TRAVANCORE ENGINEERING COLLEGE

KOLLAM-691516

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

HVDC TECHNOLOGY AND SHORT CIRCUIT

CONTRIBUTION OF HVDC LIGHT

SUBMITTED BY:-

PREETHA S

YEAR 2010
 TRAVANCORE ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KOLLAM-691516

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report titled “HVDC TECHNOLOGY AND SHORT CIRCUIT
CONTRIBUTION OF HVDC LIGHT” is the bonafide record of the work done by

PREETHA S

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

during final year, towards the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the B.Tech
Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of the Kerala University.

University Reg.No. DATE:

Staff in charge Head of the Department

 ABSTRACT

This paper aims at exploring the HVDC transmission systems and also presents a
comprehensive investigation on one of the concerned issues, which is the contribution of
HVDC Light™ to short circuit currents. Different AC network conditions, load conditions
and fault types are considered under different operation conditions and control modes.

A comprehensive investigation on the issue regarding the contribution of HVDC

Light™ to short circuit current has been performed. The studies lead to the following
conclusions. The HVDC Light™, in contrast to the conventional HVDC that does not
contribute any short circuit current, may contribute some short circuit current.

The possible maximum short circuit current contribution is determined by the SCR. It
is inversely in proportional to the SCR and it occurs when the transmission system is
operating at zero active power.

The amount of contribution depends on control modes, operation points and control
strategies. With the reactive power control mode, the short circuit current contribution will
be limited due to the current order limit decreasing with the voltage. The contribution to the
short circuit current is irrelevant to the fault location if the fault current is evaluated in per
unit with the base value equal to the 3-ph fault current at the corresponding fault location and
without HVDC Light™ connected.

If the HVDC Light™ contributes a higher short-circuit current, the voltage dip due to distant
fault is possibly reduced and thereby the connected electricity consumers may suffer less
from disturbances.
 CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES iii

1.INTRODUCTION 1
2.HVDC SYSTEM OVERVIEW 2
3. MOTIVATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION 3
3.1 TRANSMISSION LINE DELIVERY CAPABILITY 4
3.2 HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE HVDC HISTORY 4
3.3 ARGUMENTS FAVOURING HVDC 5
4. COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 7
4.1 SUBSTATION CONFIGURATION 8

5.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION 10

5.1 ADVANTAGES 10
5.2 DISADVANTAGES 12
6 .ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 13
6.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 13
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 13
7. HVDC APPLICATIONS 14
8. HVDC LIGHT TECHNOLOGY 16
8.1 HVDC LIGHT TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 16
8.2 ADVANTAGES 17
9 .SHORT CIRCUIT CONTRIBUTION OF HVDC LIGHT 18
9.1 STUDIED AC SYSTEMS 18
9.2 IMPACT OF STRENGTH OF AC NETWORKS 18
9.3 THE IMPACT OF CONTROL MODES 19
9.4 THE IMPACT OF OPERATION POINTS 19
10.CONCLUSION 20
11.REFERENCES 21
 LIST OF FIGURES

SL NO: NAME OF FIGURE PAGE NO:

1. SHEMATIC OF GENERAL HVDC

2

2. COST/DISTANCE OF AC vs DC
6

3. HVDC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

7

4. HVDC SUBSTATION CONFIGURATION

9

5. LAYOUT OF HVDC LIGHT SUBSTATION

17

6. IMPACT OF AC NETWORK STRENGTH

18

7. IMPACT OF LOAD LEVELS

19
 1. INTRODUCTION

Competition in the electricity power industry, coupled with continued load

growth requires that the existing transmission system assets are utilized more effectively
and some times closer to their technical limits. As the existing AC lines become loaded
closer to their thermal capacity with increasing losses and reduced power quality we face
the risk of declining network stability. One solution would be to simply build new, more
powerful AC lines.
But, it is getting increasingly difficult to obtain permits to build new high
voltage Overhead transmission lines, the right-of-way occupies valuable land. An
overhead line change the landscape, causes public resentment and are often met by
political resistance. People are increasingly concerned about the possible health hazards
of living close to overhead lines.
There are many examples today of public agitation against overhead power lines
and the call for them to be buried. Media reports which link living close to power lines
with higher cancer risks and leukaemia in children don’t help the situation. On the other
hand laying an underground cable is an easier process than building an overhead line. A
cable doesn't change the landscape and it doesn't need a wide right-of-way. Cables rarely
meet with public opposition. There are technical constraints, which limit the distance of
traditional AC underground cables to around 80km.
And, even though the cost of laying AC cables is rapidly reducing it still costs
more than equivalent over head lines.
Currently there is little incentive for putting high voltage lines underground
particularly when the Network Service provider is predominantly driven by cost to
 provide performance-based transmission services at a competitive price. So what is the
solution?
HVDC Light technology has the potential to play an important role in achieving
this solution. It provides improved power quality and power flow control as well as
Introducing extruded DC-cables which have no technical limit to distance which can be
installed, and can provide an alternative to overhead lines particularly when the total
capital and environmental costs are considered.

2. HVDC SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The HVDC technology is used in transmission systems to transmit electric bulk power
over long distances by cable or overhead lines. It is also used to interconnect asynchronous
AC systems having the same or different frequency. Figure 2.1 shows a simplified schematic
picture of an HVDC system, with the basic principle of transferring electric energy from one
AC system or node to another, in any direction. The system consists of three blocks: the two
converter stations and the DC line. Within each station block there are several components
involved in the conversion of AC to DC and vice versa.

Fig 2.1 Schematic of the overall system perspective of a general HVDC system, transferring electric energy
from one AC system or node to the other,in any direction

The traditional HVDC system is built with line commutated current source converters,
based on thyristor valves. The operation of this converter requires a voltage source like
synchronous generators or synchronous condensers in the AC network at both ends. The
current commutated converters can not supply power to an AC system which has no local
generation. The control of this system requires fast communication channels between the two
stations.

3.MOTIVATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

The question is often asked, “Why use d.c. transmission?” One response is that losses
are lower, but this is not correct. The level of losses is designed into a transmission system
and is regulated by the size of conductor selected. D.c. and a.c. conductors, either as
overhead transmission lines or submarine cables can have lower losses but at higher expense
since the larger cross-sectional area will generally result in lower losses but cost more.When
converters are used for d.c. transmission in preference to a.c. transmission, it is generally by
economic choice driven by one of the following reasons:

1. An overhead d.c. transmission line with its towers can be designed to be less costly
per unit of length than an equivalent a.c. line designed to transmit the same level of electric
power. However the d.c. converter stations at each end are more costly than the terminating
stations of an a.c. line and so there is a breakeven distance above which the total cost of d.c.
transmission is less than its a.c. transmission alternative.The d.c. transmission line can have a
lower visual profile than an equivalent a.c. line and so contributes to a lower environmental
impact. There are other environmental advantages to a d.c. transmission line through the
electric and magnetic fields being d.c. instead of ac.

2. If transmission is by submarine or underground cable, the breakeven distance is

much less than overhead transmission. It is not practical to consider a.c. cable systems
exceeding 50 km but d.c. cable transmission systems are in service whose length is in the
hundreds of kilometers and even distances of 600 km or greater have been considered
feasible.

3. Some a.c. electric power systems are not synchronized to neighboring networks
even though their physical distances between them is quite small. This occurs in Japan where
half the country is a 60 hz network and the other is a 50 hz system. It is physically impossible
to connect the two together by direct a.c. methods in order to exchange electric power
between them. However, if a d.c. converter station is located in each system with an
interconnecting d.c. link between them, it is possible to transfer the required power flow even
though the a.c. systems so connected remain asynchronous.

3.1 TRANSMISSION LINE DELIVERY CAPABILITY

3.1.1 AC line distance effects:

• Intermediate switching stations, e.g. every ~250 mi maximum
• Lower stability limits (voltage, angle)
• Increase stability limits & mitigate parallel flow with FACTS: SVC & SC
• Higher reactive demand with load
• Higher charging at light load
• Parallel flow issues more prevalent
• Thermal limit remains the same
3.1.2 DC line distance effects:
• No distance effect on stability (voltage, angle)
• No need for intermediate stations
• No parallel flow issues due to control
• Minor change in short circuit levels
• No increase in reactive power demand

3.2 HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE HVDC HISTORY

The Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy started with direct current.In
1882,a 50 km long 2 KV DC line was built between Miesbach and Munich in Germany.At
that time conversion between reasonable consumer voltages and DC transmission voltages
could only be realised by means of rotating DC machines.
 In an AC system voltage conversion is simple.An AC transformer allows high power
levels and high insulation levels within one unit,and has low losses.It is a relatively simple
device,which requires little maintenance.Further, a three-phase synchronous generator is
superior to a DC generator in every respect.For these reasons,AC technology was introduced
at a very early stage in the development of electrical power systems.It was soon accepted as
the only feasible technology for generation,transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
However, high-voltage AC transmission links have disadvantages, which may compel
a change to DC technology:
• Inductive and Capacitive elements of overhead lines and cables put limits to the
transmission capacity and the transmission distance of AC transmission links.
• This limitaiton is of particular significance for cables.Depending on the required
transmission capacity,the system frequency and loss evaluation,the achievable
transmission distance for an AC cable wil be in the range of 40 to 100 km.It will
mainly be limited by the charging current.
• Direct connection between two AC systems with different frequencies is not possible.
• Direct connection between two AC systems with the same frequency or a new
connection within a meshed grid may be impossible because of system instability,too
high short-circuit levels or undesirable power flow scenarios.

3.3 ARGUMENTS FAVOURING HVDC:

The most common arguments favouring HVDC are:

1) Investment cost. A HVDC transmission line costs less than an AC line for the same
transmission capacity. However, the terminal stations are more expensive in the HVDC case
due to the fact that they must perform the conversion from AC to DC and vice versa. On the
other hand, the costs of transmission medium (overhead lines and cables),land
acquisition/right-of-way costs are lower in the HVDC case. Moreover, the operation and
maintenance costs are lower in the HVDC case.Initial loss levels are higher in the HVDC
system,but they do not vary with distance. In contrast, loss levels increase with distance in a
high voltage AC system
Above a certain distance, the so called "break-even distance", the HVDC alternative
will always give the lowest cost. The break-even-distance is much smaller for submarine
cables (typically about 50km) than for an overhead line transmission. The distance depends
on several factors, as transmission medium, different local aspects (permits, cost of local
labour etc.) and an analysis must be made for each individual case (Fig. 2.1).
2) Long distance water crossing. In a long AC cable transmission, the reactive power flow
due to the large cable capacitance will limit the maximum transmission distance. With HVDC
there is no such limitation, why, for long cable links, HVDC is the only viable technical
alternative.
3) Lower losses. An optimized HVDC transmission line has lower losses than AC lines for
the same power capacity. The losses in the converter stations have of course to be added, but
since they are only about 0.6% of the transmitted power in each station, the totalHVDC
transmission losses come out lower than the AC losses in practically all cases. HVDC cables
also have lower losses than AC cables.
4) Asynchronous connection. It is sometimes difficult or impossible to connect two AC
networks due to stability reasons. In such cases HVDC is the only way to make an exchange
of power between the two networks possible. There are also HVDC links between networks
with different nominal frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) in Japan and South America.
5) Controllability. One of the fundamental advantages with HVDC is that it is very easy to
control the active power in the link
6) Limit short circuit currents. A HVDC transmission does not contribute to the short circuit
current of the interconnected AC system.
7) Environment. Improved energy transmission possibilities contribute to a more efficient
utilization of existing power plants. The land coverage and the associated right-of-way cost
for a HVDC overhead transmission line is not as high as for an AC line.This reduces the
visual impact. It is also possible to increase the power transmission capacity for existing
rights of way. There are, however, some environmental issues which must be considered for
the converter stations, such as: audible noise, visual impact, electromagnetic compatibility
and use of ground or sea return path in monopolar operation.
 Fig 3.1 Total cost/distance of ac&dc transmissions

Engineers were therefore engaged over generations in the development of a technology for
DC transmissions as a supplement to the AC transmissions.

4. COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The most relevant components that comprise a HVDC system, are the following:
- The Thyristor or IGBT(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) valves make the
conversion from AC to DC and thus are the main component of any HVDC converter. Each
single valve consists of a certain amount of series connected thyristors (or IGBTs) with their
auxiliary circuits.

Fig 4.1 HVDC system components

- The Converter Transformers transform the voltage level of the AC busbar to the required
entry voltage level of the converter. The main component of a converter station are:
Thyristor valves: The thyristor valves can be build-up in different ways depending on
the application and manufacturer. However, the most common way of arranging the thyristor
valves is in a twelve-pulse group with three quadruple valves. Each single thyristor valve
consists of a certain amount of series connected thyristors with their auxiliary circuits. All
communication between the control equipment at earth potential and each thyristor at high
potential, is done with fibre optics.
VSC valves: The VSC converter consists of two level or multilevel converter, phase-
reactors and AC filters. Each single valve in the converter bridge is built up with a certain
number of series-connected IGBTs together with their auxiliary electronics. VSC valves,
control equipment and cooling equipment would be in enclosures (such as standard shipping
containers) which make transport and installation very easy.All modern HVDC valves are
water-cooled and air insulated.
- The Smoothing reactor, which main functions are:
• Prevention of the intermittent current
• Limitation of the DC fault currents
• Prevention of resonance in the DC circuits
- The Harmonic Filters, on the AC side of a HVDC converter station, which have two main
duties:
• To absorb harmonic currents generated by the HVDC converter
• To supply reactive power
Also DC filter circuits have to be used. Besides Active Harmonic filters can be a supplement
to passive filters due to their better performance.
DC filters: HVDC converters create harmonics in all operational modes. Such
harmonics can create disturbances in telecommunication systems. Therefore, specially
designed DC filters are used in order to reduce the disturbances. Usually no filters are needed
for pure cable transmissions as well as for the Back-to-Back HVDC stations. However, it is
necessary to install DC filters if an OH line is used in part or all the transmission system.
The filters needed to take care of the harmonics generated on the DC end, are usually
considerably smaller and less expensive than the filters on the AC side. The modern DC
filters are the Active DC filters. In these filters the passive part is reduced to a minimum and
modern power electronics is used to measure, invert and re-inject the harmonics, thus
rendering the filtering very effective.
- Surge arrester, which main task is to protect the equipment of over-voltages.
- DC Transmission circuit, which include DC Transmission line, cable, high speed DC
switches and earth electrode.
- Control and Protection, mechanism for maintaining entire system security.

4.1 SUBSTATION CONFIGURATION

The central equipment of a d.c. substation are the thyristor converters which are usually
housed inside a valve hall.Figure 4.1 shows an example of the electrical equipment required
for a d.c. substation. In this example, two poles are represented which is the usual case and is
known as the “bipole” configuration. Some d.c. cable systems only have one pole or
“monopole” configuration and may either use the ground as a return path when permitted or
use an additional cable to avoid earth currents.
From Figure 4.1, essential equipment in a d.c. substation in addition to the valve groups
include the converter transformers. Their purpose is to transform the a.c. system voltage to
which the d.c. system is connected so that the correct d.c. voltage is derived by the converter
bridges. For higher rated d.c. substations, converter transformers for 12 pulse operation are
usually comprised of single phase units which is a cost effective way to provide spare units
for increased reliability.

Fig 4.1 HVDC Substation configuration

 The secondary or d.c. side windings of the converter transformers are connected to
the converter bridges. The converter transformer is located in the switchyard, and if the
converter bridges are located in the valve hall, the connection has to be made through its wall.
This is accomplished in either of two ways. Firstly, with phase isolated busbars where the
bus conductors are housed within insulated bus ducts with oil or SF6 as the insulating
medium or secondly, with wall bushings. When applied at d.c. voltages at 400 kV or greater,
wall bushings require considerable design and care to avoid external or internal insulation
breakdown.Harmonic filters are required on the a.c. side and usually on the d.c. side. The
characteristic a.c. side current harmonics generated by 6 pulse converters are 6n +/- 1 and 12n
+/- 1 for 12 pulse converters where n equals all positive integers. A.C. filters are typically
tuned to 11th, 13th, 23rd and 25th harmonics for 12 pulse converters. Tuning to the 5 th and 7th
harmonics is required if the converters can be configured into 6 pulse operation. A.c. side
harmonic filters may be switched with circuit breakers or circuit switches to accommodate
reactive power requirement strategies since these filters generate reactive power at
fundamental frequency. A parallel resonance is naturally created between the capacitance of
the a.c. filters and the inductive impedance of the a.c.system.

5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

5.1 ADVANTAGES

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level
and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1,000 km.High-voltage direct
current transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.

In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission. Examples

include:

1. Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses. (e.g., 250 km
Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany,the 600 km NorNed cable between Norway and
the Netherlands, and 290 km Basslink between the Australian Mainland and Tasmania)
2. Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for
example, in remote areas
3. Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires are
difficult or expensive to install
4. Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC distribution systems
5. Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, for example Nelson River
Bipole
6. Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short circuit
current
7. Reducing line cost. HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple
phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect
8. Facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing voltages
and/or frequencies
9. Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources

Long undersea high voltage cables have a high electrical capacitance, since the
conductors are surrounded by a relatively thin layer of insulation and a metal sheath. The
geometry is that of a long co-axial capacitor. Where alternating current is used for cable
transmission, this capacitance appears in parallel with load. Additional current must flow in
the cable to charge the cable capacitance, which generates additional losses in the conductors
of the cable. Additionally, there is a dielectric loss component in the material of the cable
insulation, which consumes power.

When, however, direct current is used, the cable capacitance is charged only when the
cable is first energized or when the voltage is changed; there is no steady-state additional
current required. For a long AC undersea cable, the entire current-carrying capacity of the
conductor could be used to supply the charging current alone. This limits the length of AC
cables. DC cables have no such limitation. Although some DC leakage current continues to
flow through the dielectric, this is very small compared to the cable rating.

HVDC can carry more power per conductor because, for a given power rating, the
constant voltage in a DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line. The power
delivered is defined by the root mean square (RMS) of an AC voltage, but RMS is only about
71% of the peak voltage. The peak voltage of AC determines the actual insulation thickness
and conductor spacing. Because DC operates at a constant maximum voltage, this allows
existing transmission line corridors with equally sized conductors and insulation to carry
100% more power into an area of high power consumption than AC, which can lower costs.
Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems,
it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from
one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause
portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect
a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network.
The magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly commanded,
and changed as needed to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has
caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its
stability benefits alone.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, availability and

maintenance.
HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than AC systems, mainly due to the
extra conversion equipment. Single pole systems have availability of about 98.5%, with about
a third of the downtime unscheduled due to faults. Fault redundant bipole systems provide
high availability for 50% of the link capacity, but availability of the full capacity is about
97% to 98%.
The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At
smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC
transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line
construction cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers
worldwide have been dismantled or replaced by thyristor units. Pole 1 of the HVDC scheme
between the North and South Islands of New Zealand still uses mercury arc rectifiers, as does
Pole 1 of the Vancouver Island link in Canada.
 In contrast to AC systems, realizing multiterminal systems is complex, as is expanding
existing schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multiterminal DC
system requires good communication between all the terminals; power flow must be actively
regulated by the inverter control system instead of the inherent impedance and phase angle
properties of the transmission line. Multi-terminal lines are rare. One is in operation at the
Hydro Québec - New England transmission from Radisson to Sandy Pond. Another example
is the Sardinia-mainland Italy link which was modified in 1989 to also provide power to the
island of Corsica.
High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must
be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear
would be too great to allow reliable switching.
Operating a HVDC scheme requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively for
one system as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and technology changes
faster.

6 ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

A study for Oak Ridge National Laboratory reported on a survey to 3 suppliers of HVDC
equipment for quotations of turnkey costs to supply two bipolar substations for four
representative systems. Each substation requires one d.c. electrode and interfaces to an a.c.
system with a short circuit capacity four times the rating of the HVDC system.
Transmission line costs cannot be so readily defined. Variations depend on the cost of
use of the land, the width of the right-of-way required, labor rates for construction, and the
difficulty of the terrain to be crossed. A simple rule of thumb may be applied in that the cost
of a d.c. transmission line may be 80% to 100% of the cost of an a.c. line whose rated line
voltage is the same as the rated pole-to-ground voltage of the d.c. line. The cost advantage of
d.c. transmission for traversing long distances is that it may be rated at twice the power flow
capacity of an a.c. line of the same voltage.
When electricity must be transmitted by underground or undersea cables, a.c. cables
become impractical due to their capacitive charging current if longer than a critical length
which for undersea applications is less than 50 kM. For distances longer than this critical
length with today’s technology requires d.c. cables. The choice is system specific, and
economic considerations will prevail.

6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

The electrical environmental effects from HVDC. transmission lines can be

characterized by field and ion effects as well as corona effects (4), (5). The electric field
arises from both the electrical charge on the conductors and for a HVDC overhead
transmission line, from charges on air ions and aerosols surrounding the conductor. These
give rise to d.c. electric fields due to the ion current density flowing through the air from or to
the conductors as well as due to the ion density in the air. A d.c. magnetic field is produced
by d.c. current flowing through the conductors. Air ions produced by HVDC lines form
clouds which drift away from the line when blown by the wind and may come in contact with
humans, animals and plants outside the transmission line right-of -way or corridor. The
corona effects may produce low levels of radio interference, audible noise and ozone
generation.
6.2.1 FIELD AND CORONA EFFECTS
The field and corona effects of transmission lines largely favor d.c. transmission over
a.c.transmission. The significant considerations are as follows:

1. For a given power transfer requiring extra high voltage transmission, the d.c.
transmission line will have a smaller tower profile than the equivalent a.c. tower carrying the
same level of power. This can also lead to less width of right-of-way for the d.c. transmission
option.

2. The steady and direct magnetic field of a d.c. transmission line near or at the edge
of the transmission right-of-way will be about the same value in magnitude as the earth’s
naturally occurring magnetic field. For this reason alone, it seems unlikely that this small
contribution by HVDC transmission lines to the background geomagnetic field would be a
basis for concern.

3. The static and steady electric field from d.c. transmission at the levels experienced
beneath lines or at the edge of the right-of-way have no known adverse biological effects.
There is no theory or mechanism to explain how a static electric field at the levels produced
by d.c. transmission lines could effect human health. The electric field level beneath a HVDC
transmission line is of similar magnitude as the naturally occurring static field which exists
beneath thunder clouds. Electric fields from a.c.transmission lines have been under more
intense scrutiny than fields generated from d.c. transmission lines.
4. The ion and corona effects of d.c. transmission lines lead to a small contribution of
ozone production to higher naturally occurring background concentrations. Exacting long
term measurements are required to detect such concentrations. The measurements taken at
cross-sections across the Nelson River d.c. lines in Canada failed to distinguish background
from downwind levels. While solar radiation influences the production of ozone even in a
rural environment, thereby maintaining its level, any incremental contribution from a d.c. line
source is subject to breakdown, leading to a resumption of background levels downwind from
the line. Investigations of ozone for indoor conditions indicate that in well mixed air, the half-
life of ozone is 1.5 minutes to 7.9 minutes. Increases in temperature and humidity increase the
rate of decay .

7. HVDC APPLICATIONS

HVDC transmission applications can be broken down into different basic

categories. Although the rationale for selection of HVDC is often economic, there may be
other reasons for its selection. HVDC may be the only feasible way to interconnect two
asynchronous networks, reduce fault currents, utilize long cable circuits, bypass network
congestion, share utility rights-of-way without degradation of reliability and to mitigate
environmental concerns. In all of these applications, HVDC nicely complements the ac
transmission system.The main applications are:

A. Long Distance Bulk Power Transmission:

HVDC transmission systems often provide a more economical alternative to ac
transmission for long-distance, bulk-power delivery from remote resources such as hydro-
electric developments, mine-mouth power plants or large-scale wind farms. Higher power
transfers are possible over longer distances using fewer lines with HVDC transmission than
with ac transmission. Typical HVDC lines utilize a bipolar configuration with two
independent poles. Bipolar HVDC lines are comparable to a double circuit ac line since they
can operate at half power with one pole out of service but require only one-third the insulated
sets of conductors as a double circuit ac line. The controllability of HVDC links offers firm
transmission capacity without limitation due to network congestion or loop flow on parallel
paths.
B. Cable Transmission:
Unlike the case for ac cables, there is no physical restriction limiting the distance or
power level for HVDC underground or submarine cables. Underground cables can be used on
shared ROW with other utilities without impacting reliability concerns over use of common
corridors. For underground or submarine cable systems there is considerable savings in
installed cable costs and cost of losses when using HVDC transmission. Furthermore, there is
a drop-off in cable capacity with ac transmission over a distance due to its reactive
component of charging current since cables have higher capacitances and lower inductances
than ac overhead lines. This can be compensated by intermediate shunt compensation for
underground cables at increased expense, it is not practical to do so for submarine cables.
With a cable system, the need to balance unequal loadings or the risk of post-contingency
overloads often necessitates use of a series-connected reactors or phase shifting transformers.
These potential problems do not exist with a controlled HVDC cable system.
C. Asynchronous Ties :
With HVDC transmission systems, interconnections can be made between
asynchronous networks for more economic or reliable system operation. The asynchronous
interconnection allows interconnections of mutual benefit while providing a buffer between
the two systems. Often these interconnections use back-to-back converters with no
transmission line. Asynchronous HVDC links act as an effective “firewall” against
propagation of cascading outages in one network from passing to another network.

D. Offshore Transmission :
Self-commutation, dynamic voltage control and black-start capability allow compact
VSC HVDC transmission to serve isolated loads on islands or offshore production platforms
over long distance submarine cables. This capability can eliminate the need for running
expensive local generation or provide an outlet for offshore generation such as that from
wind. The VSC converters can operate at variable frequency to more efficiently drive large
compressor or pumping loads using high voltage motors.

E. Power Delivery to Large Urban Areas :

 Power supply for large cities depends on local generation and power import capability.
Local generation is often older and less efficient than newer units located remotely. Often,
however, the older, less-efficient units located near the city center must be dispatched out-of-
merit because they must be run for voltage support or reliability due to inadequate
transmission. Air quality regulations may limit the availability of these units. New
transmission into large cities is difficult to site due to right of way limitations and land use
constraints. Compact VSC-based underground transmission circuits can be placed on
existing dual-use rights-of-way to bring in power as well as to provide voltage support
allowing a more economical power supply without compromising reliability. The receiving
terminal acts like a virtual generator delivering power and supplying voltage regulation and
dynamic reactive power reserve. Stations are compact and housed mainly indoors making
siting in urban areas somewhat easier. Furthermore, the dynamic voltage support offered by
the VSC can often increase the capability of the adjacent ac transmission.

8. HVDC LIGHT TECHNOLOGY

HVDC Light represents electric power transmission by HVDC based on voltage source
converters. This newly developed technology has various interesting characteristics that make
it a very promising tool for transmission of electric power to distant loads, where no other
transmission is possible or economic. The technology is briefly presented here together with
its application to a pilot transmission. Emphasis is on the characteristics that are of
importance for feeding of networks or loads without own generation. This refers specifically
to the generation by internal control of the phase voltages in the inverter, that could serve the
loads in the connected AC network.
New DC power cables based on a modified triple extrusion technology and a specially
designed DC material have been developed. DC power cables with ratings 30 MW at 100 kV
can be accomplished weighting only 1 kg/m. Such cables can be installed at low cost by e.g.
ploughing techniques.Voltage source converters together with these cables constitute an
excellent tool for providing power to any distant location. Thereby the advantages of a large
network can be brought to basically any place. For the moment the technology considers
designs that work within the power range of 1-60 MVA and with direct voltages up to around
+/-100 kV. For the future both powers and voltages will increase and extension to pure DC
networks will be possible.

8.1 HVDC LIGHT TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The HVDC Light transmission system mainly consists of two cables and two
converter stations. Each converter station is composed of a voltage source converter (VSC)
built up with IGBTs, phase reactors, ac filters and transformer, as shown in Fig. 81. By using
pulse width modulation (PWM), the amplitude and phase angle (even the frequency) of the
converter AC output voltage can be adjusted simultaneously.Since the AC side voltage holds
two degrees of control freedom, independent active and reactive power control can be
realized.
Regarding the active power control, the feedback control loop can be formulized such
that either tracks the predetermined active power order, or tracks the given DC voltage
reference. Regarding the reactive power control, the feedback control loop can be formulized
such that it either tracks thepredetermined reactive power order, or tracks the given AC
voltage reference.

Fig 8.1 Typical Layout Of HVDC Light SubStation

Under the normal operation condition, the VSC can be seen as a voltage source.
However, under abnormal operation conditions, for instance, during an ac short-circuit fault,
the VSC may be seen as a current source, as the current capacity of the VSC is limited and
controllable.

8.2 ADVANTAGES
 • Reduced environmental impact, an underground cable has no visual impact on
the landscape. Once it's installed the cable route can be replanted with Native
vegetation.
• Faster and easier issue of permits using DC underground cables. Underground
cables rarely meet with public opposition and often receive political support.
• The system reliability is enhanced with reduced risk of damage from natural
causes such as storms, wind, earthquakes and fire. You simply bury it and
forget it.
• Operation and maintenance costs of the transmission easement are virtually
eliminated as there is no need for long term contracts to maintain the easement
with suitable access roads, thermographic checks of conductors joints,
insulator replacements, constant trimming and removal of regrowth vegetation
and public safety and security.
• The width of the corridor to install the underground cable can be as narrow as 4
meters, which will give greater flexibility with the selection of a transmission
route.
9 SHORT CIRCUIT CONTRIBUTION OF HVDC LIGHT

9.1 STUDIED AC SYSTEMS

The studied AC system has a mixture structure in radial and mesh connection, as
shown in Fig. 2. It includes high, medium and low voltage buses. The AC transmission lines
are modeled with π-link. The loads are constant current loads.Three types of fault, namely,
the close-in fault; the near-by fault and the distant fault, are applied at bus A, B and
C,respectively. A 3-ph close-in fault results in a voltage reduction of almost 100%, whereas a
3-ph near-by fault and distant fault result in voltage reduction on CCP bus of about
80% and 20%, respectively.

9.2 IMPACT OF STRENGTH OF AC NETWORKS

The possible maximum relative short circuit current increment (∆Imax) is
determined by the short circuit ratio(SCR). Supposing that the ∆Imax is defined as it is found
that the ∆Imax is inversely in proportional to the SCR as the solid curve shown in Fig. 9.1.
where, ISC is the short-circuit current of the original AC system alone at a 3-ph fault and
ISC_HVDC_L is the short-circuit current of the AC system with converter station connected
and in operation at the same fault.
The maximum possible short circuit current increment is in the boundary defined by
the two dashed curves. AC networks with SCR equal to 1.85,3.14 and 12 have been simulated
and the results are also shown in figure 9.1 with black dots.

Fig 9.1 Characteristics showing the impact of ac network strength

9.3 THE IMPACT OF CONTROL MODES

The current is mainly limited by the impedances of transmission lines and transformers
when a short circuit occurs. Since the impedance of lines and transformers is dominated by
the inductive impedance, the short circuit current is mainly consisted of reactive current.
Because of that, the choice of different control modes in respect of the active power control
does not give any impact to the short circuit current.It is important to notice that the change of
short circuit current and the variation of bus voltages usually go hand in hand. The increase of
short circuit current, namely, the increase of short circuit capacity, will improve the voltage
stability and minimize the reduction of bus voltage due to faults. Inversely, the reduction of
short circuit current may leads to voltage instability and voltage collapse during faults, in
particular in weak AC systems. With Uacctrl control mode, the reactive current generation
will be automatically increased when the AC voltage decreases.
9.4 THE IMPACT OF OPERATION POINTS

As it has been discussed, the maximum possible short circuit increment (∆Imax) due to
HVDC Light is determined by the SCR. It will occur if the VSC is operating at zero active
power, namely, it is operating as an SVC or STATCOM. Fig.9.2 shows the characteristic of
short circuit current contribution versus the load level. The two dashed curves are the result
by taking into account the transformer winding ratio variation due to the tap-changer. AC
networks with SCR equal to 3.14 has been simulated. For different load levels the observed
short circuit currents,during a 3-ph close fault, are marked with black dots in Fig. 9.2.

Fig 9.2:Characteristics showing impact of load levels

10 CONCLUSION

 A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct
current for the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more
common alternating current systems. For long-distance distribution, HVDC systems
are less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For shorter distances, the higher
cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system may be warranted where
other benefits of direct current links are useful.HVDC systems remain the best
economical and environmentally friendly option for the above conventional
applications. However, around the world, a quantum leap in efforts to conserve the
environment - are demanding a change in thinking that could make HVDC systems
the preferred alternative to high voltage AC systems in many situations.
 HVDC Light is a new technology that has been specifically developed to match the
requirements of the new competitive electricity markets. It provides the ability to
connect renewable generation to the AC grid. It allows us to supply power to remote
locations and islands replacing local diesel generation. The technical merits are that
by virtue of their standardised prefabricated modular constructions which lead to short
delivery times, it is relocatable and can be expanded to meet growing demand.
Moreover, a key advantage is that it provides accurate control of the transmitted active
power and independent control of the reactive power in the connected AC networks.
A pair of lightweight DC cables can be laid direct in the ground in a cost-effective
way which is comparable to or less than a corresponding total life cycle cost of AC
overhead line. For these reasons HVDC Light provides an important role as a business
concept and opens up new opportunities for both investors and environmentalist.

11 REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current

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presented at IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, Singapore,January 2000.

3. http://hvdcusersconference.com/wiki/

4. M. P. Bahrman, B. K. Johnson, “The ABCs of HVDC transmission technologies,”

IEEE Power & Energy, vol. 5, pp.32-44, Apr. 2007.

5. J. Zhu, H. Chao, R. Mukerji, D. Wang and L. Brown, “Economic assessment for

transmission upgrades in a deregulated market,” 2006 Session, CIGRE C1-115.
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8. G. Asplund, “Application of HVDC Light to Power System Enhancement”,

presented at IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, Singapore,January 2000.

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