UNIT-1

DC MACHINES

CONSTRUCTION
 PARTS OF DC MACHINE
Major parts of the machine are,

– Magnetic frame or Yoke

– Poles, interpoles, windings, pole shoes
– Armature
– Commutator
– Brushes, Bearings and shaft.
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF DC MACHINE
MAGNETIC FRAME
It serves two purposes
• protecting cover to the whole machine and
mechanical support to the poles
• Allow the flux to pass through

Materials used
• For small machine – cast iron
• For large machine – cast steel
FIELD POLES
 FIELD POLES

To minimize the eddy current losses, the poles are laminated

 INTERPOLES
• The interpoles are located at the geometric neutral
points midway between the main poles and provide
reversing magnetic field of proper strength and
polarity.

• The interpole must have sufficient strength to

overcome the armature reaction and provide a
reversing field, therefore, it is connected in series
with the armature winding.
ARMATURE
ARMATURE
 LOSSES OCCUR IN ARMATURE
• Hysteresis losses
To reduce losses low hysteresis steel with few
percent of silicon is used in armature.

• Eddy current losses

To minimize the losses, the armature core is
laminated.(stampings : 0.4mm – 0.5mm thick)
BRUSHES AND COMMUTATORS
 COMMUTATOR

• The commutator converts the alternating emf

into unidirectional or direct emf.

• The armature coil leads are soldered to each

commutator segment by a riser.
 BRUSHES
• Made up of carbon or graphite, collects the
current from the commutator and convey it to
the external load resistance.
BEARINGS
END BELLS
END BELLS
CUTAWAY VIEW
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• According to faraday’s law
e = -N dΦ/dt
• Initially, e = 0
• After time t,
e = -dΦ/dt (N = 1)
Φ = B lb cosθ
e = Em sinωt
(Em = B lb ω)
UNIDIRECTIONAL OUTPUT
 INDUCED EMF EQUATION
• Emf induced in the conductor = rate of change of flux
cut.
• For 1 complete revolution Φ = P Φ webers
time = 60 / N
• e = d Φ /dt = P Φ / (60/ N).
• e = P ΦN/ 60 volts
• Z/A conductors in series in each parallel path, then
the emf induced is
• Eg = ΦZN/ 60 *(P/A)
 INDUCED EMF EQUATION
• Induced emf Eg = ΦZN/ 60 *(P/A)
• For lap winging,
A=P, Eg = ΦZN/ 60
For wave winding,
A=2, Eg = ΦZN/ 60 *(P/2)
 Field Excitations of DC generators

Type of DC Motors

• Separately Excited generator

• Self Excited generator

-- Permanent magnet generator

-- Shunt excited generator
-- Series excited generator
-- Compound excited generator
 Separately excited DC generator

• Field winding is excited by separate DC supply

 Separately excited DC generator
• Field winding is excited by separate DC supply
• Armature current Ia = load current IL
• Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra – Vbrush
Vbrush is drop across brush, low
value, so neglected.
• Generated emf Eg = V + Ia Ra + Vbrush
 Self excited DC generator
• Generator field winding is supplied from the
armature of the generator itself.
• Excitation occurs due to presence of residual flux in
the poles.
• Process: armature cut the residual flux, small emf
will induced, this produces small field current in the
field winding. Then flux per pole increases. Then by
cumulative process, generator produces its rated
voltage.
 Series DC generator
• Field winding is connected in series with the
armature.

• Ia = Ise = IL
• Eg = V + Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush
• V = Eg - Ia Ra - Ia Rse – Vbrush
Vbrush – neglected (low value)
 Shunt DC generator
• Field winding is connected across the
armature.
• Eg = V + Ia Ra
• V = Eg – Ia Ra
• Ish = V /Rsh
• Ia = IL + Ish
 Compound DC generator
• It consists of both shunt and series field
winding.
• One winding in series (Rse) and other winding
is in parallel (Rsh) with the armature.
• Two types
– long shunt compound generator
– short shunt compound generator
 Long shunt compound generator
• Shunt field winding is connected across both series
field and armature winding

• Ise = Ia = IL + Ish
• Ish = V / Rsh
• Eg = V + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush
• V = Eg - Ia (Ra + Rse) – Vbrush
Vbrush – neglected (low value)
 Short shunt compound generator
• Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature and this combination is series to series field
winding
• Ise = IL
• Ia = Ise + Ish
• Ish = V / Rsh
• Eg = V + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
• V = Eg - Ia Ra - Ise Rse – Vbrush
Vbrush – neglected (low value)
 Short shunt compound generator
• Voltage across shunt field winding = Ish Rsh
Ish Rsh = Eg – Ia Ra – Vbrush
• Substitute Eg value in the above equation
Ish Rsh = V + Ise Rse
• Shunt field current Ish = (V + Ise Rse)/ Rsh
• Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
• Power delivered to load = V IL
(power formula is same for all types of DC generator )
 Characteristic of self excited DC
generator
• Types of characteristics

1. open circuit characteristics (occ) or

magnetisation characteristics (Eg vs If)
2. Internal characteristics or total
characteristics (E vs Ia)
3. External characteristics or voltage regulated
characteristics (V vs IL)
 DC series generator
• Ia = Ise =IL
• Curve 1 : OC characteristics
• Curve 2 : Internal characteristics
(drop due to armature reaction)
• Curve 3 : External characteristics
(drop due to armature resistance &
series field resistance)
• Increase in IL, decreases the terminal voltage V
V = E – Ia (Ra + Rse)
 DC shunt generator
• OCC
• Due to residual magnetism, field current is not
zero initially.
• Due to this voltage, field current increases and
emf also increases.
 DC shunt generator
• Critical resistance (Rc)
A tangent line is drawn linear to occ from
origin.
Slope Rc = OM / ON; (Eg / If)
• Conditions to build excitation
Presence of residual magnetism
Shunt field coil should be properly connected to
armature terminals
Shunt field resistance is less than Rc
 DC shunt generator
• Ia = Ish + IL
• Curve 1 : Ideal DC characteristics (IL , V = const )
(Eg = V)
• Curve 2 : Internal characteristics
(drop due to armature reaction)
• Curve 3 : External characteristics
(drop due to armature resistance)
• Increase in IL, decreases the terminal voltage V
• V = E – Ia Ra
 Compound generator
• It consists of series field and shunt field winding.

• Curve 1 : Flat compound (Eg = V)

Flux drop in shunt field is compensated by flux rise in
series field
• Curve 2 : over compound (V > Eg)
Series field excitation is more than shunt field
• Curve 3 : under compound (V < Eg)
Series field excitation is less than shunt field
DC MOTOR
 Principle of operation
• Construction of DC machines are same.
• Principle:

“whenever a current carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force tending to move it”
 Principle of operation
• Magnitude of force experienced by the
conductor in a motor F = B I l Newtons
where,
B = field density Wb/ m2
I = current in amperes
l = length of the conductor in metres.
 Principle of operation
• Direction of motion is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule

Thumb – direction of motion of conductor

Fore finger – direction of field
Middle finger – direction of current

Three fingers are mutually perpendicular to

each other
 Back EMF
• Due to generator action take place, emf
induced i.e even when the machine is working
as a motor, voltages are induced.
• Back emf cause rotation which in turn
opposes the supply voltage. (Lenz’s law)
• Back emf = ΦZN / 60 (P / A) volts
Eb α K ΦN
• Voltage of the dc motor V = Eb + Ia Ra
 Torque equation
• Magnitude of torque developed by each
conductor T = B I l r Nm
• Total torque developed by the armature (Z
conductors) Ta = B I l r Z Nm
• I = Ia / a ; B = Φ / A ; A = 2Πrl / P
• Ta = Z ΦIa P / 2Π a Nm
• Ta = K ΦIa ; K = ZP / 2Π a - constant
Characteristic of self excited DC motor
• Three characteristics

 Speed – armature current characteristics

 Torque – armature current characteristics
(electrical characteristics)
 Speed – torque characteristics
(mechanical characteristics)
 Shunt motor characteristics
• N Vs Ia
– N = k (V – Ia Ra) / Φ
– Ish and Φ are nearly constant
– Speed nearly constant except Ia Ra drop.
• T Vs Ia
– T α Ia (Φ = constant)
– T ↑ ; Ia ↑
• N Vs T
– Ia ↑ ; N ↓ ; T ↑
 Series motor characteristics
• N Vs Ia
– N = k (V – Ia Ra) / Φ ; IL = Ia = Ise
– Φ α Ia
– Ia ↑ ; N ↓ (series motor is started with some load)
• T Vs Ia
– T α Ia Φ ; T α Ia2
– T ↑ ; Ia ↑ (increases parabolic)
• N Vs T
– Ia ↑ ; N ↓ ; T ↑
 Compound motor
• It is the combination of series and shunt
characteristics.

1. Cumulative – series and shunt field windings are

assist each other
2. Differential - series and shunt field windings are
opposing each other
 Starters
• Necessity of starters :
Amount of line current can be controlled at
the time of starting

• Types of starters:
1. Two point starter
2. Three point starter
3. Four point starter
 Speed control of DC shunt motor
• Three methods of speed control

1. By varying the resistance in the armature

circuit (Rheostatic control)
2. By varying the flux (flux control)
3. By varying the applied voltage (voltage
control) (Also ward leonard method)
 Testing of DC machine
• Brake test
direct method to find efficiency

• Swinburne’s test
predetermine the efficiency