phenomenology

Understanding phenomenology
Anne Flood looks at the theory and methods involved in
phenomenological research
Abstract
Phenomenology is a philosophic attitude and research approach. Its primary
position is that the most basic human truths are accessible only through inner
subjectivity, and that the person is integral to the environment. This paper
discusses the theoretical perspectives related to phenomenology, and includes
a discussion of the methods adopted in phenomenological research.

phenomenology
▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
key words

epistemological assumptions
research methodology
research method
nursing research

The primary position of phenomenology is that the most basic human truths
are accessible only through inner subjectivity (Thorne 1991) and that the
person is integral to the environment (Burns and Grove 1999). It is a research
approach in the interpretivist tradition (Parahoo 1997). Koch (1995) postulates
that one has to contextualise phenomenological research to the philosophical
tradition that informs its methods, such as those of Heidegger (1962), Husserl
(1960), Merleau-Ponty (1962) or Wimpenny and Gass (2000).

Epistemological assumptions
The epistemology of phenomenology focuses on revealing meaning rather
than on arguing a point or developing abstract theory. Discovery of knowledge
cannot be attained by the empirical-analytical sciences (van Manen 1997),
only by sharing common meaning of mutual history, culture and language
of the world. Two types of meaning are offered: cognitive and non-cognitive.
Cognitive meaning is concerned with the designative, informational, concep-
tual and expository aspects of the text – the semantic and linguistic meaning
that makes social understanding possible (van Manen 1997). Combined with

NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2 7

phenomenology

the non-cognitive meanings of the text, such as the evocative, the expressive,
the transcendent and the poetic elements, the resulting phenomenological
information enriches our understanding of everyday life (van Manen 1997).
This mutual recognition of the meaningful aspects of the text may be
experienced as an epiphany or transformative effect, where one experiences
an intuitive grasp of what is written (van Manen 1997). Phenomenological
knowledge reforms understanding and leads to more thoughtful action through
constructionism: ‘...all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such,
is contingent upon human practices being constructed in and out of interaction
between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within
an essentially social context’ (Crotty 1998).
Meanings are constructed by people as they engage with the world they are
interpreting. The researcher’s task is to analyse the intentional experiences of
consciousness to perceive how a phenomenon is given meaning and to arrive at
its essence (Sadala and Adorno Rde 2002). Social constructionism involves the
creation of meaning in a community. The notion of intentionality brings to the
fore interaction between object and subject and therefore rejects objectivism
and subjectivism. As Crotty (1998) states: ‘Research in the constructivist vein…
requires that we may not remain straight-jacketed by the conventional mean-
ings we have been taught to associate with the object. Instead… approach the
object in a radical spirit of openness to its potential for new or richer meaning.
It is an invitation to reinterpretation.’

Theoretical perspectives
A theoretical perspective supports the philosophical stance underpinning a
methodology, and provides a context for the process involved and a basis for
its logic and its criteria. There are two main phenomenological approaches:
descriptive (eidetic) and interpretive (hermeneutic) (Cohen and Omery 1994).
They differ in how findings are generated and used to augment professional
knowledge (Lopez and Willis 2004).

Descriptive
Husserl’s (1970) philosophical ideas gave rise to the descriptive phenom-
enological approach to enquiry. Husserl believed that subjective information

8 NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2

should be important to scientists seeking to understand human motivation
because human actions are influenced by what they perceive to be real. Thus,
to bring out the essential components of the lived experiences specific to a
group of people, a scientific approach is needed. This requires researchers shed
all prior personal knowledge (bracketing) to prevent their biases and precon-
ceptions influencing the study (Drew 1999), and to ensure scientific rigour
(LeVasseur 2003).
Two further assumptions of Husserlian phenomenology are:
n Universal essences or eidetic structures which are common to all persons who
have a lived experience – there is one correct interpretation of experiences.
n Radical autonomy: the impact of culture, society and politics on the indi-
vidual’s freedom to choose are not central (Lopez and Willis 2004).

Interpretive
Heideggarian phenomenology (hermeneutics)
Heidegger suggested that rather than focus on people or phenomena, the
exploration of the lived experience or ‘dasein’ (‘the situated meaning of a
human in the world’) should be the focus (Thompson 1990). Hermeneutics
goes beyond description of core concepts and essences to look for meanings
embedded in common practices (Lopez and Willis 2004) – what people experi-
ence rather than what they consciously know. Heidegger used the term ‘life-
world’ to express the idea that individuals’ realities are invariably influenced by
the world in which they live. This represents a move from an epistemological
to an ontological project, focusing on how interpretation is intrinsic to human
existence – it is not simply that someone merely has, but what he/she is
(Heidegger 1962, Todres and Wheeler 2001).
Heidegger (1962) asserted that humans are embedded in their world to
such an extent that subjective experiences are inextricably linked with social,
cultural and political contexts (Leonard 1999). While individuals are free to
make choices, their freedom is not absolute – it is circumscribed by the specific
conditions of their daily lives. The hermeneutic phenomenologist will focus on
describing the meanings of the individual’s ‘dasein’ and how these meanings
influence the choices they make rather than seeking purely descriptive catego-
ries of the real, perceived world in the narratives of the participants.

NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2 9

phenomenology

Another philosophical assumption is that presuppositions or expert knowl-

edge on the part of the researcher are valuable guides to enquiry. Heidegger
(1962) emphasised that it is impossible to rid the mind of the background
of understandings that has led the researcher to consider a topic worthy of
research in the first place (Koch 1995); thus personal knowledge is useful and
necessary to phenomenological research (Geanellos 2000).
Finally, the concept of co-constitutionality is proposed, in which the mean-
ings arrived at in interpretive research comprise a blend of those articulated
by participants and researcher. Gadamer (1976) describes this as ‘fusion of
horizons’. The horizon is the background of various assumptions, ideas, mean-
ings and experiences, which are fluid and open to change. Understanding
and getting to know others is based on a personal horizon of experiences and
meanings; thus the art of interpretation is always bounded by the separate,
intersecting horizons of researchers and participants (Geanellos 2000).
Hermeneutic phenomenology investigates and describes a phenomenon as
experienced in life through phenomenological reflection and writing, develop-
ing a description of the phenomenon that leads to an understanding of the
meaning of the experience (Osborne 1994).

Phenomenological research
Phenomenological research is inductive and descriptive. The researcher aims
to understand the cognitive subjective perspective of the person who has the
experience and the effect that perspective has on the lived experience (Omery
1983). As Merleau-Ponty (1962) states, ‘We can only really understand phe-
nomenology by doing it’ – there is a difference between comprehending phe-
nomenology intellectually and understanding it from the inside (van Manen
1984).
Phenomenological methodology can be structured (a sequence of steps) or
more fluid, following the direction the experience indicates – a discovery orien-
tated approach (Spiegelberg 1960, van Kaam 1966, Giorgi 1970, van der Zalm
and Bergum 2000). The process begins with a description of a situation expe-
rienced in daily life (Giorgi 1975) and comes from a position of pre-reflexive
thought. Descriptions of a phenomenon are obtained from the participant by
the researchers, who must set aside any prior thought, conceptions or judge-

10 NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2

ment they may have so they can be open to the description. The phenomenon
is placed in epoché (bracketed), searching for its essence (Sadala and Adorno
Rde 2002). The researcher’s task is to analyse the intentional experiences of
consciousness to perceive how the meaning of a phenomenon is given meaning
and to arrive at its essence.

Data collection – phenomenological interviewing

From a phenomenological perspective, meaning must be a result of co-creation
between the researcher and the researched rather than just the interpreta-
tion of the researcher who may have different contextual factors or agendas
influencing the descriptions (Wimpenny and Gass 2000). In phenomenological
research, the interview is reflective (Munhall and Oiler Boyd 1993) rather than
observational as seen in quantitative research. The interview is the main meth-
od of data collection: participants’ descriptions can be explored, illuminated
and probed (Kvale 1996) using reflection, clarification, requests for examples
and descriptions, and listening techniques (Jasper 1994). While the researcher
may start with only a general plan about the direction the conversation will
take, Seidman (1991) suggests that it will pass through three structured stages:
n Establishing the context of the interviewee’s experience.
n The construction of the experience.
n Reflection on the meaning it holds.

Analysis of phenomenological data

An analysis of the structure of a phenomenon in context is one of the outcomes
of phenomenological research. To achieve this, the researcher has to select
a method for data analysis congruent with the philosophical underpinnings
of the study, although there is a dearth of guidance on this in the literature
(Whiting 2001, Turner 2003). In addition, the lack of structure in the phenom-
enological approach can lead to a lack of study vigour. Accordingly, a range of
frameworks were formulated by psychologists (van Kaam 1966, Giorgi 1970,
Colaizzi 1978) that give added rigour (Hilton 1988, Morse et al 1990). These
have been used by nurses (Benner 1985, Haase 1987, Koch 1993). However, if
such tools are employed then phenomenology becomes a method rather than
a philosophical approach (Hallett 1995).

NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2 11

phenomenology

Hermeneutic interpretation
Hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of texts to obtain a valid
and common understanding of their meaning (Kvale 1996). This is assisted
by entering the ‘hermeneutic circle’. Ricoeur’s (1971) interpretation theory
allowed entry into the circle through three steps (Lindseth and Norberg 2004):
n Naive reading: The text is read several times to grasp its meanings. Here,
researchers are ‘open’ so the text can talk to them (naive understanding).
n Structural analysis: Themes which penetrate texts conveying essential
meaning of the lived experience are identified and presented in ‘meaning
units’, which are then condensed into sub themes and main themes. These
are reflected on in relation to the initial naive understanding.
n Comprehensive understanding or interpreted whole: All themes are
summarised and reflected on in relation to the research question and the
context of the study. The whole text is re-read with the naive associations
and relevant literature to help revise, widen and deepen the understanding
of the text (Lindseth and Norberg 2004). Results are presented in everyday
language as close to the lived experience as possible.

Giorgi’s method of analysis

Giorgi’s (1975) phenomenological method emphasises quality of data rather
than quantity. Since the participant is someone of equal status from whom
cooperation is sought, the phenomenon can only be known through its mani-
festations as revealed through others. The aim of the study is therefore to arrive
at meanings; explication is used to reveal the phenomena under question; and
the focus of the study is not to determine reactions to situations or experiments
but to meet the intention of the research (intentionality).
Husserl (1960) requires the researcher to draw on his or her imagination
to visualise phenomena from varied dimensions; Giorgi (1970) suggested that
rather than seeking variations of the phenomena solely in the imagination of
the researcher, consideration should be given to the same phenomena as it
manifests to different individuals.
His model has four stages (Giorgi 1975):
n The researcher reads through the whole protocol to get the sense of the
whole. At this stage, bracketing occurs – the researcher suspends belief in

12 NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2

 the ‘outer world’ to avoid making judgements or having any preconceived
ideas (Husserl 1960).
n Analysis to determine the natural ‘meaning units’ as expressed by the
respondent. This is achieved by reading and rereading the transcripts and
then identifying areas of the interview that highlight the participant’s experi-
ences in relation to the phenomenon under investigation. These units are
separate entities which together form the whole of the experience. There
must be maximum openness at this stage to allow the researcher to identify
the theme that dominates each meaning unit.
n The researcher ‘interrogates’ the natural units and the central themes
which emerged during the second stage. Questions which are central to the
research should be ‘put to the data’ in an ordered and systematic manner.
Final themes are generated from this questioning. Whiting (2001) refers to
them as revelatory themes.
n Once the themes have been enumerated, a descriptive statement of the
essential, non-redundant themes is generated by describing them in rela-
tion to the specifics of the research situation. The description must then be
considered further.

Conclusion
Phenomenology is an interpretive, qualitative form of research that seeks to
study phenomena that are perceived or experienced. It offers a means by
which to identify the essences of the experience. Phenomenology has gained
respect as a valid approach to the study of nursing as a science of caring and
offers a means by which human phenomena or the lived experiences of nurses
and patients can be studied and understood. Furthermore phenomenology
contributes knowledge that is practically relevant to nursing practice. This
review has focused on the theoretical concepts underpinning phenomenologi-
cal research and the issues which phenomenological researchers may need to
address in the design of their research n

Anne Flood PhD, MSc, BSc(Hons), RGN is director of nursing and midwifery,
Letterkenny General Hospital, Letterkenny, County Donegal, Ireland

This article has been subject to double-blind review

NURSERESEARCHER 2010, 17, 2 13

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