with secondary voltage of volts and primary Y O I C ~ R P
of fZ500
Calculations indicate a Reda unit designed to pump a desired capacity of 5
0 0 Bbl./Day ratal fluid (oil plus
warer) against a total dynamic head of b.gO6. feet would ftr this well's particular characteristics. T h e calculated
total dynamic head is based o n ( I ) a producing fluid level of .*.??../
feet plus ( 2 ) 35
. . feet of frmron loss in
7aoo feet of a..% .. In. O.D. E U E / o . b tubing plus ( 3 ) .a00
PSI tubmg discharge pressure
Other Information or Remarks: ................... ............. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yours very truly.
Name
Company
Address
Date . . ... ...... City .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(If above rnformation is submitted as completely as possible, it will greatly facilitate a prompt reply 1
R-144 - Revised 1/20/65.
Fig. 16-15. Request for information form. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products
Group.)
758
(4) Perforations depth-both measured and true vertical: 7025-7050 ft.

(5) Unusual conditions such as tight spots, dog legs and deviation from true
vertical at desired setting depth.
The casing size and weight determine the maximum diameters of the motor,
pump, and protector components that will physically fit in the well. In general, the
most efficient installation is obtained when the pump having the largest possible
diameter, in the target flow range, is selected.
The depth of the well and the performance determine the maximum setting depth
of the ESP. If the motor is to be set below the perforations, a motor shroud must be
used to provide a flow of well fluid past the motor for cooling. In this example the
pump setting depth is 7000 ft.
Production data
The production data needed for correct pump sizing includes (Fig. 16-15):
(1) Present and desired production rate: 200 bbl/day and 500 bbl/day.
(2) Oil production rate: 0 bbl/day.
(3) Water production rate: 200 bbl/day.
(4) Gas/oil ratio (free gas and solution gas or gas bubble point): 0 cf/bbl.
(5) Static bottomhole pressure and fluid level: 1500 psig at 7000 ft; fluid
level = 3851 ft.
(6) Producing bottomhole pressure and stabilized fluid level: 1100 psig at 7000 ft;
fluid level = 4691 ft.
a
w - lift requirements -
I
3000 - I
I
-
- I -
2000 -
I
I
I
-
- I
I
-
I000 - I
I
-
- I
I
-
Fig. 16-16. Capacity curve for the example well

159
(7) Bottomhole temperature: 160°F.

(8) System back pressure from flowlines, separator, and wellhead choke: 200 psig
at the wellhead.
The inflow performance of a well establishes the maximum economic and
efficient rate at which it can be produced. Liquid level data may be used as a
substitute for producing pressures and rates in water or low oil cut wells with no
gas. In this case, a straight-line productivity index ( J ) curve may be used as a
reasonable approximation of well capacity (see Fig. 16-16).
Figure 16-16 graphcally illustrates the J of the above example well. The static
fluid level is at 3851 ft. At a production rate of 200 bbl/day, the producing level is
at 4691 ft. To obtain the pumping fluid level at the 500 bbl/day production, the
curve is extended to 500 bbl/day point at which the pumping fluid level is
approximately 5951 ft.
Most oil wells do not exhibit a straight-line J curve because of interference
caused by gas. The Vogel (1968) technique yields a downward sloping curve that
INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS

FOR SOLUTION - G A S DRIVE WELLS
BY: J. V. VOGEL
From SPE Paper 1476
January 1968 JPT
Qo
[Z) MAX = 1 - 0.20 PR
- 0.80 (2;
P, = Static Reservoir Pressure at Producina Zone
PwF= Well Bore Pressure at Producing Zone
Oo = Producing Rate (BPDI at PwF
Q0 Max = Producing Rate at 100%Drawdown PwF= 0
Fig. 16-17. Inflow performance relationships for solution-gas-drive wells. (After Vogel, 1968; courtesy of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.)
760
corrects for gas interference. The IPR curve (Fig. 16-17) applies when wellbore
pressure in the producing zone drops below the bubble point resulting in two-phase
flow as the gas breaks out of the fluid. It is extremely important to remember that
the data obtained for t h s approach in sizing an ESP must be both accurate and
reliable to insure proper equipment selection.
Fluid data
The fluid data includes:

(1) Oil API gravity, viscosity, pour point, paraffin content, sand content, and
emulsion tendency; currently, 100% water.
(2) Water specific gravity, chemical composition, corrosion potential, and scale-
forming tendency; specific gravity = 1.1.
(3) Gas specific gravity, composition, and corrosive potential; no gas present.
(4) Reservoir formation volume factor, bubble point pressure, and viscosity-tem-
perature curve; no gas present.
The specific gravity of the produced fluid is directly related to the horsepower
required to turn a given size pump. Although relatively few applications encounter
fluid viscosities high enough to affect pump performance, it is important to be
aware that capacity, head and horsepower correction factors may be required. In
wells with a water cut of 65% or higher, the fluid generally will not require viscosity
correction factors (except for emulsions).
The PVT data are required when gas is present. Various computer programs ( e g ,
COMPSEL, a Reda computer program) for pump selection (discussed later in this
section) contain a subroutine which utilizes Standing’s (1952, 1975) correlations in
approximating the PVT values when actual data are not available. In high GOR
applications, PVT data are very desirable because the three standard correlation
estimates of Standing (1952, 1975), Lasater (1958) and Vasquez and Beggs (1980)
yield large differences in calculated downhole gas volume.
Electric power supply
The electric power supply includes:

(1)Voltage available and frequency: 12,500 V; 60 Hz.
(2) Capacity of the service: adequate.
(3) Quality of service (spikes, sags, etc.): good quality.
The power data is important because it partially determines transformer and
switchboard requirements. Frequency affects pump rotation speed, capacity, and
head.
Selection process
Once the required data have been gathered and analyzed, the first ESP selection
step is to determine the well’s production capacity at a given pump setting depth.
761
This involves analysis of the inflow performance data as well as desired production
rate. Two key factors that must be considered are the minimum pump intake
pressure (net positive suction head), which the well will permit without pump-off or
gas lock, and the producing rate, which draws the fluid level down to an optimum
level.
The next selection step is to determine the total dynamic head ( T D H ) . The TDH
is the sum of three variables: (a) the true vertical lift distance from the producing
fluid level to the surface, (b) friction loss in the tubing string, and (c) discharge
pressure head at the wellhead. The design T D H determines the number of stages
required in a pump.
In the above-described example, the J is calculated by taking the present
production rate of 200 bbl/day divided by 4691 ft pumping fluid level minus the
static fluid level of 3851 ft. Thus, J is equal to 0.2381 bbl/day/ft of drawdown.
Next, the pumping fluid level is calculated at the 500 bbl/day rate. Dividing 500
bbl/day by 0.2381, gives 2099.96 ft drawdown. On adding t h s 2099.96 f t of
drawdown to the 3851 ft of static fluid level, a pumping fluid level of 5950.96 f t is
obtained.
The total head that must be developed by the pump will consist of the lift, the
tubing friction loss, and the wellhead pressure. The 200 psi wellhead pressure is
converted to feet of head by first calculating a pressure gradient for the 1.1 specific
gravity brine. The latter is multiplied by 0.433 psi/ft gradient for fresh water to
obtain 0.4763 psi/ft fluid gradient for the 1.1 specific gravity brine. On dividing the
200 psi wellhead pressure by the salt water gradient of 0.4763 psi/ft, the head of
419.9 ft is obtained.
The tubing friction loss can be calculated from Fig. 16-18. The figures for the old
tubing are used in order to be on the conservative side. In this particular example,
the tubing friction loss at 500 bbl/day is 5 ft per thousand feet and with 7000 ft of
tubing a total tubing loss is 35 ft: (7000/1000) X 5 = 35. To obtain the total
dynamic head requirements, the 5950.96 f t is added to the 35 ft of tubing friction
loss and 419.9 ft wellhead pressure (which in this example represents 200 psi
pressure at the surface). Thus, total head requirement is equal to 6405.86 ft.
Selection of a specific pump involves identifying a pump of the largest possible
diameter whch can be run in the well. The pump should have the target capacity
within its recommended operating range and close to its peak efficiency. The initial
pump capacity selection can be made from Table 16-11, for example, which lists all
Reda pumps grouped by series for various casing sizes. The first group is the “A”
series pumps which will go inside 4i-in. O.D. casing. The next group is the “400”
series pumps that will go into 5;-in. O.D. casing. In the recommended range
column, it is necessary to identify the pump that is in the 500 bbl/day range in
5:-in. casing. It is the D-550 pump that will fit this particular set of conditions.
The individual pump curve should then be reviewed to determine the optimum
producing range and the proximity of the design producing rate to the pump’s peak
efficiency (see Fig. 16-19 for a typical pump performance curve). It is very
important to choose a producing rate which is in the recommended capacity range
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO FRICTION
FRICTION OF WATER I N P I P E AS LISTED
LOSS PER BASED ON WILLIAM & HAZEN TABLES
I uuu
NEW - SCHEDULE 40 NEW P I P E
1
1 2 3 . 4 5 678910 2 3 4 5 678910 2 3 4 5 67a910

BPD X 100 BPD X 1000 BPD X 10,000
3 5 10 15 20 30 50 100 150 200 300 500 1000 1500 2000 3000
GALLONS PER MINUTE
Fig. 16-18. Determination of friction loss in tubing. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products croup.)
763
TABLE 16-11
Engineering tables for the initial pump capacity selection (pumps 60 Hz/3500 rpm) (Courtesy of Reda
Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group)
Series Outside Pump Max BHP a Capacity range

diameter type rating for recommended limits
(inches) pump shaft
(BPD) (m3/D)
338 3.38 A400 94 280-500 45 - 80
AN550 94 425-700 68-111
AN900 94 660-1 100 105-175
A1200 94 875-1575 139-250
A1500 125 1100- 1900 175-302
400 4.00 DN280 44 100-450 16-72
D400 94 280-550 45-81
DN450 94 320-575 51-91
D550 94 375-650 60-103
D700 94 500-900 80- 143
D950 125 600-1150 95-183
DNlOOO 125 760-1250 121-199
DN1300 125 975-1650 155-262
D1350 125 950-1800 151-286
DN1750 125 1200-2050 191-326
D2000 125 1400-2450 223-390
DN3000 256 2 100- 3700 334-588
DN4000 256 3400-5000 540-795
450 4.62 EN1250 160 950-1600 151-254
El450 160 1050-1800 167-286
EN3600 256 2800-4500 445-715
540 5.13 G2000 256 1500-2500 238-397
GN2500 256 2000-3 100 318-493
G2700 256 2100-3400 334-541
G3100 256 2200-3700 350-588
DN4000 375
GN5200 375 4200-6600 668- 1049
G5600 375 4500-7250 715-1153
GN7000 375 5500-8500 874-1351
GNlOOOO 637 8000-12000 1272-1908
562 5.62 HN13000 375 9200-16400 1463-2607
650 6.62 IN7500 637 6000-9500 954-1510
IN10000 637 8000-12250 1272-1948
675 6.75 JN16000 637 12800- 19500 -
2035 3100
JN21000 637 16000-25000 2544,3795
862 8.62 M520 631 12000-24000 1908-3816
M675 637 19000-32500 3021-5167
950 9.50 N1050 1000 24000-47500 3816-7552
1000 10.00 N1500 1000 35000-59000 5564-9380
1125 11.25 P2o00 lo00 53600-95800 8521- 15240
aFor additional shaft horsepower capability contact a TRW Reda company. Note: Larger capacity
pumps of larger horsepower are available upon request.
164
0
m
8
s
0
N
m
-a
Fig. 16-19. Typical pump performance curves.

.-a
i-"
P
s
m
765
of the specific pump. When a pump is operated outside this range, premature failure
can result. The recommended operating range for 60 Hz is defined by vertical lines.
The D-550 pump has an operating range of 380-650 bbl/day, and the 500 bbl/day
rate falls near the peak efficiency range of the pump. By intersecting the head
capacity curve at the 500 bbl/day rate, one can determine that the D-550 pump
develops approximately 22.40 ft of head per stage (2240/100 stages = 22.40 ft per
stage). The horsepower motor load curve is used similarly. Each stage will require
approximately 0.175 horsepower per stage.
Once a pump is chosen, the number of stages required can be calculated using the
lift (ft) per stage data from the performance curve:
TDH (ft)
Number of stages = (16-1)
Lift/stage( ft)
The horsepower required by the pump design can then be calculated. To accomplish
this, the horsepower required per stage is read from the specific pump performance
curve. The required motor horsepower is determined by multiplying the horsepower
required per stage by the number of design stages. The performance curve horse-
power data applies only to liquids with a specific gravity of 1.0. For liquids having
other specific gravities, the water horsepower must also be multiplied by the specific
gravity of the fluid pumped. Thus, the following equation can be used for the
horsepower calculation:
HP = (HP/stage) x (Number of design stages) X (sp. gr.) (16-2)
In the present example, the total head required is 6405.86 ft and the rate is 500
bbl/day of 1.1 specific gravity water. To determine the number of stages required,
the total head of 6405.86 ft must be divided by 22.40 ft/stage. T h s equals 285.98,
which rounds off to 286 stages. To determine the horsepower required to drive the
286-stage pump, the horsepower per stage of 0.175 is multiplied by the 286 stages
and then by the 1.1 sp. gr. to get a horsepower requirement of 55.06, whch may be
rounded off to 55 horsepower.
Once the design motor horsepower is determined, specific motor selection is
based on setting depth, casing size and motor voltage. Although the cost of the
motor is generally unrelated to voltage, overall ESP system cost may be lowered by
utilizing higher voltage motors in deep applications. This lower cost can sometimes
occur because a higher voltage can lower the cable conductor size required. A
smaller conductor size (lower-cost cable), can more than offset the increased cost of
a higher-voltage switchboard. Setting depth is a major variable in motor selection
because of starting and voltage drop losses, which are a function of the motor
amperage and cable conductor size.
Table 16-111 lists the most common Reda motors and voltages. The 375-series
motors go in 44-in. O.D. casing. The 456-series motors will go in 54-in. O.D. casing,
766
TABLE 16-111
List of the most common Reda motors and voltages
Moms 60 Hz
375 Series 456 Serles 540 Series
13 75" 001 14 56" 001 1543" 001
HP Volrs AMP HP Volts AMP HP Vnlt? AMP
75 415 13 5 10 435 15
10 5 400 20 15 23
655 16
20 28 5
15 330 34 450
750 17
415 27 25 410 39
13 5 415 35 690 22
30 425 44 5
650 22 5 25 5
2; i 440 38 5 1260
750 150
750 22 5 35 385 57
675 33
22 E 650 29 5 785 28
7Rn 74 5 40 59
110
430 33
880 29
1340 19
675 47
Tandem Mo'ors 50 815 39
30 630 35 5 955 33
1390 23
39 575 51
640 59
60 745 52
45 660 51 5 810 41
51 740 51 970 39
1330 29
1000 37 540 82 5
1250 31 10 750 60
58 5 860 51 945 47
1135 39
67 5 990 51 5 80 635 80
76 5 1110 51 860 60
1085 46
90 1320 51 5 1310 39
102 1480 51 710 81
1125 1650 51 5 90 960 59
1135 50
1275 1850 51 1220 46
1460 39
1960 29
100 80
920 70
738 S e w 1075 59
1355 46
2205 28 5
110 1190 60
220 1325 110 '" 945

1125
1295
81
70
59
Tandem Motors
240 2275 70 2245 35 1710 88
240 2060 73
260 2280 76 2590 59
340 2235 101 Tandem Motors
1850 88
1 80 a2 5 260 2250 67
14@ 1:oo 60 300 2150 87
1890 47
2270 39 320 1650 122
160 1270 80 2230 88 5
Tandem Motors
1720 60 360 1890 120
400 2300 115 2',70 46 2250 89
440 2050 142 2620 39 400 2200 115
480 2230 143 180 1420 81 450 2270 127
1920 59 480 2415 122
520 2420 143 2270 50 3345 88 5
600 3450 115 2440 46 540 2835 120
2920 39
680 3170 142 200 1580 ao 600 3300 115
720 3345 143 1840 70
2150 59
2710 46
220 2380 60
,890 a1
240 2250 70
2590 59
161
540-series motors will go in 64-in. O.D. casing, and the 738-series motors will go
into 84-h. O.D. or larger casing.
In the 456-series motors, a 60-HP motor is the closest size to the requirement of
55 HP. There are several voltages listed for this motor horsepower. The reason is
that with a very shallow setting, one could use a lower-voltage motor resulting in a
less expensive switchboard. In this particular case, with a 7000-ft setting, it is
desirable to maintain a reasonably high motor voltage to keep the amperage down
to a low level whch will allow the use of a smaller size cable. Thus, one can select
the 60-HP, 970-V, 39-A motor.
Cable selection variables are amperage, voltage drop, annulus clearance, ambient
well temperature, and corrosion conditions. The recommended maximum voltage
drop should be limited to 30 V per thousand feet. If voltage drop exceeds this value,
a larger conductor size should be used. Round cable is normally used unless tubing
collar-annulus clearance dictates flat or parallel construction. The maximum oper-
ating temperature of a cable in relation to the specific well's ambient temperature
determines the specific type of cable. Armor and lead sheathing may be recom-
mended in a well with mechanical or clearance problems or in the presence of
corrosive gas such as H,S.
For the present example, Fig. 16-20, which shows cable voltage drop losses, can
be used to determine the size of a cable that is appropriate for a 35.75-A motor [ ( 5 5
HP/60 HP) X 39 A].
In this particular installation, size No. 4 cable can be selected. Referring to Fig.
16-20 at 35.75 A, in the case of the size No. 4 cable there is less than 3% loss per
thousand feet. With 7000 f t of cable, voltage drop loss is 147 V from the surface to
the motor: [(7000/1000) x 211. In order to determine the required surface voltage,
the 970 V requirement of the motor is added to the 147 V loss in the cable. Thus, a
total of 1117 V is required.
The surface electrical equipment (switchboard and transformer(s)) selection is
based on the required motor horsepower, voltage, amperage, voltage loss, and cable
size. The surface voltage is the sum of the downhole motor no-load voltage plus the
voltage losses due to cable size and other component losses. Voltage losses associ-
ated with transformers range from 2.5 to 6% depending on the manufacturer.
Additional impedance is associated with VSD transformer sizing. Transformers
must also be selected based on the primary voltage available and the required
hookup method: Delta Delta, Y Delta, or Delta Y.
To obtain the KVA requirement for the transformer bank, the total voltage
required is multiplied by the current (A) and by the square root of 3 for three-phase
power and' then divided by 1000: (1117 V X 35.75 A X 1.73): 1000 = 69.084 KVA.
The transformer banks are normally made in sizes of 25 KVA, 37f KVA, 50 KVA,
75 KVA, etc. A bank of three 25-KVA transformers gives a total KVA of 75, which
will be more than adequate for the 69.084 KVA needed in this installation.
The next step is the switchboard selection for this particular installation. There
are several types of switchboards available starting with the DFH-2 switchboard for
a 440-V installation. The MFH switchboard is for voltages up to 1000 V and the
u
4
0 1
U
m
W e
-I0
mc
mu
06
r
a
U
I-
768
Fig. 16-20. Voltage drop chart. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
769
MDFH switchboard is for voltages up to 1500 V. Larger switchboards are for 2400-
and 5000-V installations. In this example, a size 3 MDFH switchboard is selected.
Size 3 would give a maximum current of 100 A and a voltage capability of up to
1500 V.
The protector selection variables are motor and pump series, motor horsepower,
and well temperature. Normally the protector is of the same series as the pump and
motor. Large horsepower motors (150 HP and larger) may require a larger oil
capacity. For large horsepower motors, one can use, for example, a Positive Seal
Double Bag model or a tandem “Labyrinth Path” model (Reda motors). An
ambient well temperature of 250°F or higher generally requires the use of the
“Labyrinth Path” protector.
Figure 16-21 lists the flat cable extensions for various motor sizes. In the present
example, inasmuch as the bottomhole temperature is 160”F, one can select the
standard flat cable material, which is described as 3KV KEOTB. If the bottomhole
temperature was, for example, 180”F, one could use a lead-covered flat cable
extension, which is described as 3KV KELB. The length of the flat cable should be
at least 5 f t greater than the length of the protector and the pump, so that the flat to
power cable splice is well above the pump discharge for clearance.
Thus, the major components of the installation have been selected: motor, pump,
protector, flat cable extension, the round cable going to the surface and the
switchboard. The remaining items to complete the installation are the check valve,
the bleeder valve, the tubing head, and the junction box at the surface. The purpose
of the check valve is to prevent fluid from running back to the pump when the unit
is shut down and causing the unit to spin in reverse rotation. It also eliminates the
necessity of filling the tubing each time the pump starts up. The check valve is
normally run 300-500 ft above the pump in a well where gas production is
anticipated. By setting the check valve 300-500 ft above the pump, in the event of
gas lock and pump shut-down, the gas has an opportunity to work out of the pump
and be replaced by liquid fluid for the subsequent startup.
The bleeder valve is normally run one joint above the check valve. It enables
drainage of the fluid from the tubing so that the tubing will not have to be pulled
“wet”. The wellhead is designed to support the tubing string and to enable the
packoff around the cable.
The ESP equipment selection in high water cut, low GOR wells are relatively
straightforward. Equipment selection in high GOR or viscous crude wells, however,
can be very complicated. Reda, for example, has developed a sophsticated com-
puter program called COMPSEL to comprehensively analyze alternative equipment
selections in such situations. COMPSEL can be used to select equipment or to
evaluate previously selected equipment. This capability means that, over time, the
engineer can evaluate the fit of a pump as oil well conditions change. If well inflow
performance changes significantly, the downhole equipment may need resizing both
to optimize production and prevent premature failure.
Pump performance is directly affected by parameters such as the formation
volume factor, GOR, viscosity, volume of free gas in the pump, and water cut.
770
Cable
Flat Cable Extensions
Type Dimensions Weights length
Size Description Series Armor Inches lbs. Ft.
6 3 KV KELTB l t P l 375 Monel 0 420 x 1 050 34 40 0
Price Adder Per Foot
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Gab 0 484 x 1 142 29 40 0
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Galv 0 484 x 1 142 39 55 0
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Galv 0 484 x 1 142 49 70 0
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Monel 0 484 x 1 142 27 40 0
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Monel 0 484 x 1 142 37 55 0
6 3 KV KEOTB 456 Monel 0 484 x 1 142 47 70 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Galv 0 485 x 1 150 44 40 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Galv 0 485 x 1 150 60 55 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Galv 0 485 x 1 150 77 70 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Monel 0 485 x 1 150 42 40 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Monel 0 485 x 1 150 58 55 0
6 3 KV KELB 456 Monel 0 485 x 1 150 74 70 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 36 40 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 50 55 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 63 70 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Monel 0 531 x 1 280 35 40 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Monel 0 531 x 1 280 48 55 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 540 Monel 0 531 x 1280 61 70 0
Price Adder Per Faor
4 3 KV KELB 540 Gab 0 520 x 1 245 54 40 0
4 3 KV KELB 540 Galv 0 520 x 1 245 74 55 0
4 3 KV KELB 540 Galv 0 520 x 1 245 94 70 0
4 3 KV KELB 540 Monel 0 520 x 1 245 52 40 0
4 3 KV KELB 540 Monel 0 520 x 1 245 72 55 0
4 3 KV KELB 540 Monel 0 520 x 1 245 91 70 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 738 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 36 40 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 738 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 50 55 0
4 3 KV KEOTB 738 Galv 0 531 x 1 280 63 70 0
Fig 16-21 Flat cable extensions for various motor sizes (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy
Products Group )
771
These factors result in greater intake volume than realized at stocktank conditions.
Under routine conditions of high water cuts, no produced gas, low viscosities, etc.,
the previously described selection technique is sufficient. If, however, the free
produced gas or fluid viscosity is of sufficient magnitude to influence “normal”
pump performance, a COMPSEL study using the best available productivity and
PVT data should be used to accommodate the complexities of these factors.
The COMPSEL program contains analytic models for pump performance, re-
servoir response and fluid characteristics. It utilizes the Chew and Connally (1959)
correlations for live fluid viscosity based on the quantity of gas in solution. Another
option uses Orkiszewski’s (1967) two-phase vertical flow model to compute pump
discharge pressure and horsepower required. Standing’s (1952) correlations are used
to provide surrogate PVT data when actual values are not available.
The fluid intake volume (oil, water and free gas) can be fixed by inputting the
surface production and intake pressure, or the program can utilize a subroutine to
calculate drawdown, flowing bottomhole pressure, etc., using the straightline J
method. This calculation can be refined, when producing conditions are below the
bubble point of the oil, by using the subroutine incorporating the Vogel (1968)
technique (IPR method). If PVT data (oil formation volume factor and solution
GOR versus pressure) are not available for use in the COMPSEL calculations, the
subroutine incorporating Standing’s correlations is automatically utilized in the
program.
Basically, COMPSEL has two semi-independent logical functions: selection and
simulation modes. In selection mode, the program takes a set of inpu‘t data,
including well, fluid, and reservoir characteristics, and selects an optimal submersi-
ble pump configuration based on a non-overlapping set of optimal flow limits.
Conceptually, the program does nothing which could not be done by hand; but the
time required to accurately compute manually the pressure, temperature, and fluid
conditions between every stage during a pump selection would make pump analysis
tedious and difficult.
In a selection case, all data of pump intake are calculated first, an initial stage is
then selected, and the performance for that first stage is computed. A new pressure,
at the top of that stage, is estimated by adding the pressure developed by the first
stage to the suction pressure. At this new pressure, a new total fluid flow is
calculated and a new stage selected. In this manner, as shown in Sample Problem
16-1, the pump is built up from the bottom. The key to the selection case lies in the
program’s ability to calculate a new pressure and, consequently, a new flow and
pressure gradient between each stage of the pump. The new flow rate is significant
because the total flow determines the next stage selection. The flow changes from
stage to stage because, as pressure and temperature increase, gas compressibility and
solubility change as do the water and oil viscosities (and the dissolved gas effect on
formation volume factor). The pressure gradient (density) change is significant
because, in general, the pressure developed by a stage is the gradient times the head
in feet, corrected for viscosity. Thus, the selection mode in COMPSEL monitors and
updates each of these variables at each stage in the pump selection.
772
In simulation mode, COMPSEL allows the user to input a pump configuration

and production environment and then computes for the user the expected flow rate
under the input conditions. T h s technique determines the overall efficiency of the
system and points out conditions that may dictate resizing the pump to avoid
excessive pump wear or performance deterioration due to a stage acting as a choke.
HANDLING, INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
This section provides recommended practice on the handling, installation and

operation of an ESP system. Because both safety and economic run-life are
dependent on correct procedures, the importance of following the recommended
practice cannot be overemphasized.
Handling
The downhole components, i.e., motor, pump, protector, and intake, are shipped
in a metal shipping box (see Fig. 16-22). The shipping boxes are painted red on one
end which should be placed toward the wellhead when the equipment is delivered to
Fig. 16-22. Shipping boxes positioned at the wellhead.

113
0‘
Fig. 16-23. Cable handling procedures
the wellsite. The shpping boxes should be lifted with a spreader chain or bridled
with a sling at each end. Severe equipment damage can result from dropping,
dragging, or bouncing the boxes. The shipping boxes should never be lifted by the
middle of the box only.
The cable reel should be lifted using an axle and a spreader bar (see Fig. 16-23).
If a fork lift is used, the forks should be long enough to support both reel rims when
the reel is picked up from an end. The ends of the cable should be covered or sealed
to protect against corrosion.
Transformers and switchboards are provided with lifting hooks. To avoid damage,
the recommended practice is to lift with a spreader bar in order to maintain a
vertical position. Variable-speed drives are normally skid mounted with fork lift
slots and lifting eyes. Some VSD models are manufactured with pull bars.
Additional information on ESP handling and installation procedures is available
in the American Petroleum Institute publication entitled “API Recommended
Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installations” (American Petroleum In-
stitute, 1980).
Installation
There are three steps to every ESP installation: (a) well preparation, (b) site
layout, and (c) running equipment in the well and start-up. The well preparation
procedure involves determining the downhole clearance conditions. Site layout
prescribes equipment and rig locations as well as size and capacity. Running
equipment in the well and start-up procedures include equipment handling, testing,
and responsibility of the rig crew and servicemen.
Prior to beginning installation of the ESP equipment, the well must be cleared of
any tubing, rods, packers, etc., that would prevent the downhole equipment from
114
reaching target setting depth. The casing flange and wellhead should be examined
for burrs or sharp edges. T l s is very important in small-diameter casing, because
cable damage can be caused by burrs or edges catching cable bands.
A gauge ring should be run in (particularly in 44-in. and smaller casing) to below
the setting depth of the downhole equipment. If gauging indicates tight spots, a
scraper or reamer should be used to remove the obstruction (scale, paraffin, burrs,
or partially collapsed casing). This will ensure adequate clearance for the ESP
downhole equipment as it is run into the well.
The BOP (if used) should be checked for adequate clearance as well as burrs and
sharp edges. Cut-out rams are available for most tubing and cable sizes. They
should be installed in the BOP for well control in the event of a “kick” during
equipment installation.
The pulling unit should be centered over the well as closely as possible. A guide
wheel-cable sheave should be safely secured to the rig mast no higher than 30-45 ft
above the wellhead. The guide wheel should be at least 54 in. in diameter.
The cable reel or spooling truck should be positioned about 100 ft from the
wellhead in direct line of sight of the rig operator. One person should be responsible
for the cable operation. The responsibilities of this person are to insure: (a) that
there is a minimum tension on the cable-the cable should be run at the same speed
as the tubing, (b) that the cable is kept clear of power tongs during tubing make-up
or break, and (c) that no one stands in front of the cable reel-spooler.
The cable junction box must be located at least 15 f t from the wellhead (see Fig.
16-16). The switchboard must be located a minimum of 50 ft from the wellhead and
a minimum of 35 ft from the junction box. The junction box is normally located 2-4
ft above ground level to insure adequate air circulation and easy access. The
junction box must never be located inside a building.
The pump manufacturer’s field representative checks all equipment prior to
installation. During installation, his responsibility is to supervise the pulling and/or
running of the downhole equipment. All equipment delivered to the wellsite is
checked to determine that all components necessary to complete the installation
have arrived and are not damaged.
Once the equipment, cable, and verification procedures are completed, the
assembly and run-in of downhole equipment can begin. The manufacturer’s field
representative directs the assembly and checks equipment as it is being run-in. Once
the run-in procedures are completed and final electrical tests are made, the manu-
facturer’s representative will complete the electrical connections. The switchboard
underload and overload adjustments are set according to the conditions expected
for each well. The pump is then started. Fluid pump-up time and load and no-load
voltage and amperage on each phase are recorded. Phase rotation should be
carefully checked to insure that the pump is rotating in the correct direction.
The quantity of production of oil, gas, and water should be monitored on
start-up and then regularly for the time required to achieve stability. A careful study
should be made on a pump installation that does not produce as designed. As much
information as possible should be gathered to aid in specific identification of the
775
problem and appropriate remedial action. This will insure that subsequent installa-
tions will provide satisfactory run-life.
Pulling equipment out of a well involves essentially the reverse process of run-in.
The equipment and cable should be handled with the same care as when new
because it is still valuable. Cable damage and missing bands should be recorded at
the depth they occurred to aid in subsequent repair and evaluation. If the equipment
failure is judged to be premature, the condition of cable, flat cable, pump rotation,
and motor-protector fluid may be useful in determination of the cause of the
failure.
TROUBLESHOOTING
The purpose of this section is to outline a recommendation for identification and

solution of typical ESP problems. The only way a failure can be analyzed, and a
solution reached as to its cause, is by data collection. When a problem occurs, one
should have as much information as possible.
Data which should be routinely compiled on each ESP well is:
(1) Production:
(a) Water, oil, and gas.
(b) Run-life.
(c) Unit starts and stops.
(d) Dynamic and static fluid levels.
(e) Pump setting and perforation depths.
(2) Ammeter charts.
(3) Well conditions (presence and amounts of abrasives and corrosives, e.g., H,S).
(4) Electric power quality (surges, sags, balance, negative sequence voltages, etc.).
(5) Visual observations of equipment and cable condition on prior pulls.
(6) Reasons for equipment pull (failure, workover, size change, etc.).
(7) Bottomhole temperature (BHT).
When an ESP well is first put on production, data should be collected daily for
the first week, weekly for the first month, and a minimum of monthly after the first
month. Production data during the first month is very important, because it will
indicate if the pump is performing as designed. If a downhole pressure instrument is
installed, operating bottorrihole pressure (BHP) is equally important.
The major source of information when troubleshooting an ESP installation is the
recording ammeter. The recording ammeter is a circular strip chart accessory
mounted in the switchboard, which records the amperage drawn by the ESP motor
(see Fig. 16-24). A number of changes in operating conditions can be diagnosed by
interpreting ammeter records.
Ammeter chart “reading” identifying typical problem situations is .described
below.
Normal operation
A normal chart (Fig. 16-24) is smooth with amperage being at or near motor
nameplate amperage draw. Actual operation may be either slightly above or below
116
Fig. 16-24. Normal ammeter chart. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group.)
nameplate amperage. As long as the curve is symmetric and consistent over time,
however, operation is considered normal.
Normal start-up
A normal start-up will produce a chart similar to that shown in Fig. 16-25. The
start-up “spike” is due to the inrush surge as the pump comes up to the operating
speed. The subsequent amperage draw is high but trends toward a normal level.
This is principally due to the fluid level being drawn down to the design TDH,
resulting in a high but declining amperage draw.
777
Fig. 16-25. Normal start-up ammeter chart. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products
Group.)
Power fluctuations
Operating ESP amperage will vary inversely with voltage. If system voltage
fluctuates, the ESP amperage will inversely fluctuate to maintain a constant load
(Fig. 16-26). The most common cause of this type of fluctuation is a periodic heavy
load on the primary power system. This load usually occurs when starting-up
another ESP or other large electric motor. Simultaneous start-up of several motors
should be avoided to minimize the impact on the primary power system. Ammeter
spikes can also occur during a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning strikes.
778
Fig. 16-26. Chart showing ammeter spikes (power fluctuations). (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW
Gas locking
Gas locking occurs as fluid level drawdown approaches the pump intake and
intake pressure is lower than the bubble point pressure. This situation is shown in
Fig. 16-27. This ammeter chart shows a normal start-up and amperage decline as the
fluid level is drawn down. The chart shows erratic fluctuations, however, as gas
breaks out near the pump beginning at approximately 6:15 a.m. As the fluid level
continues to draw down, cyclic loading of both free gas and fluid slugs leads to
increasingly wider amperage fluctuations, ultimately resulting in shutdown at ap-
proximately 7:15 a.m. due to undercurrent loading.
119
Fig. 16-27. Ammeter chart showing gas locking. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy
Products Group.)
There are three possible remedies for gas locking: (a) installation of a gas
separator intake and/or a motor shroud; (b) lowering of the setting depth of the
pump (but not lower than the perforations unless the motor is shrouded); and (c)
reducing the production rate of the pump by using a surface choke (but insuring
that the production rate remains within the recommended range for that pump). If
the above solutions are not satisfactory, the pump should be replaced with a pump
that does not drawdown the fluid level, or the intake pressure must be reduced
below the bubble point pressure.
Another possible solution is to add a variable-speed drive (VSD) to the existing
system. The VSD controls the speed of the pump which, in turn, controls the pump
780
Fig. 16-28. Ammeter chart illustrating fluid pump-off. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy
Products Group.)
capacity. Thus, the pump output can be fine-tuned to protect against pump-off and
gas lock while contributing to improved pump life.
Fluid pump-off
Fluid pump-off occurs typically when an ESP is too large in relation to the inflow
capacity of the well. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 16-28. This chart shows a
normal start-up at 7:OO a.m. and normal operation until approximately 1O:OO a.m.
Then amperage draw begins to slowly fall until the underload setting is reached and
781
the pump is shut-down about 2:15 p.m. Subsequent automatic restarts at 4:15 p.m.
and 8:15 p.m. produce similar results.
The remedial actions are much the same as those listed for gas lock and, in
addition, a well stimulation treatment may increase the well’s productivity closer to
a match with the pump.
In general, cycling an ESP is not conducive to optimum run-life. As a temporary
measure, the amount of time delay before automatic restart can be increased if the
switchboard is equipped with a Redalert motor controller, for example. This may
allow the fluid volume to build up to prevent as high a frequency of shutdown
Fig. 16-29. Ammeter chart showing excessive cycling. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy
Products Group.)
782
occurrence. Nevertheless, the pump and well are not compatible and the pump
should be checked as to size on the next changeout, or the well must be worked over
to improve productivity.
A form of frequent, short-duration cycling is shown in Fig. 16-29. This shows an
extreme pump-off condition. Although the initial reaction is to suspect a badly
oversized pump, there may be another cause. If a fluid level sounding, taken
immediately after pump shutdown, indicates fluid over the pump, the problem may
be a tubing leak or a restricted valve or discharge line. A tubing leak is typically
accompanied by somewhat low discharge pressure and low surface production rate.
Fig. 16-30. Ammeter chart illustrating gassy conditions. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division. TRW Energy
Products Group.)
783
If shutdown is due to a plugged valve or discharge line, tubing pressure should be

abnormally high.
Gassy conditions-emulsion
An ammeter chart of gassy but normal producing well is shown in Fig. 16-30.
The continuous amperage fluctuations result from alternating free gas and heavy
fluid pumping. Generally, this condition results in a reduction of stocktank barrels
in relation to pump design rate. This figure is also typical of an emulsion. The
Fig. 16-31. Ammeter chart illustrating presence of solids and debris. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division,
TRW Energy Products Group.)
784
amperage fluctuations are caused by the frequent, temporary blockage of the pump
intake. If it is an emulsion block, spikes are normally lower or below the normal
amperage line.
Solids-debris
When debris or solids are found in a well, the amperage will display fluctuations
immediately after start-up. This condition is shown in Fig. 16-31. Typically, when
solids such as sand and scale, or weighted mud are found in a well, special care must
Fig. 16-32. Ammeter chart showing overload condition. (Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy
Products Group.)
185
be taken on start-up to avoid pump damage. It may be necessary to put back

pressure on the well to prevent excess amperage until the kill fluid is removed
and/or sand production begins to decline to a safe volume.
Overload shutdown
A pump will also automatically shutdown in an overload condition. This condi-

tion is shown in Fig. 16-32. When an overload condition shutdown occurs, however,
the unit must not be restarted until the cause of the overload has been identified and
corrected. Some motor controller overload detection circuits contain a built-in time
delay, ranging from 1-5 sec at 500% of the set point to 2-30 secs at 200% of the set
point; they will not automatically restart the unit on an overload condition. A
restart attempt in an overload condition can destroy the downhole equipment if the
cause of the overload is not first identified and corrected.
The most common causes of an overload condition are increased fluid specific
gravity, presence of sand, emulsion, and of scale, electric power supply problems,
worn equipment, and lightning damage.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 16-1-PUMP SELECTION ON A WELL WITH A HIGH PRODUCING

GOR
Given :
Casing size and weight: St-in.; 17 lb/ft
Tubing size, weight and thread: 2;-in.; 8rd EUE
Well depth (measured and true vertical): 7200 ft
Perforations depth: 7025-7050 ft
Present and desired production rate: 500 bbl/day
Oil production rate: 250 bbl/day
Water production rate: 250 bbl/day
Gas/oil ratio: 500 scf/bbl
Static bottomhole pressure: unknown
Producing bottomhole pressure and fluid level: 500 psi at 7000 ft
Bottomhole temperature: 160'F
Wellhead temperature: 120°F
System back pressure (flowlines, separator, and wellhead): 200 psi at wellhead
Oil gravity (API): 35" API; viscosity; pour point; paraffin content; sand and
emulsion tendency.
Water specific gravity: sp. gr. = 1.1; chemical content; corrosion potential; and
scale tendency.
Gas specific gravity: 0.65 with respect to air
Reservoir formation volume factor: FVF = B = 1.077; bubble point; and
viscosity- temperature curve.
In t h s example, it is assumed, that the gas ingestion percentage ( G I P ) is 50%,
i.e., that 50% of the free gas is produced through the pump and the remaining 50% is
786
2 ,33%,:7f,D6,39? k3tR75°/*G'P
3 500 STBPD 500 GOR 100%GIP
3200 50% OIL, 50% W A T E ~
4 500 STBPD, A L L WATER
2800
-
2400-
a
-
i,
g 2000-
3
Y) -
$ 1600-
n. -
1200-
-
-
800
- I 2 3
400 -
'0 200 400 600 800 I000 1200 1400
CAPACITY, bbl/day
Fig. 16-33. Capacity curves for example problem 16-1. BHT = 160 O F .
produced up the annulus. The first step is to determine the pump discharge pressure
required in this well. This can be done using any one of several multiphase flow
correlations. The most commonly used methods are those of Hagedorn and Brown
(1965), Orkiszewski (1967), Duns and Ros (1963), Beggs and Brill (1973), and
Poettmann and Carpenter (1952).
Figure 16-33 shows four different oil, water, and gas combinations producing 500
stocktank barrels:
(1) 100% water
(2) 50% water; 50% oil; 50% GIP; GOR = 500 scf/bbl
(3) 50% water; 50% oil; 75% GIP; GOR = 500 scf/bbl
(4) 50% water; 50% oil; 100% GIP, GOR = 500 scf/bbl
As a higher percent of free gas is produced through the pumps (GIP), discharge
pressure decreases. The intake volume at the pump, however, increases dramatically.
In t h s example, the Hagedorn and Brown (1965) correlations are utilized. The
vertical flowing pressure gradients are presented in Fig. 16-34. In order to utilize
tlus correlation, the gas/liquid ratio (GLR)must be calculated first. Then the pump
discharge pressure is determined.
R, = ( R - R , intake) GIP + R , = (500 - 80) X 0.5 + 80 = 290 scf/bbl
and
GLR through the pump = R , X GIP = 290 X 0.5 = 145 scf/bbl,

787
a 4 8 12 16 20 28
Fig. 16-34. Vertical flowing pressure gradients for various gas/liquid ratios (50% water and 50% oil).
(Courtesy of Reda Pump Division, TRW Energy Products Group, and PennWell Publishing Company:
Brown, 1980, p. 454.)
where R, = cumulative produced gas/oil ratio, scf/bbl, R = total producing gas oil
ratio, scf/bbl; R , = solubility of gas in oil at 500 psi (gas in solution), scf/bbl;
GIP = gas ingestion, percent; and GLR = gas/liquid ratio, scf/bbl.
Using Fig. 16-34, the 200 psi wellhead pressure is equal to 1500 ft of head. Thus,
+
the total head at 7000 f t is equal to: 7000 1500 = 8500 ft. Given 8500 f t head and
788
a GLR of 145 scf/bbl, from Fig. 16-34 the pressure required to flow is 2630 psig at
the pump discharge.
Next, the volume at the pump intake and successive stages is computed given the
bottomhole temperature and pressure:
Volume intake = (oil + dissolved gas) + (water) + (gas)

Y n = qo(1- 4)'0 + qO(W,)Bw + qo(1- K > ( R- Rs)(Bg)(GIP)
where qo = total fluid; Wc= percent water cut; B, = formation volume factor (FVF)
for oil; B, = formation volume factor of water; Bg= formation volume factor of
gas; R,= solubility of gas in oil, scf/bbl; R = total gas/oil producing ratio,
scf/bbl; and GIP = gas ingestion percent.
Standing's correlations are used here to determine the solution gas/oil ratio at
various pressures and the formation volume factor of oil. Refer to Figs. 16-35 and
16-36.
(a) Determine how many scf of gas are dissolved in a barrel of oil at 500 psi
intake pressure using Fig. 16-35:
At a pressure of 500 psi, 80 cu ft of gas are dissolved in a barrel of oil at 160°F
BHT.
(b) From Fig. 16-36, at 80 scf/bbl, formation volume factor of oil ( B , ) is equal
to 1.077.
As fluid moves through the pump, pressure increases and volume decreases.
These charts enable the determination of the gas in solution and the B, at each
incremental step in the pump calculation.
V,, = 500(1 - 0.5)1.077 + 500(1 - 0.5) X 500(1 - 0.5) X (500 - 80)0.5(0.00577) =
+
269.25(oil) + 250(water) 302.93(gas) = 822.18 bbl
where 0.00577 = Bg = 0.00504ZT/p = 0.00504 x 0.95 x 620/514.7 (bottomhole
conditions), 2 = 0.95 (compressibility factor obtained from Fig. 16-37; T = 620"R;
and p = 514.7 psia (submergence pressure).
The same method of calculating V,, is used to determine the volume at succes-
sively higher pressures until the discharge pressure of 2630 psi is reached. The
COMPSEL program performs this calculation in one-stage increments. In t h s
example, 50-psi increments are used to shorten the calculation process. On succes-
sive calculations, the value for GZP is 100% and, consequently, R becomes equal to
R,, where: R , = ( R - Rs)GZP+ R,; ( R - R,) = gas going up the casing; and
R , = (500-80)0.5 + 80 = 290 scf/bbl. Gas/liquid ratio through the pump = total
fluid X oil cut = 290 X 0.5 = 145 scf/bbl.
Thus the equation becomes:
in' = q(1- wc>[Bo+ (Wc/' - Wc) + ('p - Rs)Bgl.
For 550 psi:
+ +
V,, = 500(0.5)[1.08 + 1 (290 - 88)0.00539] = 250[1.08 + 1 1.091 = 792.5.
For 600 psi:
V,, = 250(1.084 + 1 + [(290 - 100)0.00480]) = 749 bbl/day.
-1
W
Fig. 16-35. Determination of bubble point pressure for crude oils from California. (After Standing, 1952; courtesy of Chevron Research Company.) W
790
EXAMPLE
ffEQUIffED:
Formation vo/ume at POO'F of a
bubble point fiquid having a gar-oil
ratio of 350 CFB, a g a s g r ~ v i t yof 0.75,
a n d a h n k o,/ g r a v i t y o f 30 .AP/.
PRO c E o u a E :
Starting at the / r f t side of the chart,
proceed horizonta//y d u n 9 t h e 350 CFB
/inr to a gas gravgty of 0. 7 5 . From this
point d r o p vwtica//y fo the 30%P/ /in=
Proceed horrzontaNy from fie tank oil
gravity scde to the 200'F h e . The
requirrd formation volume is rbund to be
f.22 barrel ner bar-/ of t a n k od.
-~ ~
FORMATION VOLUME of BUBBLE POINT LIQUID -
Fig. 16-36. Oil formation volume factor of California natural hydrocarbon mixtures of gas and liquid at bubble point. (After Standing. 1952; courtesy of
Chevron Research Company.)
791
Fig. 16-37. Compressibility factors for a 0.65 gravity natural gas. (After Brown and Beggs, 1977, fig. 2.17,
p. 86; courtesy of PennWell Publishing Company.)
For 650 psi:

+ +
V, = 250(1.093 1 [(290 - 117)0.00441]) = 714 bbl/day.
For 700 psi:
F, +
= 250(1.095 + 1 [(290 - 119)0.00410])= 699 bbl/day.
For 750 psi:
F, + +
= 250(1.097 1 [(290 - 130)0.00380])= 676 bbl/day.
For 800 psi:
+
F, = 250(1.102 1 + [(290 - 138)0.0035])= 658 bbl/day.
For 850 psi:
F, +
= 250(1.109 1 + [(290 - 152)0.0033])= 641 bbl/day.
792
For 900 psi:

+
V,, = 250(1.112 1 + [(290 - 160)0.0031])= 629 bbl/day.
For 950 psi:
+
V,, = 250(1.115 1 + [(290 - 171)0.0030])= 618 bbl/day.
For 1000 psi:
V,, = 250(1.119 + 1 + [(290 - 180)0.0028])= 607 bbl/day.
For 1200 psi:
+
V,, = 250(1.136 + 1 [(290 - 255)0.0023]) = 554 bbl/day.
For 1400 psi:
+
V,, = 250(1.164 + 1 [(290 - 275)0.0019]) = 548 bbl/day.
For 1600 psi:
V,, = 250(1.18 + 1 + [(290 - 310)0.0019]) = 536 bbl/day.
At high pressures, R , increases to become equal to or to exceed the value of R ,
(specifically, above 1600 psi). When this occurs, there is no free gas. In Figs. 16-35
and 16-36, R , = R,, and at 290 scf the pressure is equal to 1535 psia; at a pressure
of 1535 psia, B, = 1.175. At pressures of 1535 psi through 2630 psi, the volume is
equal to:
V,, = 250(1.175 + 1 + [290 - 29010.0019) = 544 bbl/day.
The specific weight (y,) of gas moving through the pump can be calculated using
the following equation:
28.97 X SG, X p
Y, = ZR T
where SG, = specific gravity of gas, with respect to air; p = pressure of 1 atmo-
sphere; 2 = compressibility factor; R = gas constant; and T = temperature, OR.
At standard conditions:
28.97 X SG, X p
= 0.0496 lb/cu ft.
= 1 X 10.73 X 520
The weight of the gas is equal to:

y, x GLR = 0.0496 X 500 = 24.8 lb/bbl.
The specific weight of oil, yo, is equal to:
yo = SG, x 350 lb/bbl = 0.8489 X 350 = 297 lb/bbl.
The specific weight of water, y,, is equal to:
yw = SG, x 350 lb/bbl = 1.1X 350 lb/bbl.
+
Thus, the weight of one stocktank barrel = W, W, + W, = (24.8 X 0.5) + (297 X
+
0.5) (385 x 0.5) = 353.4 lb/bbl.
The net weight W, is equal to:
W, = 353.4 - 5.21(gas up casing) = 348.19 lb/bbl.
The weight rate of flow of 500 stocktank barrels per day = 500 X 348.19 = 174,095
lb/day. The weight of the pump fluid intake = 822 X 350 lb/bbl (at SG = 1.0) =
793
287,700 lb/day. Thus, specific gravity is equal to:

174,095/287,700 = 0.61
and pressure gradient = 0.61 X 0.433 psi/ft = 0.264 psi/ft. The pressure gradients at
various pressures are presented below:
Pressure Flow Specific gravity Pressure gradient
(Psi) (bbl/day) SG (PSi/ft)
500 822 0.610 0.264
550 792 0.628 0.272
600 749 0.664 0.288
650 714 0.697 0.302
700 699 0.712 0.308
750 676 0.736 0.319
800 658 0.753 0.326
850 641 0.776 0.336
900 629 0.791 0.342
950 618 0.805 0.349
lo00 607 0.819 0.355
1200 554 0.871 0.377
1535 544 0.914 0.396
The pump selection for the pump intake rate of 822 bbl/day through the pump
discharge rate of 544 bbl/day would initially utilize the DN-750 pump (see Fig.
16-38). The initial rate of 822 bbl/day is very close to the peak efficiency of the
DN-750 pump. At pressures of 500 and 550 psi, the average volumetric rate of flow
is equal to: [(822 + 792)/2] = 807 bbl/day; the average specific gravity is 0.62; and
the pressure gradient is 0.268 psi/ft. The DN-750 pump develops about 22.7
ft/stage at the 807 bbl/day rate; thus:
pressure in psi per stage = pressure gradient X ft/stage = 0.268 X 22.7 = 6.08.
The number of stages is equal to:

total pressure/(pressure/stage) = 50/6.08 = 8.22.
Horsepower per stage at 807 bbl/day is 0.235. Thus, after correction for specific
gravity, the horsepower required for 8.22 stages is equal to:
8.22 x 0.235 x 0.62 = 1.19 HP.
For additional ranges:
Pressure Average flow Number of Horsepower

range rate stages
(Psi) (bbl/day)
500-550 807 8.22 1.19
550-600 770 7.60 1.14
600-650 731 6.92 1.06
- -
22.74 3.39
794
795
main
S t o p -. P r o g r a m t e r m i n a t e d .
DATE - 3/21/1984 TIME - 12:36:54 pm
NEW C A S E
C O R R E C T I N G F'LIMP FERFORMANCE F O R V I S C O S I T Y
G I F OVER ONE. WILL. D l V l D E B Y 100.
COOPER 1.0 3.0
WRFIDE 1. 1
.
1 l:ll:l~:ll:~ .1
5 0 0 . I;I~:I~>~:I
PRESSLIRE 2 BARRELS F R E E
1 .9886 30. 0445
2 7021:). 7. 4507
-, 9'7 44. 3.7'1.57
4 .9465 2.3677
5 .95e7 1.6527
6 95 10 . 1 .:'I I0
'7 .Y4.16 .
Y 11.14
8
Y
c,921
.
I
-,
:'j 2 4
.
4ASb
1 1:)
11
12
i3
14
15 7'78.2
GR
.2 h 10
.2095
. t9r.19
.31R7
I 3650
.:.ti44
Fig. 16-39. Computer printout of Sample problem 16-1.

796
.
F i 4 I hh
541.M
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD 5Z9CI. 971)C)

MINIMCIM FUMF DISCHARGE PRESS!JRE 2 5 2 8 . .3:)l:)l:l
PRESSURE DHUP ACROSS F'IJMF 2 128. 3l:~l:ll:l
**** RESERVOIR DATA AND PUMP SEL.ECTION R E S U L T S *++*
WELL NAME E X A M F L F F'R0BLk.M # 1 60 CYCLE POWER
FLUID C H A R A C T E K I S T I C S WELLBOFE: CONDI T I O N 9
5ol:l. I:Kl SCF/BBL. ME: AS1.IRE.I) DEP T t i

GOR
O I L GRAVITY &-
;:,a.
..
ClO DEti RP I SIBHP
GAS G R A V I T Y
c.
hS . INTAYE' F'RESSURE
WATER CUT . ~ l , >00
. PERCENT WELL..HEAD PRESSURE
VISCOSITY 8.00 CP A T 11:)o.oO F: PERFORATIONS
VISCOSITY 2.415 CP A T 200.00 F ROTTOM HOLE TEMP
MEAN TEMPERATLIRE 140.10 DEE F FREE G A S A T I N T A K E
F I 1 . l-)l:) BF'D/I;'ST 'TLIBINO S I Z E
VERT PUMP DEPTH
WELLIiEAD TEMF
Fuw C r m F I GUHAT I or4 FUMF' FERFURMANCE
I NTAI.: E VOLUME 822.38 BFD

D I SCHARGE VOLCIME 541.66 HPD
DISCHARGE PKESSUFiE 2628.30 PSI
DR A w Do w IN 501:i.oo FSI
FBHF' 5":l . 1:10 PS I
STAGES TYPE D E S I R E D FLOW 500.00 BPD
cc
82 DN-.7St:) HOF(sjEp:mOWER ad. 85
264 D--5513
DATE .- ;/2i/i9a4 TIMF - 1:2:47:25 pm
Using the same approach, the DN-750 stage is utilized followed by the D550,until
reaching the target rate of 544 bbl/day and 2630 psi discharge pressure.
The COMPSEL selection for this problem was 82 stages, DN-750,and 264
stages, D550. The horsepower requirements were 55.85 HP after the well is stabi-
lized at a design rate of 541.7 bbl/day. The design discharge pressure is 2628.3 psi.
An important point to remeber is that the COMPSEL designed pump is at a stable
producing rate. If the well was killed with a heavy fluid, additional stages and
797
horsepower may be required to unload the well.

Figure 16-39 represents the computer printout of this problem.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS A N D QUESTIONS
(1) Determine the equipment series required, given the following information:
(a) Well total depth ( T D ) = 3900 ft
(b) 8;-in., 36-lb casing to a depth of 3000 ft
(c) 6;-in., 24-lb liner to TD; top at 2950 ft
(d) Depth of perforations = 3000-3450 ft
(e) Pump setting depth = 3250 ft
( f ) Flow rate: 2100 bbl/day STB-100 bbl/day of oil and 2000 bbl/day of water
(g) Tubing size: 2$-in., 8rd EUE
(h) Maximum fluid entry is below 3300 ft.
(2) Given the following information, design the pump, motor, cable string, and
transformer for an optimum ESP installation:
(a) Casing: 6i-in., 24-lb, I D = 5.921 in., drift = 5.796 in.
(b) Setting depth: 4000 ft vertical depth (VD), 4000 ft measured depth ( M D )
(c) Bottomhole temperature = 150 O F
(d) Tubing: 2$-in. EUE
(e) Surface pressure = 100 psi
( f ) Water cut = 90%; sp. gr. water = 1.0
(g) Voltage supply: 480 V
(h) Desired gross production rate: 1500 bbl/day
(i) PFL (lift) = 3800 f t
TDH = Net lift + Friction loss + System back pressure.
(3) Determine the expected production rate, given the following information:
(a) Gas absent
(b) Specific gravity = 1.1
(c) Lift: 5000 ft vertical; 7000 ft measured.
(d) Downhole pressure unit: 100 psi
(e) Tubing pressure = 150 psi
( f ) Installed pump: 230-stage, DN 750
(g) Motor length = 17.5 ft
(h) Protector length = 5.3 ft.
(4) Find (a) pump size (OD) from the manufacturer’s selection chart, and (b)
stage type (i.e., flow rate recommended range) using manufacturer’s selection chart,
given the following information:
(a) Casing: 7-in., 23-lb
(b) Tubing: 3-in., 8rd EUE
(c) Bottomhole temperature = 175O F
(d) Wellhead temperature = 130 O F
(e) Tubing pressure = 280 psi
798
( f ) GOR = 1290 cu ft/bbl

(g) Specific gravity of gas = 0.674 (air = 1.0)
(h) Oil gravity = 47 OAPI
(i) Water cut = 28.6%
0) Pump intake pressure = 1140 psi
(k) Gross production rate = 1900 bbl/day
(1) Gas separator efficiency = 50%
(m) PVT data:
Pressure
(Psi) 0 97 253 269 500 750 1000 1250
Rs
(cuft/bbl) 0 239 300 375 491 599 704 809
BO 1.08 1.29 1.34 1.40 1.47 1.54 1.59 1.65
ZatBHT 1 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.87
(5) Given the following data:

(a) 6850 No. 2 cable; maximum amp. = 70 A
(b) SBHP = 2500 psi at 7000 ft datum; 8241-1. casing
(c) FBHP = 1800 psi
(d) Tubing: 2H-in.
(e) Present total production = 525 bbl/day (75 bbl/day of oil)
( f ) ftube: 17 ft/lOOO f t
(g) GOR = 80 cu ft/bbl
(h) B H T = 160°F
(i) Perforations depth: 6900-7450 ft
0) Surface pressure = 100 psi
(k) Pump 17 = 60%
(1) Motor 17 = 90%
(m) Bo = 1.2
(n) PF = 0.9
(0)Fluid gravity data: sp. gr. oil = 0.904 (25OAPI), sp. gr. water = 1.02, sp. gr.
gas (air = 1)= 0.7.
(p) Pump setting depth = 6800 ft
(q) Pump intake desired pressure = 200 psi
Determine:
(a) Shut-in BHP at the pump
(b) Production capacity:
(i) using IPR curve, (ii) using J ( P I )
(c) Determine volumetric rate of flow (reservoir bbl) at intake
(d) Determine friction loss
(e) Determine TDH (total dynamic head) = Lift + Tubing friction loss + Wellhead
pressure - Intake pressure
799
( f ) Determine hydraulic I-€'(H,)

(g) Determine motor Ep(H,,,)
(h) Calculate the minimum motor voltage
(6) What factors determine the maximum setting depth of the ESP? Why?
(7) Describe different types of pump intakes.
(8) What factors determine the maximum diameter of the pump, motor, and
protector? Why?
REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute, 1980. API Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installa-
tion. RP 11R. API, Dallas, Tex.
American Petroleum Institute, 1982. Recommended Practice for the Operation, Maintenance and Trouble
Shooting of Electric Submersible Pump Installations. API, Dallas, Tex.
Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P., 1973. A study of two-phase flow in inclined pipes. J. Pet. Tech., 25(5):
607-617.
Brown, K.E., 1980. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methob, Vol. 2a. PenWell, Tulsa, Okla., 720 pp.
Brown, K.E. and Beggs, H.D., 1977. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods. Vol. 1. PennWell, Tulsa,
Okla., 487 pp.
Chew, J. and Connally Jr., C.A., 1959. A viscosity correlation for gas-saturated crude oils. Trans. A I M E ,
216: 23-25.
Duns, Jr., H. and Ros, N.C.J., 1963. Verticalflow of gas and liquid mixtures in wells. Proc. 6th World Pet.
Congr., Frankfurt, p. 451.
Hagedorn, A.R. and Brown, K.E., 1965. Experimental study of pressure gradients occumng during
continuous two-phase flow in small-diameter vertical conduits. J. Pet. Tech ., 17(4): 475-484.
Lasater, J.A., 1958. Bubble point pressure correlation. J. Pet. Tech., lO(5): 65-67; Trans. A I M E , 213:
379-381.
Martin, J.W. and Vatalaro, F.J., 1979. Testing of Oil Well Power Cables Under Simulated Downhole
Conditions. TRW Reda Pump Div. Publ.
Mead, H., 1975. Oasis submersible lift operations. SPE 5287. Paper, presented at the Soc. Pet. Eng.
European Spring Meeting, London, April 14-15, 5 pp.
O'Neil, R.K., 1976. Application and selection of electrical submergible pumps. SPE 5907. Paper, presented
at the Annu. Rocky Mountain Regional Meet., Casper, Wyo., May 10-11, 12 pp.
Orkiszewski, J., 1967. Predicting two-phase pressure drops in vertical pipes. J. Pet. Tech., 6: 829-838.
Poettmann, F.H. and Carpenter, P.G., 1952. The multiphase flow of gas, oil and water through vertical
flow strings with application to the design of gas life installations. Drill. Prod. Prac., A P I : 257.
Standing, M.B., 1975. A pressure-volume-temperature correlation for mixtures of California oils and
gases. Drill. Prod. Prac., A P I : 275.
Standing, M.B., 1952. Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Hydrocarbon Systems. Reinhold, New
York, N.Y.
Schultz, H.F., 1973. Extraordinary application of electrical submergible centrifugal pump equipment. S P E
4723. Paper, presented at the South Plaine Prod. Tech. Symp., Lubbock, Tex., Nov. 1-2.
Swetnan, J.C. and Sackash, M.L., 1977. Performance review oftapered submergible pumps in the Three Bar
(Devonian) Field. SPE 6854. Paper, presented at the 52nd Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. and Exhibition,
Dallas, Tex., Oct. 9-12, 5 pp.
Vasquez, M. and Beggs, H.D., 1980. Correlations for fluid physical property predictions. J. Pet. Tech.,
32(6): 968-970.
Vogel, J.V., 1968. Inflow performance relationships for solution-gas drive wells. J. Pet. Tech,, 20(1):
r~
83-92; Trans. A I M E , 243: 83-92.

This
801
REFERENCES INDEX *
Numbers in italics refer to references lists
Abraham, H., 147 464, 465, 539, 582, 609, 633, 786, 787, 791,
Agnew, B.G., 413 799
Alden, R.C., 254, 256, 277 BUITOWS, D.B., 257-259, 277
Al-Hussainy, R., 357, 370 Byrd, J.P., 537, 539, 569, 579, 580, 582, 593, 608,
Allen, T.O., 373, 374, 413
609, 619, 620, 633
Amin, M.B., 51, 58
Anderson, R.L., 529
Andrews, D.E., 291, 326 Campbell, A.T., Jr., 347, 371
Campbell, J.M., 73-76, 85, 108, 277
Cantrell, R.C., 414
Babson, E.C., 529 Capps, B., 449, 465, 531, 634, 736
Baker, O., 293, 326 Carpenter, P.G., 286, 326, 786, 799
Bancroft, T.A., 529 Carr, N.L., 49, 58, 257-259, 277
Bansbach, P.L., 147 Carter, R.D., 371
Barcenas, G.H., 414 Champion, C.A., 413
Barnickel, W.S., 114, 132, 147 Chernikin, V.I., 239, 250, 277
Barry, E.G., 253, 276 Chew, J., 245, 246, 277, 771, 799
Beal, C., 244-246, 276 Chilingar, G.V., 41, 108, 147, 159, 170, 204, 210,
Beasly, W.L., 620, 633 413, 429, 465, 467
Beauregard, E., 467, 469. 529, 530 Chilton, C.H., 69. 108, 219, 261, 277
Beeson, C.M., 108, 147, 204, 210, 429, 465, 467, Clavier, C., 413
528, 529 Clayton, W., 147
Beggs, H.D., 222, 244, 246, 258, 276, 277, 279, Clegg, J., 449, 465, 531, 634, 736
281. 282, 286, 287, 290, 292, 296, 326, 363, Cleveland, R.G., 291, 326
371, 464, 760, 786, 799 Cobb, W.M., 346, 372
Bessler, D.U., 147 Coberly, C.J., 736
Bicher, L.B., 49, 58 Colebrook, C.F., 277
Binder. R.C., 23-25, 27, 41 Connally, C.A., Jr., 245, 246, 277, 771. 799
Bird, R.B.. 259 Conti, V.J., 252, 277
Blair, C.M.. 124
Cooke, C.E., Jr., 414
Bogart, A.J., 391-400, 413 Coombs. C.E., 147
Bommer, P.M., 620, 633
Corneil, D., 178, 210, 266, 277
Bonnet, J.L., 414
Craft, B.C., 85, 108, 214, 277, 465, 561, 568. 573.
Borden, ti., Jr., 661, 736
574, 579. 580, 582, 609, 633
Brear, A,, 427
Cragoe, C.S., 247, 277
Brigham, W.E., 368, 371 Crawford, P.B., 357. 370
Brill, J.P., 222, 258, 276, 286. 287, 290, 292, 326, Curtis, M.R., 414
786, 791, 799
Brons, F., 346. 355. 371 Dale, J.R., 414
Brown, G.G., 67, 108, 254, 256, 260, 276, 277 Davenport, T.C., 252, 277
Brown, K.E., 277. 279, 281, 282, 286, 291, 296, Davies, D.L.. 495, 496, 529
300, 326, 363, 371, 416, 419, 428, 429, 432, Day, J.J., 539, 569, 579, 580. 582, 593, 608, 609,
439, 441, 442, 445, 449, 452-457, 459, 460. 619, 633
* Prepared by Mehmet Parlar and George V. Chilingarian.

802
Deam, J.R., 83, 108 Hansen, W.P., 233, 277

DeGroote, M., 147 Hartnett, J.P., 242, 277
DePriester, C.L., 52-54, 58 Hazebroek, P., 355, 371
Dietz, D.N., 346, 355, 371 Hein, W.G., 159, 170
Dodd, H.V., 147 Heinze, F., 266, 277
Doering, M.A., 414 Hill, G.A., 371
Doherty, W.T., 277, 417, 465, 582, 634 Hirata, M., 233, 277
Dolan, J.P., 371 Hirschfelder, J.O., 259
Doty, D.R., 633 Hohmann, E.C., 82, 108
Dougherty, E.L., 270, 277 Holden, W.R., 85, 108, 214, 277, 465, 561, 568,
Dow, D.B., 147 573, 574, 579, 580, 582, 609, 633
Dukler, A.E., 291, 326 Homer, D.R., 353, 356, 371
Duns, H., Jr., 287, 288, 326, 786, 799 Horton, W.D., 518, 530
Dyes, A.B., 355, 356, 371 Hougen, O.A., 51, 58
Hoyle, W., 413
Eakin, B.E., 258, 277 Hurst, W., 344, 350, 371, 372
Earlougher, R.C., Jr., 326, 348, 351, 354, Hutchinson, C.A., Jr., 355, 356, 371
367-369, 371
Eaton, B.A., 291, 326 Ikoku, C.U.,60, 71, 108
Edmister, W.C., 261, 277
Eickmeier, J.R., 599, 619, 633
Einarsen, C.A., 371 Jackson, B.R.,413
Elenbaas, J.R., 178, 210, 266, 277 Johnson, J.L., 159, 170
Erbar, J.H., 83, 108 hhnson, W., 414
Eubanks, J.M., 611, 633 Juch, A.H., 296, 326
Ezekial, M., 485, 530
Fagg, L.W., 609, 633 Kamal, M., 371

Falade, G.K., 368, 371 Kato, H., 233, 277
Ferguson, P.L., 467, 469, 529, 530 Katz, D.L., 49, 58, 178, 210, 254-256, 266, 277
Fetkonch, M.J., 359-365, 371 Kazemi, H., 347, 371
Flanigan, O., 292, 326 Kelly, H.L., 581, 633
Focazio, K.R., 634 Kelvin, Lord, Sir, W.T., 343, 371
Franks, B.L., 611, 633 Kempthome, O., 530
Frick, T.C., 41, 108, 244, 277 Kennedy, J.L., 199, 210
Fuentes, A.J., 290, 326 Kirkpatrick, C.V., 441, 465
Knowles, C.R., 291, 326
Gardner, L.W., 326 Knox, D.G., 528, 529
Gatlin, C., 333, 371 Kobayashi, R., 178, 210, 257-259, 266, 277
Gibbs, S.G., 561, 633
Gibson, J.A., 347, 371 Lasater, J.A., 760, 799
Gilbert, W.E., 294, 326, 458, 465 Laurence, L.L., 108
Gipson, F., 449, 465, 531, 634, 736 Lawrence, D.K., 611, 633
Gonzalez, M.H., 258, 277 Lea, J.F., 469, 530
Graves, E.D., Jr., 85, 108, 214, 277, 465, 561, Lebeaux, J.M., 530
568, 573, 574, 579, 580, 582, 609, 633 Lee, A.L., 258, 277, 442, 465
Greenlee, R.W., 124 Lenoir, J.M., 48, 51, 58
Gregory, A.R., 326 Lloyd, F.T., 530
Griffin, F.D., 633 Lockhut, F.J., 51, 58, 78-82, 108
Gurwitsch, L., 147 Lockhart, R.W., 291, 326
Loeb, J., 414
Hagedorn, A.R., 286, 300, 326, 786, 799 Ludwig, E.E., 277
Hammack, G.W., 414 Lynch, E.J., 321, 329, 371
803
Mach, J., 460, 465, 539, 582, 609, 633 Ramey, H.J., Jr., 346, 357, 366, 367, 370, 372
Maddox, R.N., 51, 58, 83, 108, 188, 210 Rankine, A.O., 259
Makowski, M.M., 234, 277 Reed, C.E., 485, 486, 530
Marks, A., 277 Reistle, C.E., Jr., 147
Marsh, H.N., 611, 634 Riley, H.G., 371
Martin, J.W., 799 Ritter, R.B., 48, 58
Martinelli, R.C., 291, 326 Roberts, A.P., 373, 374, 413
Matthews, C.S., 350, 355, 371 Roberts, C.H.M., 124
Maxwell, T.E., 611, 633 Robinson, D.R., 83, 108
McHenry, R.J., 78-81, 108 Robinson, J.R., 244, 246, 276
McMurry, E.D., 530 Rogers, W.F., 163, 170
Mead, H., 799 Rohsenow, W.M., 242, 277
Merryman, C.J., 611, 633 Ros, N.C.J., 287, 288, 326, 786, 799
Meunier, D., 413, 414 Russel, D.G., 350, 371
Miller, C.C., 355, 356, 371 Russel, J.H., Jr., 599, 634
Miller, F.G., 369, 371 Rzasa, M.J., 661, 736
Miller, S.C., 371
Miller, W.C., 346, 371 Sackash, M.L., 799
Mills, K.N., 570, 578, 634 Schaller, H.E., 413
Mochlinski, K., 234, 277 Schmidt, Z., 633
Monson, L.T., 124, 147 Schultz, H.F., 799
Moody, L.F., 214, 215, 225, 277 Schweppe, J.L., 48, 58
Moms, B.P., 414 Selig, F., 357, 372
Momson, W.E., 210 Shaw, S.F., 432, 433, 465
Moulin, J., 414 Shea, G.B., 124
Mueller, T.D., 344, 345, 369, 371 Shenvood, T.K., 485, 486, 530
Muskat, M., 371 Silberberg, I.H., 291, 326
Myers, B.D., 414 Sivalls, C.R., 108
Smith, C.J., 259
Neely, B., 449, 465, 531, 634, 736 Smith, D.P., 414
Nellensteyn, F.J., 147 Smith, H.V., 59, 108
Nelson, W.L., 21-23, 28, 38, 41, 44, 51, 56-58, Smith, R.C., 414
83, 86, 108 Sorg, K.G., 259
Ney, C., 290, 326 Souders, M., 67, 108
Nishiwaki, N., 233, 277 Spotz, E.L., 259
Standing, M.B., 255, 277, 284, 285, 326, 662,
Oberfell, G.B., 254, 256, 277 663, 736, 760, 771, 789, 790, 799
Odeh, AS., 357, 372 Steffensen, R.J., 414
O’Neil, R.K., 799 Stenzel, R.W., 124, 147
Orkiszewski, J., 771, 786, 799 Stoddard, J.H., 528, 529
Osborne, A., 83, 108 Stoner, M.A., 277
Stormont, D.H., 166-1 70
Papadopulos, I.S., 366, 372 Streeter, V.L., 277
Parent, J.D., 49, 58 Sudduth, L.F., 530
Peacock, D.R., 414 Swetnan, J.C., 799
Peck, R.E., 49, 58 Swigart, T.E., 124
Peng, D., 83, 108 Szilas, A.P., 214, 223, 227-229, 235, 239, 249,
Perrine, R.L., 369, 372 250, 252, 264, 269, 277, 532, 634
Perry, R.H., 69, 108, 219, 261, 277
Poettmann, F.H., 178, 210, 266, 277, 286, 326, Thomas, R., 243, 277
786, 799 Thrash, P.J., 419, 439, 441, 442, 449, 456, 457,
Poupon, A., 414 459, 465
Praisnar, A,, Jr., 465 Tissot, B.P., 39, 41
Prats, M., 368, 372 Tixier, M.P., 414
804
Trammel, P., 465 Weinaug, C.F., 178, 210, 266, 277

Trantz, M., 259 Weller, W.T., 369, 372
Trader, R.N., 147 Welte, D.H., 39, 41
Treadway, R.B., 634 Whiney, K.F., 74-76, 85, 108
Turner, W.C., 243, 277 Wicks, M., 291, 326
WiLkins, R.B., 108
Uren, L.C., 108 Williams, A.R., 147
Willis, R.M., 581, 633
Van Everdingen, A.F., 344, 350, 372 Wilson, H.M., 199, 210
Van Poollen, H.K., 347, 372 Wilson, P.M., 449, 465, 531, 634, 736
Vary, J..4., 178, 210, 266, 277 Winkler, H.W., 465
Vasquez, M., 160,799 Witherspoon, P.A., 344, 345, 371
Vatalaro, F.J., 799 Witterholt, E.J., 414
Vogel, J.V., 281, 283, 326, 759, 771, 799 Woodruff, W.E., 391-400, 413
Worley, M.S., I08
Wade, R.T., 414
Wylie, E.B., 277
Waterman, L.C., 124
Wylie, M.R.T., 326
Watson, K.M., 57, 58
Wattenbarger, R.A., 357, 372
Watts, E.V., 611, 634 Zaba, J., 277, 417, 465, 582, 608, 634
805
SUBJECT INDEX *
Absorber, 194 - subsurface pump classification, 537

-, bubble tray, 194 API gravity, 416-418
Absorption process, 193, 197, 208 - - vs. specific gravity and pressure gradient,
- -, oil, 193, 197 700, 701
- - in natural gasoline treatment, 208 Aromatic hydrocarbons, 37
Acceleration factor, 569 Automatic custody transfer, 14, 15
- - for rod string, 569 - - -, meter type, 14
Acid gas, 178, 179, 182, 183, 188 - - -, volumetric dump type, 15
- - content of natural gases, 179, 182, 183
- - removal from natural gas, 188 Baker’s correlation, 293
Adsorbent treater, 187 Bed’s correlation, 244-246
- -, solid, 187 Begs-Brill,
Absorption process for, - - correlation, 286, 287
- - _ gas treating, 187 - - equation, 258
- - - liquid extraction from natural gas, 191 Begs-Robinson correlation, 244
Agmg of emulsions, 112, 128 Benzene series, 37
Agitation for demulsification, 133, 144 Bernouk’s equation, 26, 28
Air, Blasius equation, 214
- content of natural gases, 183 Blower, 12
- lift, 415 Boiling loss, 150
Aikane. 39 Boiling point,
Alkene, 40 - -, mean average, 48
Allowable working pressure, - - of components of petroleum fluids, 43
- - _ of pipeline, 212 Booster pump stations, 224, 228
Ammeter, 751 - _ _ , design of, 228
- charts for troubleshooting ESP systems, Borden-Rzasa correlation, 661
775-784 Breathing loss, 149
-, functions of, 751 Brown’s chart for specific heat of MC-vapors,
Anchnr, 260
- pipe (perforated), 329 Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden correlation,
- shoe, 329 254
Anisotropic formations, 366, 367 %S&W,116, 134
- -, permeabilit,y matrix for, 366 Bubble flow, 287, 288, 387
- -, permeability nomenclature for, 367 Bubble point,
- -, pressure gradient for, 366 - - pressure correlation, 661
API, 537. 538, 583-593, 611-618 - - temperature of a mixture, 55
- pump designation, 538 Bubble tray absorber, 194
- recommended procedures for problem well Buildup (pressure), 327, 340, 353, 354, 355, 355
analysis, 611-67 8 - analysis (example), 355
- recommended procedure for sucker rod pump- - following a long producing time, 356
ing design, 583-593 -, idealized rate-pressure history for, 354
* Prepared by Mehmet P a r k and George V. Chilingarian.

806
- test, 327, 340, 353 -, functions of, 294, 323, 325

- - in gas wells, 357 - in DST assembly, 332
Buoyancy, 25, 146 -, orifice, 452
- force on the rods, 577 -, required size of, 294, 295
Bureau of Mines Tester, 183 -, types of, 323
- _ _ _ for water content of natural gas, 183 Christmas tree, 516, 469
Butane, 185 - -, plunger lift, 516
- -, type M plunger lift, 469
Cable, 748,149, 768, 769, 770, 773 Circle, some geometric properties of, 69
- extensions (flat), 769, 770 Claus plant, 188
- handling procedures, 773 Closed power fluid system, 671, 676, 683, 696
-, motor flat, 749 _ _ _ _ , power fluid tank in, 683
-, power (ESP), 748 _ _ _ _ , pressure equation for, 696
- selection, 767 - _ - -, surface facilities of, 683
- voltage drop losses, 768 Coalescence of droplets, 133
Cadmium sulfide test, 183 Coalescing force,
Calibration, - -, attractive, formula for, 116
- of flowmeters, 385, 386, 389, 403, 408 Colebrook’s equation, 214
- of spinner flowmeter (in-situ), 385, 386, 389 Compressibility,
Caliper, - factor ( Z ) ,44, 45, 254
-, through tubing, 378, 379 - factor ( Z ) chart, 255
Capacity, - of fluids (definition), 341
-, gas, 67, 71, 88, 90, 95, 97, 106 Compressible flow, 27, 29
-, liquid, 67, 71 -, formula for, 27, 29
- of Reda pumps, 763 Compressor, 12, 30, 154, 198
-, pipeline flow, 224 COMPSEL, 769, 788, 795
-, valve flow, 165 Condensate gas, 178
-, venting, 171 Conduction heat transfer, 231
-, water adsorption, 187 -, steady-state, 231
Carbon dioxide, 19, 179, 183, 188 -, unsteady-state, 231
- - content of natural gases, 179, 183 Conductivity,
- - removal from natural gas, 19, 188 -, thermal, 231, 234, 243, 247
Carr- Kobayashi-Burrows correlation, 257- Continuous gas lift, 432, 433, 434, 439, 441, 442,
259 444,446, 461
Casing pump(s), 552 - _ _ ,dome (bellows) pressure determination in,
- -, advantages and disadvantages of, 553 441,442
- -, schematic diagram of, 553 - - _, examples for designing, 444,446
- -, volumetric efficiencies of, 664 - _ _ , flowing pressure gradient in, 434
Cementing, 393 - - - , gas output vs. production for, 433
-, use of temperature survey in, 393, 394 _ _ _ ,graphical design, 439, 444,446
Characterization factor, UOP, Watson, 21, 47 - - - , information needed to design, 439
- -, definition of, 47 - - - installation design, 434
Chemelectric treaters, 120, 121, 136 _ _ _ , pressure gradient curves for, 433
- -, troubleshooting, 141 _ _ _ , sample problem for, 461
Chemical injection, Convection heat transfer, 232
- - for demulsification, 133, 137, 144 -, forced, 233
Chernikin’s model, -, natural, 232
- - for unsteady oil flow in buried pipelines, 250 Correlation,
Chew-Connally correlation, 245, 246 -, Baker’s, 293
Choke(s), 294, 295, 323-325, 332, 452 -, Beal’s, 244-246
-, adjustable, 323-325 -, Beggs-Brill, 286-287
-, fixed (positive), 323 -, Begs-Robinson, 244
-, flow through, 294 -, Borden-Rzasa, 661
- for reducing kick-off pressure in gas lift, 452 -, Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden, 254
807
-, Cam-Kobayashi-Burrows, 257-259 -, automated, 121

-, chew-conndy, 245, 246 -, chemical, 11, 114
-, Cragoe’s, 247 -, electrical, 11, 115, 118, 136
-, Dukler’s, 291 -, glycol, 186
-, Dukler-Wicks-Cleveland, 291 -, gravity, 4, 113
-, Duns-Ros, 287 -, sour gas, 187
-, Eaton et al., 291 -, thermal, 113
-, Flanigm’s, 293 Dehydrators, 117-119, 120-123
-, Gilbert’s, 294 -, chemelectric, 120-123
-, Hagedorn-Brown, 286,289 -, electric, 117-119
-, Lockhart-MartineUi, 291 Deliverability,
-, Standing’s, 284, 662, 663 - of a gas field, 269-273
-, Walther’s, 247 Demulsification, 133, 136, 137, 143, 144
Corresponding states, -, agitation for, 133, 144
- -, law of, 256 -, chemical, 132, 133, 137
Corrosion, 622, 623, 625 -, chemical injection for, 133, 137
- -erosion, 622 -, electrical treatment for, 136
- fatigue, 623 -, heating for, 133, 143
-, galvanic, 623 -, operating procedures for, 133
- inhibitors, 625 -, troubleshooting in, 137
-, pitting and concentrated cell, 622 Demulsifiers, 114, 132
-, stress, 622 -, action of, 132
- types encountered in subsurface pumps, 622 Densimeter, 376, 377
Counterbalance, Density,
- design, 578 -, average gas-liquid mixture, 287
- effect, 578, 579, 590, 608 -, average liquid-liquid mixture, 390
CPF system, see Closed power fluid system -, definition of, 212
Cragoe’s correlation, 247 -, effect of pressure and temperature on oil, 246
Critical, - ofcomponents of petroleum fluids (liquid), 43
- flow, 294 - of gases, 44, 256
- pressure of components of petroleum fluids, - of liquids, 47, 246
43 Desalting, 116
- temperature of components of petroleum Desiccants, 186, 187
fluids, 43 Design of,
Crude oil enrichment, 190 - - booster pump stations, 228
Cycle-controlled expanding plunger, 468, 476 - - counterbalance (in sucker-rod pumping), 578
- - - -, well data for, 476-482 - - electric submergible pump system, 756-772,
Cycle-controller, 785
- -, electronic time, 475 - - flowing well systems, 279
- - for intermittent flowing, 516 - - gas-lift system, 434, 439, 444,446, 449
- -, Taylor-type K, 474 - - - - -, continuous, 434, 439, 444,446
- -, time, 475 - - - - -, intermittent, 449
Cycle-time, - - pipeline systems, 222,224,225, 228,266,267
- -, minimum (in plunger lift), 487 - - - _, gas, 266, 267
Cyclone centrifugal separator, 691, 692 _ _ - _ , oil, 222, 224, 225, 228
- - production facilities for a well, 296, 297
Dalton’s law, 85, 162 - - separators, 67, 71
Darcy’s law - - sucker-rod pumping system, 538, 539, 561,
- - for radial flow, 341 568, 583, 597, 629
- - for radial steady-state flow, 346 - - - - _-, API recommended procedure for,
Davenport-Conti model, 252 583
- - - for transient heat losses from a buried - - - _ - -, theoretical analysis in, 560
pipeline, 252 - - vapor recovery systems, 158
Dehydration> 4, 11, 113, 114, 115, 118, 121, 136, - - vent valves, 162
186, 187 - - vessels, 68
808
Destabilitization, emulsion, 114, 115 - -, qualitative interpretation of, 336

-, chemical, 114 - - tool assembly, 328
-, electrical, 115 - -, typical chart, 334
Dew point temperature of a mixture, 55 Drizo process, 187
Differential, Dry,
- double-acting pump, 656 - box method, 188
- injection method, 383 - gas, 178
- valves, 454, 455 Dukler-Wicks-Cleveland correlation, 291
- vaporization, 71 Duns-Ros correlation, 287
Diffusivi ty, Dynamometer card(s), 593-595, 599, 600-611
- equation (radial form), 342 - -, calculation of counterbalance effect using,
- -, line source solution of, 343 608, 610
-, hydraulic, 343 - -, - - instantaneous torque using, 609
-, thermal, 232, 234 - -, - - polished rod horsepower using, 608
Dimensionless, - -, - - pumping efficiency using, 611
- numbers, see Number - -, definition of, 593
- pressure, 344 - -, factors affecting the shape of, 599
- radius, 343 - - for an ideal pumping system, 595, 599
- rime, 343 - -, information obtained from, 593-595.
Diolefins, 35 - -, operating problems diagnosed from, 599,
Diphasic flow, 386, 387 611
- -, gas-liquid, 387 - - showing areas and deflections needed for
- -. in situ calibration of spinner flowmeter in, load calculations, 608
389 - - showing various well conditions and prob-
- -, liquid-liquid, 387 lems, 601-607
- -. spinner response in, 389 - -, typical, 599, 600
Directional wells, multiphase flow in, 290
Distillation, Eaton et al., correlation, 291
- area flow diagram in natural gasoline plant, Edmister’s chart, for heat capacity difference vs.
208 reduced properties, 261
-, Engler, 185 Eductor tube, 425, 426
Dome pressure, determination in continuous - -, average fluid density in, 426
gas-lift, 441, 442, 444,447 - -, fluid velocity in, 425
Double-acting pump, 656 Effective,
- _ _ , differential, 656 - diameter, 212
Dougherty’s method, for deliverability of a gas - plunger stroke, 570, 584
field, 269, 273 Ei-function, 344
Drag, 146 Ejector,
- coefficient for a sphere, 146 -, first US patent issued for an oil, 427
- force for VISCOUS flow, 146 -, oil, 427
Drainage radius, 346 Elasticity modulus,
Drawdown (pressure), 327, 340, 347, 351, 357 - -, steel, 570
- anaiysis (example), 351 - -, various plunger and rod sizes, 562-567, 572
- test, 327, 340, 347 - -, - tubing sizes, 571
- - in gas wells, 357 Electric submergible pumps,
- -, multiple rate, 350 - - _, applicability of, 737, 738
Dnllstem test (DST), 327, 328, 329, 333, 334, - - _, disadvantages of, 738
33.5-340 - - - , factors affecting the periormance of, 769
- - charts showing various problems and well - - _ , multistage centrifugal type, 742, 743
conditions, 335-340 - - -, performance curves for, 764, 794
- -. component parts of a cca-.,entional tester, - - -, selection of, 761, 763, 785
329 Electric submergible pump system, 738, 739, 740,
- -, objectives of, 327 741, 742, 743, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753,
-- .-. procedure for, 333 772, 773, 775. 785
809
_ _ _ _ , components of, 740 E.P.A., 153

_ _ _ _ , design of, 756, 785 Equation,
_ _ - _ , handling of, 772 -, Begs-Brill, 258
- - _ -, installation of, 773 -, Bernoulli, 26, 28
- - - -,junction box in, 753 -, Blasius, 214
_ _ _ _ , motor in, 740, 741 -, Colebrook, 214
- _ _ _ , motor flat cable in, 749 -, Cragoe, 247
- _ _ _ , power cable in, 748 -, DeGman-Andrade, 244
- _ _ -, pressure sensing instrument (PSI) in, -, Fanning, 213
753 -, Hagen-Poiseuille (Reynolds number), 213
_ - _ _ , protector in, 743 -, Hansen, 233
_ - - _ , pump intake in, 743 -, Heinze, 266
____ selection data, 756 -, Kato-Nishiwaki-Hirata, 233
- _ - -, switchboard in, 750 -, M a k ~ w ~ k i - M ~ ~ h l i n s234
ki,
_ _ _ _ , transformer in, 751, 752 -, Prandtl-Karman, 214
_ _ - - , troubleshooting, 775 -, Rohsenow-Hartnett, 242
_ _ - _ , typical installation for, 738, 739 -, Sieder-Tate, 233
- _ _ -, variable speed drive in, 754 -, Souders-Brown, 67-71
- - _-, wellhead for, 752 -, S U P ~ O214
,
Elevation factor, 293 -, Vogel, 282
Elongation, -, Weymouth, 262, 265, 268
-, net, 572 Equilibrium,
- of rods, 570 - flash calculations, 60, 77, 78
- of tubing, 571 - ratios, vapor-liquid, 52
Emulsifiers, role of, 126 - -, generalized correlation for, 53, 54
Emulsion(s), 109, 110, 112, 125, 126, 128, 131, - relations for complex mixtures, 60
136, 137 Equivalent,
-, aging of, 112, 128 - diameter for pipelines in parallel and in series,
-, basic components of, 126 267, 268
-, chemical resolution of, oil-in-water, 136 - length, formula, 219
- - _ , _petroleum, 125 - _ _for pipelines in parallel and in series, 267,
- - _ -, water-in-oil, 131 268
-, conditions for stable, 126 - producing time, 353, 356
-, definition of, 125 Ethane, 185
- destabilizers, 114 Ethylene recovery plant,
-, electrical resolution of oilfield, 109 -__ , description of, 204
-, factors affecting the stability of, 126 - _ -, sample problem, 204
- flow, 387 Evaporation,
-, loose, 128 - control, 150
-, oil-in-water (inverse), 110, 125, 136 - loss, 149
-, reduced temperature treating of, 130 Exponential integral,
- stabilizers, 112 - -, formula, 344
-, theory of, 110 - - solution, 344, 345
-, tight, 128
-, troubleshooting in treatment of, 137 F a g ' s method, for calculating torque from dy-
-, water-in-oil, 110, 125, 126, 131 nagraphs, 609
Energy, Fall-off tests, 368
- consumption in U.S.A., 177, 179 Fanning,
- equation, 25 - equation, 213
-, free, 110, 111 - friction factor, 213
- loss between the p u n p and polished rcd, 582 Ferrox process, 188
- losses in gas lift, 421 Filling loss, 150
- optimization in sucker-rod pumping, 611, 619 Fianigan's,
Engler distillation, 185 - correlation, 293
810
- method, 292 Fluid statics, fundamental equation of, 23

Flash, Fluid weight conversion table, 417
-, adiabatic, 60 Footpiece (removable), 474
- equilibrium calculations, 60, 77, 78 Formation shrinkage factor, 664, 665
- -, three-phase, 83 Formation volume factor,
-, isothermal, 60, 77 - _ -, Standing’s correlation for, oil, 662
- vaporization, 60, 71 - - - - - -, total, 663
Flocculation of droplets, 132 Fourier’s,
Flotation cell, 13, 14 - law for heat conduction, 231
Flow-after-flow tests, 359, 360 - number, 250
- - - -, US. Bureau of Mines procedure for, Fractionation, 197, 198
361 Fracturing, 395
Flow in pipes, 211, 224, 230, 237, 261, 266, 267, -, temperature anomalies after, 395
286-288, 291, 386-389 Free-cycling plunger, 468
- - _, bubble, 287, 288, 387 Free energy, 110, 111
- - - , capacity, 224 Free water knockout, 134, 139
- - -, critical, 294 Frequency factor,
- - -, diphasic, 386, 387, 389 - - for various combinations of rod strings,
- - -, efficiency, 284 563-567
- - -, emulsion, 387 - -, percentage increase in, 592-596
- - -, froth, 288 Friction, 213
- - -, gas, 261, 266, 267 - factor@), 213
- - -, mean pressure evaluation for -, 263 - -, Dukler’s correlation for, 291
- - -, mist, 287, 288, 387 - -, Fanning’s, 213
- - -, monophasic, 384 - -, for various commercial pipes, 215
- - -, multiphase, 286, 288, 291, 386-389 - loss in tubing (chart), 762
- - -, -, horizontal, 291 -, pump (hydraulic), 697, 699
- - - , -, vertical, 286, 288 Froth flow, 288
- - _, oil, 211, 230, 237
- - _, nonisothermal -, 230 Gas (see also Natural gas)
- - -, steady-state -, 237 - column, pressure of, 416, 442
- - -, polyphasic, 386, 388 - -, average temperature in, 420
- - -, regime map, 288 - -, weight of, 442
- - -, slug, 287, 288, 387 - compressibility, 44, 45, 254-256
- - -, triphasic, 386, 388 - deliverability, 269, 273
Flow in reservoir, 280 - density, 44, 256
- - -, pseudo-steady state, 344 - expansion, 420
- - -, pressure distribution in - - -, 346 - -, adiabatic, 421, 461
- - -, steady-state radial, 346 - -, isothermal, 420, 461
Flowline treatment system, 129 - -, polytropic, 421
Flowmeter, - flow in pipes, 261, 263, 266, 261, 269
-, calibration of, 385, 386, 389, 403, 407 - - rate (Weymouth equation), 263
-, continuous, 377, 378 - gathering, 198
-, fullbore spinner, 377, 379 - gravity, 184, 258
-, inflatable packer, 376 - hydrates, 199
- logs, field applications, 401, 402, 404, 405 - injection, 200
- -, interpretation, 384, 401 - measurement, 184
-, surveys, field examples, 402, 404-406, 408, -, natural, see Natural gas
409, 411 -, physical properties of, 254
Fluid level, - processing and conditioning, 18, 186
- -, static (definition), 429 - - - -, reasons for, 18
- -, working (definition), 429 - - - -, plants, 181
Fluid load on polished rod, 517 -, sales specifications, 182
Fluid sampler, in DST tool assembly, 333 - separator intake, 743
811
- - - , purpose of, 743 Gilbert’s correlation, 294

- - -, static type, 746, 748 Glycol absorption-dehydration process, 19, 20,
- - -, rotary, 747, 748 186
- test methods, 183 Gradiomanometer, 373-375, 388
- transmission systems, 266 - surveys, interpretation of, 390
- treating, 18, 181, 186, 187 - -, field examples, 401, 402, 404,406,408-411
- -velocity number, 289 Graetz number, 233
- vent lines, pressure drop through, 674,675 Grashof number, 232
- viscosity, 257, 258 Guiberson,
- well testing, 357 - Powerlift pumps, 642,650,651,656,660
- - -, buildup, 357 - - -, nominal sizes of, 660
- - -, drawdown, 357 - - -, specifications for, 650,651
- - -, flow-after-flow,359,360 - wellsite power plants, 688,690,691
- - -, isochronal, 359, 362 Gun barrels, 135
- - -, modified isochronal, 359, 364 - -, troubleshooting, 140
- wells, plunger equipment for, 469, 471
Gas lift, Hagedom- Brown,
- -, advantages of, 459 - - correlations, 286,289
- -, continuous, 432,433,439,444,461 - - pressure traverse curves, 300
- -, design of -, 434 Hagen-Poiseuille equation, 213
- -, disadvantages of, 432 Hansen’s equation, 233
- -, efficiency of, 421 Heat,
- -, energy utilized in, 420 - conduction, 231
- - equipment, 452 - convection, 232
- -, fundamentals of, 416 -, cragoe’s correlation for oil specific heat, 247
- -, gas output vs. production in, 425, 433 - exchangers, 21,22, 140
- -, gas volume, necessary for, 421,424 -, temperature vs. hydrocarbon vapor specific
- -, - - vs. bottomhole tubing pressure in, 424 heat, 260
- -, history Of, 415,426 - transfer, coefficients for pipes, 242, 248
- -, horsepower requirement for gas compres- - - concepts for buried pipelines, 234
sion in, 458 - - fundamentals, 230
- -, installation, rules of thumb for, 459 Heater treaters, 6-11, 136,140
- -, intermittent, 428 - -, horizontal, 6,7, 136
- -, paraffin accumulation in wells on, 426 - -, troubleshooting, 140
- -, plunger equipment for wells on, 469, 470 - -, vertical, 10, 11, 136
- -, principles and methods of, 426 Heating value of natural gases, 184
- -, straight, 432 Heinze equation, 266
- - terminology, 429 Henry’s law, 61
- -, types of, 431 Holdup factor,
- -, U-tube type of, 426,427,432 - -, corrected, 290
- -, unloading operations in, 436,437 - -, liquid, 286
- - valves, 428,429, 450, 453-457 - -, no-slip, 286
- - -, spacing, 435,438,441 ’ - -, water, 375, 388, 389
- - -, specifications (Maw), 443 Hollow rods, 641
Gas-liquid-ratio gradient, Hooke’s law, 570
- - - - in plunger lift, 484 Horizontal two-phase flow in pipes, 291
Gas/liquid ratio vs. - - - - - -, correlations for, 291
- - - - depth, 499, 502 - - - - - -, pressure traverse curves for, 317-
- - - - minimum tubing pressure, 500, 503 322
- - - - net operating pressure, 513, 514 - - _ _ _ _ , technique of using - - - -, 291
Gasoline (natural), 181, 184, 185, 189,206 Homer plot, 284,353, 356
Gathering system, 1, 2 Horsepower, 31,213, 221
- -, gas, 198,199 -, brake, 221, 581
Geothermal gradient, 396, 397,420 -, frictional, 619
812
-, hydraulic, 221,581,619 - - content of natural gases, 179, 182, 183

- requirement for gas compression in gas lift, - -, removal of, 19,188
458
- - -, motor in ESP system, 765 Ideal gas equation, 44
- - -, prime mover in sucker-rod pumping sys- Inert gases, 178
tem, 581 Inflatable combination tool (ICT), 376, 383
-, total polished rod, 581,589, 590, 608 Inflow performance relationship (IPR),281
Huff-and-puff method, 400 - - - for solution-gas-drive reservoirs, 282,283,
Hydrate point, 285,665,666,759
- - of hydrocarbon gases, 265 - - -, Vogel's reference curve for, 665,666,759
- - of nitrogen containing natural gases, 266 Inhibitor,
Hydrates, -, corrosion, 625
-, formation of gas, 199, 265, 266 - injection methods, 625
-, conditions for - - -, 265, 266 Injection,
-
-, preventing - -, 199 -, natural gas, 200
- formation temperature, 266 - of fluids, 397
Hydraulic, -, reasons for natural gas, 200
- diffusivity, 343 - wells, temperature survey in, 397, 398
- gradient, 222 - -, testing, 368
- jars, 333 Interface stabilization, 112
- radius, 212 Interfacial tension, 112
Hydraulic pumping system, Interference tests, 365, 366, 368
- - -, calculation of bottomhole pressure in, - - for permeability anisotropy, 366
720 - -, nomenclature for, 368
- - -, - - surface horsepower in, 669, 693,705, - -, vertical, 368
708 Intermittent flowing and plunger system, 515
- - -, control manifolds in, 680 ---__ , advantages of, 516
- - _, power fluid cleaning system in, 681 Intermittent gas-lift, 428,449
- - - , power plants in, 687-691 - - - cycle of operation for tubing operated
- - -, schematic diagram of a complete, 637 valves, 450
- - -, surface pumps in, 681 - - - design, 449
- - -, tubing arrangements in, 670 - - - valves, 428
- - -, types of power fluid systems in, 682 IPR curves, see Inflow performance relationship
Hydraulic subsurface pumps, 635 Iron oxide method, 188
- - -, Guiherson Powerlift, 642,650,651, 656 Isochronal test,
- - -, Kobe, 638-649, 695 - -, modified, 359,363,364
- - -, Oilmaster, 652,655-657 - -, normal, 359, 362
- - -, operation of parallel free, 636 - -, Brown-Begs procedure for -, 363
- - -, piston-type, 635,638
- - -, pressure and friction losses affecting, 694, Jet collar, 452
695 Joule-Thomson effect, 192
- - -, selection of, 660,667,669,708 Junction box (in ESP), 753
-.
- - specifications for, 643-655, 657
- - -, wellheads for, 680 Kato-Nishiwaki-Hirata equation, 233
Hydrocarbon content of natural gases, 182, 183 Kick-off pressure, 422, 428,432
Hydrocarbons, - -, derivation of formula for, 423
-, aromatic, 37 - - for gas-lift through casing, 424.
- in natural gas, 180 - - - - - - tubing, 423
-, naphthene, 35 - -, types of chokes to reduce initial, 452
-, rules of nomenclature for, 39 Kick-off valves, 428,453
-, saturated, 32-34 Kilowatt-hour meters, 621
-, unsaturated, 32, 35, 36 Kobe,
Hydrogen embrittlement, 622,623 - pumps, 638-642
Hydrogen sulfide, - -, nominal sizes of, 660
813
- -, pressures acting on type-A, 695 - production rate in plunger lift, 484

- -, schematic diagram showing operation of - reliable flow, 28
type-A, 658 Mercaptans, 178, 183
- -, specifications for, 643-649 Mills acceleration factor, 570
- wellsite power plants, 687, 689, 690 Mist,
KVA requirement for transformer bank, 767 - extraction, 17, 18, 64
- flow, 287, 288, 387
Laminar flow, 211 Molecular weight of,
- -, criteria for, 212 - _ -components of petroleum fluids, 43
- -, Fanning friction factor for, 213 - - - gas mixtures, 256
Last-stroke method, 720 Monel, 624
Law, Monophasic flow, 384
-, Dalton’s, 85 - _, correction factor vs. Reynolds number in,
-, Darcy’s, 341 384
-, Fourier’s, 231 - _, spinner in, 384
-, Henry’s, 61, 85 Moody’s friction factor chart, 215
-, Hooke’s, 570 Multiphase flow in,
- of corresponding states, 256 - _ -directional wells, 290
-, Raoult’s, 85, 162 - _ _ horizontal flowlines, 291
-* Stokes’, 113, 145, 146 - _ -pipelines on hilly terrains, 292
Least-squares equations for plunger lift, 476, 483 - - - vertical wells, 286
Lift, 429 Multiphase well test analysis, 369
-, air, 415 Multiwell testing, 365
-, gas, see Gas-lift - -, interference, 365
-, net, 582, 667 - -, pulse, 367
-, plunger, see Plunger lift
-, total, 431 Naphthene hydrocarbons, 35, 36
-, working, 430 Natural gas, 177
Line source solution, 343 - -, acid gas content of, 179, 182, 183
Liquid extraction from natural gas by, 189
- - - _ _ _adsorption, 191
_ _ , air content of, 179, 183
- -, carbon dioxide content of, 179, 183
- - - _ _ _ crude enrichment, 190 - -, composition of, 178, 179
- _ - _ _ _ refrigeration, 191 - -, compressibility factor for, 256
LNG, 181 - -, density of, 256
Lockhart method, 81 - - engineering department, functions of, 201
Lockhart-Martinelli correlation, 291 _ - , heating value of, 184
Lockhart-McHenry method, 78 - -, hydrocarbon content of, 180, 182, 183
Logging (production)devices, 373 - - injection, 200
Logs, - -, liquefied, 181
-, flowmeter, 384 - -, liquid extraction from, 189
-, production, 373 - - liquids, 184
-, field examples of -, 401 - - _ , specifications for, 184
-, troubleshooting using -, 393, 394, 401, 402,
408, 411
- - -, testing, 185
- - -, value of, 189
.
-, temperature, see Temperature survey - -, physical properties of, 254
-, thermal decay time (TDT), 401, 404 - - processing plants, 181
Lost circulation, 393 - -, removal of impurities from, 185
- - zones, detection by temperature survey, 394 - - sales specifications, 182
LPG, 181, 184 - -, specific gravity of, 184, 258
- - test methods, 183
Makowski-Mochlinski equation, 234 - -, treating, 185
Manometer, 380 - -, viscosity of, 258
-, gradio-, 373-375, 388, 399 Natural gasoline, 181, 184, 185
- surveys, field examples, 401, 402 - -, composition of, 181
Maximum, - - plant, 206
814
- -, sales specifications for, 185 - - in wells operated by gas lift, 426

- -, value of, 189 Paraffins, 33-36, 178
Net lift, 582, 667 -, cyclic, 35, 36
Net operating pressure vs., -, iso-, 33, 34
_ _ - _ depbh, 501, 504 Partial pressure, 163
- _ _ _ GLR, 513, 514 - -, Dalton’s law of, 162
Net plunger stroke, 570 Permeability,
Ney’s method, for multiphase flow in directional - calculation from buildup test, 355
wells, 290 _ _ _ drawdown test, 350, 352
Nitrogen removal from natural gas, 189 - - _multiple-rate drawdown test, 351
Nomographs (in plunger lift), -, vertical interference and pulse test for vertical,
-, constructing, 488 368
- for 2-in. plunger, 491, 499-501, 513 Petroleum,
- for 2-1/2-in. plunger, 492, 502-504, 514 -, classification of, 38
-, how to use, 496, 497, 505 -, mixed base, 39
-, information needed to estimate plunger lift -, naphthenic or asphaltic base, 39
performance in a well from, 497 -, paraffin base, 39
-, mathematical operations by, 490 Physical properties of hydrocarbons,
-, need for, 488 - - - -, fluids, 43
Number, _ _ _ -, gases, 254
-, Fourier, 250 _ - - _ , interrelationship among various, 56
-, gas-velocity, 289 Pipes, fluid flow in, 211
-, Graetz, 233 PipelinHs),
-, Grashof, 232 -, advantages of, 211
-, liquid-velocity, 289 - design, 222, 225, 228, 266-269
-, Nusselt, 232, 241 -, exit temperature in buried, 238
-, Prandtl, 233 - flow capacity, increasing, 224
-, Reynolds, 211 -, gas, in parallel, 266
-, _, in series, 267
Oilmaster, -, - transportation in, 266-269
- pumps, 656 -, heat transfer concepts for buried, 234
- -, nominal sizes of, 660 - insulators, thermal conductivities of, 243
- -, specifications for, 652-655, 657 -, nonisothermal flow in, 230
- wellsite power plants, 689, 691 -, oil, branching, 228
Olefins, 35 -, -, looped, 225
Open power fluid (OPF) system, 670-673 -, - transportation in, 221, 225, 228, 249, 252
_ _ _ _ , general pressure equation for, 696 - pressure profile over a hilly terrain, 223, 227
_ _ _ _ , power fluid tank in, 685, 686 -, transient flow of oil in buried, 249, 252
_ - _ _ , surface facilities of, 684, 685 -, transient time for heat losses in buried, 252
Open flow potential, 362, 403, 406, 407 Plant,
_ _ _ from flow-after-flow test, 362 -, ethylene recovery, 204
Operating line, 489, 490, 493, 520-527 -, natural gasoline, 206
Optimum pressures for two- and three-stage sep- -, wellsite power, 687-690
arations, 73 Plunger(s),
Orifice meter, 3, 184 -, brush-seal, 473
- -, derivation of formula for flow through, 26 -, cycle-controlled expanding, 468, 476
Orsat analysis, 183 - _ _ _ , well data for, 476-482
-, effects of various well conditions on operation
P over E, 667, 668, 696 of gas-lift, 495
Packer, - equipment for, gas-lift wells, 469, 470
- assembly, 330 - - - gas wells, 471
-, inflatable, 376 - - _high GOR wells, 472
Paraffin accumulation, -, extended, 474
- -, fighting, 426 -, free-cycling, 468
815
-, GLR vs. depth for, 2-in., 499 Potentiometer, 380

- - - - - 2-1/2411., 502 Pour point, 253
-, GLR vs. minimum tubing pressure for 2-in., Power,
500 - cable, 748, 749
- - - - - - -, 2-1/2-in., 503 - consumption in sucker-rod pumping, 611,619,
-, GLR vs. net operating pressure for 2-in., 513 620
- ----_- , 2-1/2-in., 514 - - - - - _, of prime mover, 611
- load (gross), 584 ----__ , testing, 621
-, net operating pressure vs. depth for 2-in., 501 - plants in hydraulic pumping, 687-691
- - - - - - - 2-1/2411., 504 Power fluid (in hydraulic pumping),
-, nomograph for 2-in., 491 - - flow rate, 669, 693
-, - - 2-1/2-in., 492 - -, selection of, 682
-, operating line (derivation) for 2-in., 489 - - surface pressure, 666, 693
- - _ - -2-1/2-in., 490 - - systems, 682
- overtravel, 572 - - _, closed (CPF),671, 676, 683
-, retractable segmented, 470, 473, 474 - - -, open (OPF), 670-673, 684-686
- stroke, effective, 570, 584 - - tank, 683, 685, 686
- -, factor, 585 Powerlift (hydraulic) pumps, 642, 656
-, supplementary operating line (derivation) for, - - -, nominal sues of, 660
2-in., 493 _ - -, specifications for, 650, 651
-, - - - - - 2-1/2411., 494 Prandtl number, 233
-, tandem, 474 Prandtl-Karman equation, 214
-, teflon-seal, 473 Pressure,
-, turbulent-seal, 473 - at point where gas enters tubing in plunger
Plunger lift, lift, 488
- - application curves based on gas and pressure -, allowable working (of pipeline), 212
requirements, 513, 514 -, bottomhole,
- - applicability, 510, 512, 515 -, -, calculation from productivity index, 518
- -, average pressure at point where gas enters -, -, in gas-lift, 434, 518
tubing in, 488 -, -, in hydraulic pumping, 720
- - gas well applications, 517 - buildup in plunger lift, 484
- -, history of, 468 - buildup test, see Buildup
- -, how to determine candidate wells for, 512 -, dimensionless, 344
- -, least squares equations for, 476, 483, 484 - drawdown test, see Drawdown
- -, accuracy of (in performance prediction) -, gas column, 416
- - - -, 507-509 -, kick-off, 422, 428
- -, examples of using - - - -, 510 -, last-stroke, 721
- -, methods of obtaining - - - -, 485-487 -, net-operating (in plunger lift), 484
- -, nomenclature for equations used in, 527 -, partial, 162, 163
- - nomographs, see Nomographs -, pseudo-, 357
- -, operation of, 470, 473, 476 -, pseudo-critical, 46, 254, 256
- -, predicting performance of, 475, 517 - ratio ( P / E ) , 667, 668, 696
- - system, intermittent flowing and, 515, 516 - recorders, 329
- - -, Christmas tree in, 469, 516 -, reduced, 45, 46, 256
- -, types of wells suitable for, 510 -, storage, 161, 163, 165
Polar molecules, 112 Pressure drop in,
Polished rod, 532-534 - - - API tubings, 705-711, 736
- - horsepower, 589, 590, 608 - - - gas-vent lines, 674, 675
- - load calculations, 576 - - - standard pipes, 702-704, 736
--__ , minimum load, 578, 586, 587 - - - tank roof fittings and pipe bends, 160
- - - -, peak load, 577, 584, 586, 588, 589 - - - tubing-casing annulus, 720-736
Polyphasic flow, 386 - - - tubing-pipe annulus, 712-713, 736
- -, flow parameters in, 388 - - - tubing-tubing annulus, 714-719, 736
- -, flow patterns in, 387 Pressure gradient, 416
816
- - curves for continuous gas-lift, 433-435 -, electric submergible, see Electric submergible
- - vs. % salt water in water-oil mixtures, 419 pumps
Problem wells, API recommended procedures for - friction, 697, 699
analysis of, 611-618 -, Guiberson Powerlift, see Guiberson powerlift
Production combination tool (PCT),383 pumps
- - -, completion evaluation using TDT and, -, hydraulic subsurface, see Hydraulic sub-
401, 404, 406 surface pumps
_ - - , components of, 383 - intake (in ESP),
- - - survey in a gas well (field example), 401 - -, gas separator, 743, 746, 747
Production logging, 373 - -, standard, 742
- - devices, 373 -, Kobe, see Kobe pumps
- -, field examples, 401 -, Oilmaster, see Oilmaster pumps
- -, purposes of, 373 -, Reda, see Reda pumps
- -, troubleshooting using, 393, 394, 401, 402, -, rod, 537, 555-559
408, 411 -, sucker-rod, see Sucker-rod pumps
Production system, overall, 279, 296 -, tubing, 537, 554
Productivity index, Pump-off control, 621
- - change with depth, 518 Pumping,
- - consistency with operating conditions, 518 - efficiency calculation using dynagraphs, 611
- -, definition of, 280 - mechanisms, 219
- -, reference depth for, 517 -, principles of, 219
- -, specific, 280 - speed, dimensionless, 591
- -, use of, for derivation of operating line in - -, production vs., 540-547
plunger lift, 489, 490, 493, 494 - system, conditions for idealized, 595
_ - vs. flow rate for various drive mechanisms, - -, schematic diagram of a complete hydraulic,
281 637
Propane, 185 - unit (sucker-rod),
- recovery vs. lean oil/gas ratio, 195 - - , air-balanced, 535
_ _ _ butane and pentane recovery, 196 - - design calculations, 628-629
Protector (in ESP), - -, Mark 11, 535
-, functions of, 743 - -, nomenclature for conventional, 536
-. labyrinth-path, 745
-, positive-seal, 744 Radioactive tracer survey, 380, 331
-, selection of, 769 - - -, differential injection method, 383
Pseudo-, - - -, timed runs method, 381, 382
- critical pressure and temperature, 46, 254, 256 - - -, velocity-shot method, 380, 381
- pressure, 357 Ranarex, 184
- ieduced pressure and temperature, 45, 46, 256 Raoult’s law, 85
- steady state flow, 344 Real gas equation, 44
- - - _, dimensionless pressure during, 346 Reda,
- - - _, pressure distribution during, 346 - cable types and applications, 749
PSI unit (in ESP), 753, 754 - motors, 740, 766
Pulse testing, 367 - pumps, 737
- -, vertical, 368 - -, request for information form for, 757
Pump(s), - _ , typical performance curve for, 794
-, API classification of subsurface, 537 Reduced pressure and temperature, 46, 256
-, API designation for subsurface, 538 Refrigeration process, 191
- booster stations, 228 - -, For liquid extraction from natural gas, 191
-, casing, 552 - -, turboexpander, 192
- constants for various plunger sizes, 548, 574 - -, vapor rectification, 193
- displacement, hydraulic, 660, 665, 668 Regeneration, 187
- -, sucker-rod, 574, 584 Regulators, 154, 155, 157
-, double-acting, 656 -, typical installation of pressure and vacuum,
- efficiency, 221. 575 I55
817
-, vapor control, 154 -, internal parts of, 63

Reid vapor pressure, 181, 185 -, spherical, 16,18,59, 104-107
Removal of, -, types of, 61
- - acid gases from natural gas, 188 -, vertical, 16,17,87-93
- - carbon dioxide - - -, 19,188 Settling, 134
- - hydrogen sulfide - - -, 19,188 - tank, 135
- - impurities - - -, 19,185 - tank in OPF system, 686
- - liquids - - -, 189 Shape factor, 346, 348, 349
- - nitrogen - - -, 189 Shrinkage factor, formation, 664,665
- - water - - -, 19,185 Sieder-Tate equation, 233
- - paraffin deposits from gas-lift wells, 426 Skin,
- - solids from oil-treating system, 145 - effect, 284
- - solids from power fluid, 691,692 - - due to non-Darcy flow,358, 359
Resistance coefficients, - factor from pressure,
- -, definition of, 219 - - - - buildup test, 353, 355
- - for bends and sudden reducers, 218 _ - - _ drawdown test, 350
- - for valves and fittings, 216, 217 - - - - - -, in gas-wells, 358, 359
Resistance of valves and fittings to fluid flow, - - - - - -, multiple-rate, 351
220 Slippage velocity, 375,388
Retrograde condensation, 178 - - vs. density difference at various holdups,
Reynolds number, 211 389
- - for two-phase flow, 287 Slug flow, 287,288,387
Rod(s), Sonic velocity, 29, 30
-, hollow, 641 Souders-Brown equation, 67,71
- motion analysis, 569 Sour gas, 179
-, polished, 532-534, 576 - - dehydration, 187
- pumpwith, Spacing,
- - - stationary barrel and bottom hold-down, - between gas-lift valves, 435,438,441
556,558 - equations for tubing pressure operated valves,
- - - stationary barrel and top and bottom 438
hold-down, 559 -, graphical determination of continuous gas-lift
- - - stationary barrel and top hold-down, 559 valve, 441
- - - travelling barrel, 555, 556 Specific,
- weight, calculation of, 573,577 - gravity,
- - for various combination strings, 563-567 - - of natural gases, 184
- - in fluid, 585 - - of petroleum liquids, 47,48
Rohsenow-Hartnett equation, 242 - - vs. API gravity, 416-418, 700-701
Roughness, relative, 213 - - vs. pressure gradient, 700-701
- heat,
Safety joint (in DST), 332 - - capacity difference vs. reduced pressure, 261
Sales gas specifications, 182 - - of hydrocarbon vapors, 259,260
Saturated hydrocarbons, 32-34 - - of petroleum oils, 247
Separation, - productivity index, 280
-, factors affecting, 66 - weight, 212, 417,418
- of oil and gas, 59 Specifications for,
- of immiscible liquids, 145,146 - - gas-lift valves, Macco, 443
-, stage, 71 - - electric submergible pumps, Reda, 763
Separator@), - - hydraulic pumps, 643-655
-, comparison of different types of, 62 - - - -, Guiberson Powerlift, 650-651
-, cyclone centrifugal, 691,692 - _ - -, Kobe, 643-649
- design, 67,71 - - - -, Oilmaster, 652-655
-, functions of, 18,60 - - sales gas, 182
-, - - wellstream, 60 - - separators, 88,91-93, 95,98-103, 107
-, horizontal, 15-17, 94-103 - - -, horizontal high-pressure, 98-103
818
- - -, horizontal low-pressure, 95 Sucker-rod pumps,

- - -, spherical, 107 - - -, corrosion types encountered in, 622
- - -, vertical high-pressure, 91-93 - - -, material selection, 622
- - -, verticd low-pressure, 88 - - -, minimum tubing sizes for standard types
Spinner, of, 549
-, full-bore flowmeter, 379 - - -, production vs. SPM charts for various
- in monophasic flow, 384 bore sizes and net plunger travels for, 540-547
-, in situ calibration of, 385, 386 - - -, selection of, 539, 551
- response characteristics, 385 - - -, selection of setting depth for, 551
- response in diphasic flow, 389 - - - size determination, 574
- type velocimeter, 376, 377 - - -, types o f , 551-560
Stability, Sucker-rod pumping, 531
- condition for undisturbed drops, 116 - - _design, 538, 539,560, 561,568,583, 597
- of emulsions, 126 - - - -, API recommended procedure for, 583
Stabilization time, 346 - - - - , minimum information needed for, 538,
Stage separation, 71 539, 583
- -, three-, 72,73 - - -, energy optimization in, 611,619
- -, two-, 72, 73 - - -, installation and operation of equipment
Standing’s correlation for, in, 626
- - - oil formation volume factor, 662 - - -, limitations in using, 531
- - - solution-gas-drive reservoirs, 285 - - -, nomenclature for, 536
- - - total formation volume factors, 663 - - -, power consumption testing in, 619
Standing-Katz compressibility chart, 255 - - -, selection of materials in, 622
Static, - - - system, 531-536
- fluid level, 429 - - - -, surface and subsurface efficiencies of,
- head, 429 619
- submergence, 429 - - - unit, 535
Steady-state flow, radial, 346 Suction head, 221
Steam injection, Superficial,
- -, huff-and-puff, 400 - gas velocity, 289, 293
- - system, 3 - liquid velocity, 289
Stokes’ law, 113, 145 Superposition principle, 353
- -, derivation of, 146 Supersonic velocity, 29, 30
Storage-shipping section, 2 Supino equation, 214
Storage tank, 11 Surface,
- - pressure, 161, 163, 165 - production equipment, 2,20
- - temperature, 163 - pumps in hydraulic pumping system, 681
Stretford process, 188 - tension, 111
Stripper wells, 531 - - of an emulsion system, 127
Submergence, Switchboard (ESP), 750
-, percentage working, 431 -, electromechanical, 751
-, static, 429 - selection, 767
-, working, 430 -, solid-state, 751
Subsurface pumps, Szilas’ model, 249
- -, API classification of, 537
- -, API designation for, 538 Tailpipe effect on operation of gas-lift plunger,
- -, common materials used in manufacture of, 495
624 Temperature,
- -, common types of corrosion encountered in, -, factors affecting storage tank, 163
622 -, hydrate formation, 266
- -, electric, see Electric submergible pumps - in gas column, average, 420
- -, hydraulic, see Hydraulic pumps -, maximum and minimum liquid-surface, 163,
- -, installation and operation of, 626 164
- -, types of, 551-560
819
-, maximum and minimum vapor space, 163, -, oil pipeline, 221

164 Traverse curves,
-, pseudo-critical, 46, 254, 256 - - for horizontal flow, 291, 317-322
-, reduced, 45, 46, 256 - - for vertical flow, 289, 301-316
Temperature survey (logging), 391 - -, technique of using, 289-291
- - after fracturing, 395 Treating section, surface operations equipment,
- -, applications of, 393 2, 3
- - during steam soak and production periods, Trigger,
400 -, magnetically operated, 469
- - field examples, 401, 402, 406, 409-411 - use in plunger lift, 469
- - in injection wells, gas vs. water, 397 Triphasic flow, 386, 388
- - in production wells, gas vs. oil, 396 Troubleshooting,
- - showing cement level during cementing, 394 - chemelectric treaters, 141
- - - effect of fluid loss through lubricator, 391 - chemical injectors for demulsification, 137
_ - _ importance of reaching equilibrium with - electric submergible pump system, 775-784
surroundings, 392 - flow splitters, 139
- _ -leak around casing shoe, 399 - gas separators, 138
- - _zones of lost circulation, 394 - gun barrels, 140
- - under dynamic vs. static conditions, 393 - heat exchangers, 140
_ - -static conditions, production well vs. in- - heater treaters, 140
jection well, 398 - in treatment of emulsions, 137
Thermal, - sucker-rod pump system, 599, 601-607, 611
- conductivity, 231 - using ammeter charts, 775-784
- - of petroleum oils, 247 - - DST charts, 335-340
- - of pipeline insulators, 243 - - dynamometer cards, 599, 601-607, 611
- - of soil, 234 - - production logs, 393, 394, 401, 402, 408, 411
- diffusivity, 232 Tubing arrangements (in hydraulic pumping), 670
- - of soil, 234 - -, casing-free type system, 670-672
- expansion coefficient, 233 - - - - - - with gas vent, 671, 673
Thermal decay time (TDT) surveys, 401 - -, closed power fluid (CPF) systems, 671, 676,
- - _ _ for completion evaluation, 401, 404 683
Thermometer, high resolution, 373, 374 - -, fixed type, 679, 680
Time lag (in pulse testing), 367 - - for dual-zone wells, 671, 677
Timed-runs method, 381, 382 - -, open power fluid (OPF) systems, 670-673,
Tool, 684
-, inflatable combination, 376, 383 - -, parallel free type system, 671, 672
-, production combination, 383 - -, parallel reverse-circulation type system, 671,
Torque, 673
- calculation using dynamometer cards, 609 Tubing friction losses, 761, 762
-, definition of, 580 Tubing pump, 537, 554
- on gear reducer, 580 - -, advantages and disadvantages of, 555
-, peak, 581, 586 - -, schematic diagram of, 554
Total dynamic head (TDH), 761 Turbulent flow, 211
Tracer surveys, radioactive, 380 - -, criteria for, 212
Transformer (ESP), - -, Fanning friction factor for, 213, 214
- configurations, 752 Turboexpander process, 192
-, single-phase, 751 Tutweiler method, 184
Transmissivity,
- calculation from pressure drawdown test, 351 U-tube technique, 426, 427, 432
-, definition of, 351 - - -, advantages of, 432
Transportation, Unloading operations (in gas-lift), 436, 437
-, heavy oil pipeline, 253 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 32, 35, 36
-, natural gas pipeline, 254
-, oil and gas, 211 Vacuum conditioning, 190
820
Valves, -, flash, 60, 71

-, automaic diverter, 3 Variable speed drive (VSD),754-756
-, bellows, 456, 457 Velocity-shot method, 380, 381
-, bleeder, 769 Vent(s),
-, check, 769 - lines (gas), pressure drop through, 674, 675
-, circulating, 332 -, pressure and vacuum, 154, 160
-, constant-flow control, 680 - valve design, 162
-, differential, 454 Venting, 166, 171
-, Bryan -, 455 -, atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks,
-, pressure -, 455 171
-, specific gravity -, 455, 456 -, capacity requirements, 171
-, equalizing, 331 -, means of, 173
-, flapper type spring, 453 -, testing of devices, 174
-, flow type, 453, 454 Venturi meter, 27
-, 4-way wellhead, 680 Vertical two-phase flow (in pipes), 286
-, gas-lift, 428, 429, 450, 453-457 - - - - correlations, 286
-, opening pressure of - -, 444,447 - - - - patterns, 287
-, spacing of - -, 435, 441 - - - -, pressure loss in, 286
-, hydraulic, 333 - - - - regime map, 288
-, intermittent type, 428 - - - -, traverse curves, 301-316
-, kick-off, 428, 453 - - - -, technique of using - -, 289
-, mechanically controlled, 429, 454 Vertical test,
-, multiple-orifice, 324, 325 - -, interference, 368
-, pressure-charged, 456 - -, pulse, 368
-, resistance (to fluid flow) of, 220 Vertipig, 470, 473, 474
-, shut-in, 332 Viscosity,
-, subsurface safety, 671, 678 -, dynamic, 212
-, tester, 332 -, gas, 49, 257, 258
-, tubing pressure operated, cycle of, 450 -, effect of pressure and temperature on -, 49
-, spacing equations for - - -, 438 -, kinematic, 212, 247
-, unbalanced, 439 -, liquid, 50, 51, 244, 245
-, vent, design of, 162 -, oil, 50, 51, 244-247, 698
-, flow capacity of -, 165 -, effect of temperature on -, 50, 244, 247, 698
Vapor losses, 149 -, effect of pressure on -, 51
- - through vents, causes of, 151 -, gas-free -, 245
- -, types of, 149 -, gas-saturated -, 245
Vapor pressure, -, pressure above bubble point vs. -, 246
- - of components of petroleum fluids, 43 -, water, vs. temperature, 699
- -, Reid, 181, 185 Vogel’s,
Vapor recovery, 12, 149 - equation, 282, 284
- -, equipment required for, 154 - method for solution-gas-drive reservoirs, 282
- -, factors affecting amount of, 153 - reference IPR curve for solution-gas-drive re-
- -, fundamentals of, 152 servoirs, 665, 666, 759
Vapor recovery system, 12, 149, 151 Volume ratio (hydraulic pumps), 656, 660
- - -, design of, 158
- - -, fast payouts from, 166 Walther’s correlation, 247
- - - , formula for pipe sizes in, 161 Well testing, 327
- - _, functions of, 152, 154 - - analysis in presence of gas phase, 369
- - _, gas pressure drop in, 160 - -, common assumptions in models, 340
- _ - , pressure balance for a typical, 159 - -, gas, 357, 359
- _ - , venting in, 166 - -, multiwell, 365
Vapor rectification process, 193 Weymouth equation, 262, 265, 268
Vaporization, - -, modified for gas flow in hilly terrain, 269
-, differential, 71 Whinery-Campbell technique, 73
821
Washtanks, 4, 5, 16, 23 -, removal of, from natural gas, 19, 185

Waste oil treatment, 142-145 Watercut meter, 376, 377
- - -, agitation for, 144 Wellsite power plant,
- - - , chemical addition for, 144 - _ -, central vs. individual, 688
- - - , heating for, 143 - - - , functions of, 688
- - -, removal of solids during, 145 - _ -, Guiberson, 688, 690, 691
- _ -, settling time in, 144 - _ -, Kobe, 687, 689, 690
- - - systems, 142, 143 - - -, Oilmaster, 689, 691
Waste water treatment, 13, 14 Working,
Water, - fluid level, 429, 667
- adsorbents, 187 - head, 430
- content of gases, 182 - lift, 430
- _ _ ,-test for, 183 - submergence, 430, 431
- cushion (in DST),333, 339
-, free, 134 Yield strength of material vs. depth for RW type
- holdup, 375, 388, 389 pumps, 551, 552
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Surface Operations in Petroleum Production I

Hochgeladen von

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Developments in Petroleum Science, 19A

J.O. ROBERTSON, Jr.

T.A. BERTNESS and C.M. BEESON

Distributors for the United States and Canada:

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC.

Library of Congca C ~ ~at. ~ I I ~

Chilingarisn, George V., 1929-

(kvelopments in petroleum science ; 19)

TN871.C495 1966 622 ' .336 06-29126

0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,1987

Printed in The Netherlands

R.L. PETTEFER Petrolite Corporation, Petreco Equipment Group, 369

Erle C . Donaldson, Ph.D., P.E.

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

Sample problems . . . ...... . .

Compressible flow formula . . . ... . . . . . ... .... . . ..... .. . .. .. ..... . . ........

Some rules of nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Chapter 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM GASES AND LIQUIDS

Chapter 3. SEPARATION OF OIL AND GAS

Chapter 4. OIL FIELD EMULSIONS AND THEIR ELECTRICAL RESOLUTION

Electrical treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter 5 . CHEMICAL RESOLUTION OF PETROLEUM EMULSIONS

Waste oil treating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Chapter 6. VAPOR RECOVERY

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 149

Valve flow capacity ................................... 165

Fast payouts from vapor recovery systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Chapter 7. NATURAL GAS AND NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS

Acid gas content ....... ........ 182

Water content ..................... 183

Chapter 8. OIL AND GAS TRANSPORT

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 211

Solution, 227 - Booster pump stations, 228 - Branching pipelines, 228

Chapter 9. DESIGN OF FLOWING WELL SYSTEMS

Horizontal flow in surface flowlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

High-resolution thermometer . . . . . . ..................................... 374

Chapter 12. GAS LIFT

Gas lift efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Principles and methods of gas lift

Spacing between gas lift valves . . . .

Given, 446 - Solution, 447

Kick-off valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 453

Sample problems and questions

Chapter 13. PLUNGER LIFT

Actual field example of changes in predictions from operating line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Chapter 14. SUCKER-ROD PUMPING

Installation and operation , , , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

Chapter 15. HYDRAULIC SUBSURFACE PUMPS

Chapter 16. ELECTRIC SUBMERGIBLE PUMPS

REFERENCES INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801

Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, I1

Chapter 1. Introduction (and an Appendix by D.D. Coleman)

Chapter 2. Flow rate measurement

Chapter 5. Acidizing oilwells

Chapter 6 . Gravel packing

Chapter 7. Steam enhanced oil recovery

Chapter 8. Corrosion in drilling and producing operations

Chapter 9. Water quality for subsurface injection

Chapter 10. Offshore technology

Chapter 11. Pollution control

Chapter 12. Underground storage of gas and oil

Appendix A. Technology of testing petroleum products and sample experiments

Appendix B. Conversion of units

INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT