NASA News

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Washington. D C 20546
AC 202 755-8370

For Release IMMEDIATE

Press Kit Project Pioneer Venus

Encounter
RELEASE NO: 78-181

Contents
GENERAL RELEASE..................................... 1-15

ENCOUNTER TIME LINE................................. 16-22

MISSION PROFILE..................................... 23

ORBITER OPERATIONS.................................. 23-34

MULTIPROBE OPERATIONS............................... 35-43

THE PLANET VENUS.................................... 44-60

MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS......................... 61-62

HISTORICAL DISCOVERIES ABOUT VENUS.................. 63-65

EXPLORATION OF VENUS BY SPACECRAFT.................. 66-67

Mailed:
November 28, 1978
 ii

THE PIONEER VENUS SPACECRAFT ...................... 68-82

VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES .......................... 82-95
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS ......................... 96-116
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS AND SCIENTIFIC
INSTRUMENTS ...................................... 117-120

MISSION OPERATIONS ................................ 121-122

DATA RETURN. COMMAND AND TRACKING ................. 123-125

PIONEER VENUS TEAM ................................ 126-128

CONTRACTORS ....................................... 128-131

VENUS STATISTICS .................................. 132

N!News
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Washington, D.C.20546
AC 202 755-8370

For Release:
N i c h o l a s Panagakos
H e a d q u a r t e r s , Washington, D.C. IMMEDIATE
(Phone : 202/755-3680)

P e t e r Waller
Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f .
(Phone: 415/965-5091)

RELEASE NO: 78-181

PIONEER VENUS ENCOUNTER WILL OCCUR I N DECEMBER

The most e x t e n s i v e s t u d y e v e r made of Venus w i l l b e g i n

n e x t month w i t h t h e a r r i v a l a t t h e p l a n e t of P i o n e e r Venus 1

and 2 .

P i o n e e r Venus 1 w i l l swing i n t o o r b i t around t h e c l o u d -

c o v e r e d p l a n e t on D e c . 4 , t a k i n g p i c t u r e s and making measure-

ments f o r one Venusian y e a r (225 E a r t h d a y s ) o r more.

On D e c . 9 , t h e f o u r p r o b e s and t r a n s p o r t e r b u s t h a t

c o m p r i s e P i o n e e r Venus 2 w i l l p l u n g e i n t o t h e Venusian

c l o u d s a t w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d p o i n t s f o r d e t a i l e d measurements

of t h e d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e from t o p t o bottom.

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The flights may shed new light on some of the most

puzzling questions in planetary science:

0 Why do two planets (Venus and Earth) iith abc t thm

same mass, probably formed out of similar materials and
situated at comparable distances from the Sun, have atmos-
pheres that have evolved so differently that the surface
of Venus is baked by a searing heat, while Earth luxuriates
in a climate”friend1yto life?

The answer to this question depends on an

understanding of the factors that govern the evolution of
a planet’s atmosphere.

Information gathered by the 30 Pioneer experiments on

the composition, circulation and energy balance of Venus’
atmosphere may also help us learn more about the forces that
drive the weather on our own planet.

The flights are the first ones devoted primarily to a

study of the atmosphere and weather of another planet on a
global scale. They employ the largest number of vehicles
ever used in such studies, and will make measurements at
the greatest number of locations.

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The f l i g h t s a l s o seek t o l e a r n more about t h e charac-

t e r i s t i c s of Venus' u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e , a s
w e l l a s t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e . They w i l l s t u d y t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n s of these r e g i o n s w i t h t h e solar wind -- the contin-

uous s t r e a m of i o n s and e l e c t r o n s f l o w i n g outward from t h e

Sun -- and t h e s o l a r m a g n e t i c and e l e c t r i c f i e l d s .

P i o n e e r Venus 1 w i l l be t h e f i r s t U . S . spacecraft t o

o r b i t Venus, whose s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e ( 4 8 0 degrees C e l s i u s

o r 900 degrees F a h r e n h e i t ) , atmospheric p r e s s u r e (100 t i m e s

t h a t of E a r t h ) and permanent c l o u d c o v e r have made it a n

enigma among p l a n e t s .

Launched May 2 0 , t h e O r b i t e r has flown more t h a n h a l f

way around t h e Sun on i t s seven-month j o u r n e y , some 500

million kilometers (300 million m i l e s ) , t r a v e l i n g outside

t h e E a r t h ' s o r b i t f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e months, and i n s i d e it

f o r t h e l a s t f o u r months.

A t Venus, t h e Orbiter w i l l follow a highly-inclined

24-hour o r b i t p l a n n e d so t h a t s p a c e c r a f t e v e n t s a r e timed

w i t h d a y s on E a r t h .

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At periapsis (orbital low point), the spacecraft will

come as close as 150 km ( 9 0 mi.) to the surface, dipping into
the thin Venus upper atmosphere, sampling its composition and
making radar measurements of the surface elevations and rough-
ness. (That hemisphere of Venus which is visible to Earth
radar shows a basin the size of Hudson Bay, a mountain as
great in extent but not as high as Mars' Olympus Mons -- the
solar system's highest -- and a 1,000-km (600-mi.)-long canyon.
Scientists are anxious to see Venus' unexplored half.) Its
orbital high point (apoapsis) will be 66,600 km (41,000 mi.)
from the planet.

The Pioneer Orbiter will also take daily ultraviolet

and infrared pictures of the thick clouds and atmosphere.

Experimenters will use precise orbital measurements to

chart Venus' gravity field for calculation of planetary shape
and density variations. The 1 2 Orbiter scientific instruments
will make a variety of other remote-sensing and direct measure-
ments of the planet's atmosphere and surrounding environment.

The Orbiter's primary mission has been selected to cover

the time it takes Venus to make one revolution on its axis --
2 4 3 Earth days. During this time, then, Venus will rotate
slowly under the periapsis of the orbit (point of closest
approach) providing closeup radar mapping of the entire
circumference.
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Also, s i n c e Venus c i r c l e s t h e Sun i n 2 2 5 E a r t h d a y s ,

t h e p r i m a r y m i s s i o n m o r e t h a n c o v e r s t h e t i m e needed t o

sample t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e a t a l l Sun a n g l e s .

The O r b i t e r ' s companion s p a c e c r a f t , P i o n e e r Venus 2,

t h e M u l t i p r o b e , i s made up of a t r a n s p o r t e r Bus, a Large

Probe and three i d e n t i c a l s m a l l e r probes. Launched Aug. 8 ,

t h e M u l t i p r o b e took a more d i r e c t r o u t e t o Venus t h a n i t s

sister c r a f t , t r a v e l i n g 350 m i l l i o n km ( 2 2 0 m i l l i o n m i . ) .

T h e probes w i l l e n t e r t h e atmosphere a t p o i n t s spread

1 0 , 0 0 0 km ( 6 , 0 0 0 m i . ) apart over t h e p l a n e t ' s Earth-facing

hemisphere. The smaller p r o b e s a r e named f o r e n t r y l o c a t i o n s .

The Large P r o b e e n t e r s Venus' atmosphere n e a r t h e e q u a t o r

on t h e day side. T h e Day P r o b e e n t e r s Venus' s o u t h e r n hemi-

s p h e r e on t h e p l a n e t ' s d a y s i d e : t h e N i g h t Probe, t h e n i g h t

s o u t h e r n hemisphere on t h e n i g h t s i d e : and t h e N o r t h P r o b e ,

t h e N o r t h P o l a r v o r t e x , a l s o on Venus' n i g h t s i d e . Bus e n t r y

i s i n t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere on t h e d a y s i d e .

The Bus u s e s t w o i n s t r u m e n t s t o o b t a i n t h e d a t a on

t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e , f r o m 1 5 0 km down t o

1 1 5 km ( 9 0 m i . down t o 7 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e , b e f o k e b u r n i n g up

s h o r t l y a f t e r atmospheric entry.

C r i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e p l a n e t are i n j e c t i o n i n t o

o r b i t o f P i o n e e r Venus 1 w h i l e it i s o u t o f r a d i o c o n t a c t

b e h i n d Venus, and t h e e n t r y and d e s c e n t t h r o u g h t h e atmos-

p h e r e of t h e f o u r p r o b e s and Bus.
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The s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s i s as f o l l o w s :

0 On S a t u r d a y , D e c . 2 , Ames c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l o r i e n t

t h e O r b i t e r f o r o r b i t i n s e r t i o n and t h e n e x t day w i l l l o a d

command memory s e q u e n c e s . A t 8 : 0 6 a.m. PST Monday, D e c . 4,

t h e O r b i t e r w i l l p a s s b e h i n d Venus and n i n e m i n u t e s l a t e r

t h e command memory w i l l f i r e t h e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n motor f o r

30 s e c o n d s , r e d u c i n g v e l o c i t y by 3 , 7 8 0 km/hr ( 2 , 3 5 0 mph).

Ten m i n u t e s l a t e r , t h e O r b i t e r emerges from b e h i n d Venus,

and f i v e m i n u t e s a f t e r t h i s , t e l e m e t r y c o n f i r m s r e t r o f i r e .

0 F i v e d a y s l a t e r , on D e c . 9 , t h e p r o b e s are i n p o s i t i o n

t o make t h e i r h o u r - l o n g d e s c e n t t h r o u g h Venus' a t m o s p h e r e .
(The f o u r p r o b e s and Bus which c o m p r i s e P i o n e e r Venus 2 w e r e

s e p a r a t e d Nov. 1 5 and 1 9 , w h i l e t h e y w e r e s t i l l some 1 2 m i l -

l i o n km ( 7 m i l l i o n m i . ) from Venus. They have been n e a r l y

dormant and o p e r a t i n g on i n t e r n a l t i m e r s since then i n

o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e b a t t e r y power. They w i l l n o t be h e a r d

from a g a i n u n t i l 1 9 m i n u t e s b e f o r e Venus e n t r y a t 10:26 a.m.

PST .
)

0 Three h o u r s b e f o r e e n t r y , command s y s t e m s on b o a r d

t h e t h r e e i d e n t i c a l , 90-kilogram (2OO-pound)-North, Day and

N i g h t P r o b e s w i l l t u r n on heaters t o w a r m up b a t t e r i e s ,

r a d i o s and o s c i l l a t o r s . Half a n hour l a t e r , t h e 320-kg

(700-lb.) L a r g e P r o b e ' s command s y s t e m w i l l awaken t h e c r a f t ,

warming up b a t t e r i e s and r a d i o .

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0 A t 10:23 a.m. PST S a t u r d a y , D e c . 9 , t h e Large Probe

w i l l send i t s f i r s t r a d i o s i g n a l t o E a r t h i n 2 4 d a y s . Then

a t i n t e r v a l s of f i v e , three and f o u r m i n u t e s , t h e N o r t h ,

Day and N i g h t P r o b e s W i l l s i q n a l t o t h e Deep Space Network

(DSN). (The s i g n a l t a k e s t h r e e m i n u t e s t o r e a c h E a r t h . )

0 S e v e n t e e n m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e Large P r o b e d a t a

s y s t e m w i l l b e g i n o p e r a t i n g a t 256 b i t s p e r second ( b p s ) ,

and i t s i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l b e w a r m e d up and c a l i b r a t e d .

0 L a r g e P r o b e e n t r y a t 4 2 , 0 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph) o c c u r s

a t 10:45 a . m . A t e n t r y p l u s 38 seconds, t h e c r a f t ' s para-

chute deploys. The h e a t s h i e l d i s j e t t i s o n e d , and 3 0 s e c o n d s

l a t e r a l l instruments are on. For t h e n e x t 55 m i n u t e s , t h e

p r o b e w i l l r e t u r n a s t e a d y stream of d a t a on each l e v e l o f

Venus' a t m o s p h e r e a s it d e s c e n d s . Impact on Venus' s u r f a c e

w i l l o c c u r a t 11:40 a . m . PST.

0 A f t e r f i r s t r a d i o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i d e n t i c a l North,

Day a n d . N i g h t P r o b e s , d a t a b e g i n t o a r r i v e a t 6 4 b p s . I n s t r u -
m e n t s a r e warmed up and c a l i b r a t e d . The p r o b e s e n t e r t h e

a t m o s p h e r e a t 10:50, 10:53 and 10:56 a . m . PST. One m i n u t e

a f t e r e n t r y , windows o p e n , d o o r s open and booms d e p l o y t o

e x p o s e s e n s o r s r e l a t e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e and n e t f l u x

(heat-sensing) experiments. For t h e n e x t 56 m i n u t e s , a l l

three p r o b e s w i l l g a t h e r a t m o s p h e r i c d a t a .

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0 A t 1 6 . 4 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y , a s Venus' atmosphere

t h i c k e n s , t h e d a t a r a t e i s reduced t o 1 6 bps. The North,

Day and N i g h t P r o b e s i m p a c t on Venus' s u r f a c e 1 0 , 0 0 0 km

(6,000 m i . ) a p a r t a t 11:47, 11:50 and 11:53 a . m . PST. Though

t h e i r m i s s i o n s w i l l be o v e r , t h e y may c o n t i n u e b r i e f l y t o

return data f r o m the surface.

A major o p e r a t i o n s problem i s r e t r i e v a l of p r o b e d a t a .

During t h e c r i t i c a l 1 h o u r and 38 m i n u t e s o f p r o b e and b u s

o p e r a t i o n s a t Venus a l l P i o n e e r s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be t r a n s -

m i t t i n g a t once. T h i s p r e c i o u s d a t a must be recovered. To

e n s u r e t h i s , s p e c i a l equipment h a s been i n s t a l l e d i n t h e
DSN s t a t i o n s a t Goldstone, C a l i f . , and C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a .

Radio f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e p r o b e s i g n a l s w i l l s h i f t

r a p i d l y d u e t o huge e n t r y d e c e l e r a t i o n s -- f r o m 4 2 , 0 0 0 km/hr

( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph) t o a b o u t 6 5 km/hr ( 4 0 mph) -- and s i g n a l d i s -

t o r t i o n s c a u s e d by Venus' d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e . One consequence

i s t h a t a f t e r t h e 1 0 - t o 15-second communications b l a c k o u t

d u r i n g e n t r y , s i g n a l s w i l l r e a p p e a r a g a i n a t new f r e q u e n c i e s .
T o a v o i d l o s s of d a t a , b o t h D S N s t a t i o n s w i l l u s e newly-

d e v e l o p e d receivers and recorders w i t h a f r e q u e n c y band

wide enough t o be c e r t a i n o f g e t t i n g t h e f o u r s h i f t i n g s i g -

nals. The real-time s y s t e m w i l l u s e a u t o m a t i c t u n e r s , b u t

w i l l lose s o m e d a t a .

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Scientists believe that the coordinated Pioneer atmos-

pheric data, combined with similar data to Mars, Jupiter
and other planets, will lead to a better understanding of
atmospheric mechanisms in general. Studies of the inter-
actions of temperatures, pressures, composition, clouds and
atmospheric dynamics different from Earth's should provide
insights into important mechanisms which are often prominent
on another planet. Such findings may help us to better
understand the Earth's complex weather machine.

Scientists think Venus may be an unusually good place

to study the mechanics of atmospheres because the planet
rotates very slowly and there are no oceans. The atmosphere
appears to be a relatively "simple" weather machine, and
the basic atmospheric circulation should be a simple hemi-
spheric overturning. Hence, continuous measurements from
orbit, combined with those of the probes from many points
in the atmosphere, could provide at least a broad view of
Venusian weather processes.

Because of its high density, temperature and corrosive

constituents, Venus' atmosphere presents a difficult problem
for entry craft designers.

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High entry speeds of 42,000 km/hr (26,000 mph) add to

the problem, as does the necessity for all instruments to
have either observing or direct sampling access to the
hostile atmosphere.

All four probes are geometrically similar. The main

component of each is a spherical pressure vessel which houses
instruments, communications, data, command and power systems.
The Large Probe weighs 316 kg (698 lb.). It is 1.5 meters
( 5 feet) in diameter, and its seven instruments weigh 28 kg

(62 lb.). The smaller North, Day and Night Probes each
weigh 9 3 kg (206 lb.) . They are 0.8 m (30 in.) in diameter,
and their three experiments weigh 3 . 5 kg (7.7 lb.).

The transporter Bus is a spin-stabilized, short cylinder

2.4 m (8 ft.) in diameter, housing instruments, communica-
tions, navigation and power systems. The exterior of the
Bus cylinder is covered with power-generating solar cells.

The Orbiter spacecraft, like the Bus, consists prin-

cipally of a spin-stabilized 2.4-m (8-ft.) diameter, short
cylinder containing most spacecraft systems.

Above the cylinder is the narrow-beam, parabolic dish

antenna. The dish is used for high-speed data transmission
and faces toward the Earth throughout the mission, while the
spacecraft spins beneath it.
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Within the cylinder is a thermally-controlled equip-

ment compartment, which houses the 1 2 Orbiter scientific
instruments, a million-bit data memory and the communications
and data-handling systems.

The Orbiter weighs 5 8 0 kg ( 1 , 2 8 0 lb.) with 4 5 kg (100

lb.) of scientific instruments. Weight in orbit after motor
burn is 3 7 2 kg ( 8 2 0 lb.).

The Orbiter's destination, Venus, is the second planet

from the Sun, and the closest one to Earth. Because of its
highly reflective cloud cover, Venus is the brightest object
in the sky after the Sun and the Moon. Its year is 2 2 5
Earth days. Its mean distance from the Sun is 1 0 8 . 2 million
km ( 6 7 . 2 million mi.). This is nearly three-quarters of
Earth's distance from the Sun.

When Venus is closest to Earth, directly between Earth

and Sun, the planet is only 4 2 million km ( 2 6 million mi.)
away.

Since Earth and Venus are almost twin planets, scien-

tists want to know if there is any chance of Earth becoming
a desolate, hell-like world like Venus.

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The atmosphere of Venus appears to be predominantly

carbon dioxide -- about 97 per cent. Only minute amounts
of water vapor have been detected in it. Venus' high
overall density suggests a dense core something like Earth's
nickel-iron core. Venus has no significant magnetic field.
So the planet has no magnetosphere and its unshielded upper
atmosphere interacts directly with the solar wind.

Venus receives almost twice as much solar radiation

as Earth, but it also reflects more than half of this, so
the net solar heat is about the same as Earth's. Venus is
so hot because the atmosphere traps the heat. This trapping
is called a ''greenhouse effect," which means that Venus'
atmosphere allows passage of incoming solar radiation, but
restricts radiation of heat outward.

The temperature at the poles of Venus is only about

10 degrees C (50 degrees F.) less than that at the equator.
Both its day and night hemispheres have about the same tem-
perature. Hence, Venus' massive atmosphere contains cir-
culation mechanisms which distribute solar heat evenly over
the whole planet. In addition to carbon dioxide and water
traces, Venus' atmosphere also has some carbon monoxide,
hydrochloric acid and hydrogen fluoride.

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Venus' permanent c l o u d s a r e v e r y t e n u o u s , something

l i k e t e r r e s t r i a l smog. D a t a f r o m S o v i e t Venera l a n d e r s

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y are almost t w i c e as deep as E a r t h ' s

c l o u d r e g i o n , a b o u t 1 8 km (11 m i . ) t h i c k , and are b e l i e v e d

t o be composed m a i n l y of s u l f u r i c a c i d d r o p l e t s . Somewhere

below t h e bottom of t h e main c l o u d l a y e r s , i t i s s u g g e s t e d ,

t h e t e m p e r a t u r e becomes g r e a t enough f o r t h e s u l f u r i c a c i d

d r o p l e t s t o e v a p o r a t e i n t o w a t e r v a p o r and s u l f u r i c a c i d

vapor. A clear atmosphere r e s u l t s . Enough s u n l i g h t g e t s

through t h e clouds so t h a t t h e s u r f a c e appears as b r i g h t

as on a n o v e r c a s t d a y on E a r t h .

From t h e M a r i n e r c l o u d p h o t o g r a p h s i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t ,

it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e c l o u d t o p s a r e i n c o n t i n u o u s m o t i o n ,

t r a v e l i n g a b o u t 3 6 0 km/hr ( 2 2 0 mph) and c i r c l i n g t h e p l a n e t

i n four Earth days. However, t h e S o v i e t Venera l a n d e r s

showed t h a t wind s p e e d s i n t h e d e e p a t m o s p h e r e are e x t r e m e l y

slow. An a b r u p t change i n wind v e l o c i t y a p p e a r s t o t a k e

p l a c e a b o u t 56 km ( 3 6 m i . ) a l t i t u d e between t h e b a s e of t h e

c l o u d s and t h e c l e a r a t m o s p h e r e below.

Some m a j o r q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o E a r t h and Venus are:

a L i k e Venus, t h e E a r t h has a g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t which

may be growing b e c a u s e of i n c r e a s e s i n c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n

o u r atmosphere -- due t o l a r g e - s c a l e b u r n i n g o f f o s s i l f u e l

s i n c e 1850.
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Could the Earth's greenhouse effect become strong

enough to cause a serious, steady rise in temperature?

0 Venus presumably formed as close to the Sun as it

is today, not greatly different from Earth's distance. We
might expect Venusian oceans like our own. Yet there is
almost no water on Venus. Where did the water go, if it
ever existed?

One explanation is that the difference in distance

from the Sun of Venus and Earth at the time they formed
was enough to lead to a big difference in the amount of
hydrated minerals incorporated in the protoplanets. In
this view, Venus has always been deficient in water. Another
proposed explanation is that the water vapor outgassed by
Venus never condensed into a liquid because Venus is too
close to the Sun. In time, the water vapor was split by
sunlight into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen, with the
hydrogen being lost to space.

Cost of the Pioneer Venus spacecraft, scientific

instruments, mission operations and data analysis is about
$175 million.

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The Pioneer Venus project is managed for NASA's Office

of Space Science by the Ames Research Center, Mountain View,
Calif., and the spacecraft are controlled from the Mission
Operations Center at Ames. The spacecraft were built by
Hughes Aircraft Co., El Segundo, Calif. The scientific
instruments were supplied by NASA centers, other government
organizations, universities and private industry.

The spacecraft are tracked by NASA's Deep Space Net-

work, operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif., a government-owned research facility managed for
NASA by the California Institute of Technology.

(END OF GENERAL RELEASE. BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOLLOWS.)

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 -16-

ENCOUNTER TIME LINE

( A l l t i m e s are P a c i f i c Standard)

Dec. 2
Midday Maneuver t o o r i e n t O r b i t e r f o r i n s e r t i o n . Bit
r a t e lowered (1,024 t o 64 b p s ) ; s w i t c h t o omni
antenna; spin-up high-gain antenna; i n c r e a s e s p i n
r a t e t o 30 rpm; d e s p i n h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a ; r a i s e
b i t r a t e (64 t o 1,024 b p s ) .

Dec. 3
11:OO p.m. Load b o t h O r b i t e r command m e m o r i e s w i t h sequence
t o f i r e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n motor.

Dec. 4

1:OO a.m. S t a r t command m e m o r i e s t o f i r e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n

motor ( O r b i t e r ) .
7:51 a . m . O r b i t e r p a s s e s behind t h e p l a n e t n i n e minutes
b e f o r e Venus o r b i t i n s e r t i o n ( V O I ) .

8:OO a . m . V O I o c c u r s b e h i n d Venus. Solid rocket o r b i t inser-

t i o n motor b u r n s o u t i n a b o u t 30 s e c o n d s and c h a n g e s
v e l o c i t y a b o u t 3,780 km/hr (2,349 mph).

8:lO a . m . O r b i t e r e x i t s from b e h i n d Venus.

8:15 a . m . Confirm O r b i t e r r e t r o f i r e .

8:30 a . m . (VOI + 30 m i n u t e s ) I n i t i a l O r b i t e r d e s p i n t o 1 5 rpm.

9:00 a.m. Despin O r b i t e r ' s h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a .

9:00 a . m . t o
3:OO p.m. Determine o r b i t o f O r b i t e r .

1:OO p.m. (VOI + 5 h o u r s ) Load r a d a r mapper memory f o r f i r s t

orbit.

3:OO p.m. (VOI + 7 h o u r s ) Despin O r b i t e r t o 6 rpm.

4:OO p.m. (VOI + 8 hours) Reorientation of O r b i t e r s p i n a x i s

t o south celestial pole.

6:OO p.m. (VOI + 1 0 hours) O r b i t e r high-gain antenna o r i e n t e d

t o E a r t h and t e l e m e t r y s w i t c h e d from omni a n t e n n a
t o high-gain antenna.

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 -17-

7 : O O p.m. (VOI + 11 hours) Turn on Orbiter scientific

experiments:
1. Infrared Radiometer (IR), Neutral Mass
Spectrometer (NMS) and Electron Temperature
Probe (ETP) on.
2. Release NMS hat, unlock radar antenna and
deploy ETP boom.
3 . NMS calibration sequence, radar calibration
sequence.
8:OO p.m. (VOI + 12 hours) Begin orbit No. 1.
1O:OO p.m. (VOI + 14 hours) Trim spin rate to 5 rpm.
11:OO p.m. (VOI + 15 hours) Continue turn-on of Orbiter
scientific instruments:
1. Magnetometer on.
2. Retarding Potential Analyzer on.
VOI sequence complete. First orbital scientific
sequence starts. Remaining Orbiter instruments
will be turned on at various times as requested
by the principal investigators during the first
orbit.
Dec. 5
12:OO Noon Start receiving IR weather map of planet
atmosphere.
Dec. 6
a.m. Quick looks at solar wind ionosphere interaction
data from Electric Field Detector (EFD); thermal
structure of ionosphere data from ETP; Magnetometer
readings of solar wind and ionosphere; IR weather
maps; IR data on heat balance and distribution;
.
Ultraviolet Spectrometer ( W S ) maps (Orbiter) *
11:OO a.m. First Orbiter imaging scan by Cloud Photopolarimeter
(CPP) .
7 : O O p.m. First Venus image (black and white) received at
Ames from Orbiter CPP. Color image about five
hours later.*

*Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are

tentative.

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 -18-

Dec. 7
a.m. UVS measures of composition and thermal structure
of hot outermost atmospheric layer: Ion Mass
Spectrometer (IMS) data on distribution and con-
centration of ions in upper atmosphere; NMS read-
ings of upper atmosphere: IR readings of: temperature
profiles in upper atmosphere, total reflected sun-
light, correlation with ultraviolet markings, water
vapor abundance and distribution (Orbiter).*
p.m. Second black and white picture received from CPP
(color five hours later) .*
Dec. a
Early a.m. Data on cloud tops and upper atmosphere from
.
Orbiter UVS *
a.m. Data on temperature profiles of upper atmosphere,
total reflected sunlight, correlation with ultra-
violet markings, water vapor abundance and distri-
bution from IR, IR maps: NMS readings of upper
atmosphere: IMS readings of ion distribution and
concentration in upper atmosphere; UVS measures of
composition and thermal structure of hot outermost
atmosphere layer (Orbiter).*
Gravity anomalies from Orbiter radio science
(effects of gravity on orbital path).*
p.m. Third planet picture received from CPP.*
Daytime Calibrations made: NMS cap released (Bus).
Dec. 9
7:50 a.m. Multiprobe atmosphere entry operations begin.
Stable oscillator in radio transmitters of North,
Day and Night probes warmed up by onboard commands.
8 : 1 5 a.m. Command unit on Large Probe initiates warm-up of
battery and radio receiver.
a.m. Final adjustments to Bus' entry angle.

*Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are

tentative.
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 -19-

Dec. 9 (cont'd.)
a.m. Orbiter experiment data continuing daily:
IR maps, IR readings of temperature profiles of
upper atmosphere, total reflected sunlight, cor-
relation with ultraviolet markings, water vapor
abundance and distribution; NMS readings of upper
atmosphere; I M S readings of ion distribution and
concentration in upper atmosphere; UVS measures
of composition and thermal structure of hot outer-
most atmospheric layer (Orbiter).*
p.m. Two planet pictures per day (Orbiter).*
First transmissions from probes:
First Radio First Signal First Data
Signal Received First Data Received
Transmission On Earth Probe Transmission On Earth
10:23 a.m. 10:26 a.m. Large 10:28 a.m. 10:31 a.m.
10:28 a.m. 10:31 a.m. North 10:33 a.m. 10:36 a.m.
10:31 a.m. 10:34 a.m. Day 10:36 a.m. 10:39 a.m.
10:34 a.m. 10:37 a.m. Night 10:39 a.m. 10:42 a.m.

10:45 a.m. Begin entry communications blackout. Timer com-

mands data storage (Large Probe).
10:50 a.m. North Probe begins communication blackout: cables
and weights of despin system deploy to reduce spin
rates from 48 to 15 rpm; cables and weights jet-
tisoned immediately after spindown.
10:53 a.m. Above sequence begins on Day Probe.
10:56 a.m. Above sequence begins on Night Probe.
1 0 : 45:30 Large Probe begins descent phase, deploys parachute
a.m. and jettisons forward aeroshell-heat shield.
1 0 : 45:45 Altitude of Large Probe is 40 miles; all instru-
a.m. ments operating.

*Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are

tentative.

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 -20-

Dec. 9 (cont'd.)
Entry and impact times for probes and Bus.
(Entry is at 200 km (125 mi.) altitude,
42,000 km/hr (26,000 mph) .)
Entry Probe Impact
10:45 a.m. Large 11:40 a.m.
10:50 a.m. North 11:47 a.m.
10:53 a.m. Day 11:50 a.m.
1 0 : 5 6 a.m. Night 11:53 a.m.
12:21 p.m. Bus Burns up at 12:23 p.m.

10:51 a.m. North Probe Nephelometer window opens; Atmospheric

Structure and Net Flux Radiometer housing doors
open, instrument booms deploy on probe, instrument
compartment doors despin probe.
10:54 a.m. Above sequence begins for Day Probe.
10:57 a.m. Above sequence begins for Night Probe.
11:02 a.m. At 45 km (28 mi.) altitude, Large Probe parachute
jettisons.
11: 0 6 : 30 Data rate of North Probe reduced to 16 bps at
a.m. 29 km (18 mi.) altitude, due to atmosphere
thickening.
11:09:30 Data rate of Day Probe reduced as above.
a.m.
11:12: 30 Data rate of Night Probe reduced as above.
a.m.
Dec. 10
a.m. Preliminary cloud location and density data from
all four probe nephelometers.*
Noon Preliminary data on lower atmosphere thermal
structure, all four probes.*
Dee. 11
a.m. Preliminary Large Probe IR data on heat trapping.*
*Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are
tentative.
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 -21-

Dec. 12
a.m. Preliminary data on solar energy deposition from
Solar Flux Radiometer; cloud-layer particle size
from Cloud Particle Size Spectrometer; atmosphere
and cloud components from Atmospheric Composition
Mass Spectrometer (Large Probe).*
a.m. Data reduction of Mass Spectrometer measurements
of number density of upper atmosphere; Ion Mass
Spectrometer measurements of upper atmosphere (Bus).*
p.m. Reduction of data on Day, Night and North Probe
measurements of heat trapping on Venus from net
flux radiometers.*
p.m. Thermal structure of ionosphere from Electron
Temperature Probe; Magnetometer readings of iono-
sphere and solar wind fields; Electric Field
Detector readings of solar wind-ionosphere inter-
action (Orbiter).*
Dec. 13
a.m. Further data reduction on: heat sources and sinks
in atmosphere from Large Probe IR; cloud density
of lower atmosphere from all four probe nephelometers.*
p.m. Preliminary data on atmospheric components from
Gas Chromatograph; cloud particle characteristics
from 'Solar Radiometer; Solar Radiometer readings
of solar heating in Venus atmosphere (Large Probe) .*
p.m. Reduction of upper atmosphere thermal structure
data from four probes.
Dec. 14
a.m. Cloud characteristic data from Large Probe Solar
Flux Radiometer.*
Dec. 19 Solar corona turbulence and solar wind velocity
near the Sun from effects on Orbiter radio signal.*
Dec. 2 2 Line-of-sight wind speeds from Multiprobe Doppler
experiment; small-scale turbulence characteristics
of atmosphere from Multiprobe radio science.*
"Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are
tentative.
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 -22-

January Upper atmosphere temperature, pressure and density

data from Orbiter occultation measurements.*
Small-scale atmospheric turbulence above 35 km
(22 mi.), from Orbiter radio science.*
Atmospheric structure characteristics from Multi-
probe radio science.*
Lower atmospheric motion from changing pressure
and temperature gradients of Dual Frequency Radio
occultation (Orbiter) *.
Determination of energy input sources into iono-
sphere from Orbiter Retarding Potential Analyzer.*
Atmospheric drag on Orbiter gives atmospheric
density.*
Effects of ionosphere on Orbiter radio signal
during occultation (ionosphere model).*
Venus gravity field model from cumulative small
orbit changes.*
Estimate direction and magnitude of Venus spin
vector, magnitude of Venus polar motion, and
improve measurements of Venus-Earth orbits from
Orbiter radio science.*
Venus wind velocities calculated from descent
track of four probes.*

*Experiment result dates and times are estimates and are

tentative.

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 -23-

M I S S I O N PROFILE

The t w o P i o n e e r f l i g h t s t o Venus w i l l e x p l o r e t h e
atmosphere o f t h e p l a n e t , s t u d y i t s s u r f a c e u s i n g r a d a r
and d e t e r m i n e i t s g l o b a l s h a p e and d e n s i t y d e s t r i b u t i o n .
The f i r s t s p a c e c r a f t , P i o n e e r Venus 1, t h e O r b i t e r , w i l l
make e i g h t months o r more o f r e m o t e - s e n s i n g and d i r e c t
measurement. P i o n e e r Venus 2 , t h e M u l t i p r o b e , s e p a r a t e d
i n t o f i v e atmospheric e n t r y c r a f t , e i g h t m i l l i o n m i l e s
o u t from t h e p l a n e t , w i l l measure t h e atmosphere from t o p t o
bottom i n a b o u t two h o u r s a t p o i n t s s p r e a d o v e r t h e e n t i r e
E a r t h - f a c i n g h e m i s p h e r e of Venus.

O R B I T E R OPERATIONS

On D e c . 2 , 1978, t w o d a y s b e f o r e a r r i v a l a t Venus, t h e
O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t s p i n r a t e w i l l be i n c r e a s e d t o 30 rpm
and t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be o r i e n t e d w i t h i t s 18,000-N ( 4 , 0 0 0 - l b . )
t h r u s t , s o l i d - f u e l e d r o c k e t engine p o i n t i n g forward, i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l .

On Dec. 4 , 1978 a t 8:OO a.m. P S T , t h e s p a c e c r a f t command

w i l l command t h e r o c k e t t o i g n i t e f o r t h e 30-second
o r b i t - i n s e r t i o n burn. This w i l l reduce s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y
by 3 , 7 8 1 km/hr ( 2 , 3 4 9 mph), p l a c i n g P i o n e e r i n a 24-hour
o r b i t around Venus. The p l a n n e d o r b i t w i l l be i n c l i n e d 75
d e g r e e s t o Venus' e q u a t o r , w i t h i t s low p o i n t ( p e r i a D s i s )
near 18.5 degrees north l a t i t u d e . The o r b i t ' s h i g h p o i n t
( a p o a p s i s ) i s e x p e c t e d t o be a t an a l t i t u d e of 6 6 , 0 0 0 km
(41,000 m i . ) . P e r i a p s i s i n i t i a l l y w i l l be a t 300 km
( 1 8 0 m i . ) , l a t e r r e d u c e d t o a s low a s 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) .

Within h o u r s a f t e r t h e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n r o c k e t b u r n ,
m e m b e r s of t h e O r b i t e r n a v i g a t i o n team will have measured
t h e a c t u a l s i z e and s h a p e o f t h e o r b i t . A f t e r s l o w i n g t h e
s p i n r a t e and a d j u s t i n g o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l command
f i r i n g o f t h r u s t e r s t o t r i m up t h e o r b i t t o a c c e p t a b l e
dimensions.

During t h e 243-day p r i m a r y O r b i t e r m i s s i o n , t h e o r b i t
w i l l have a p e r i o d close t o 2 4 h o u r s . T h i s means t h a t most
a c t i v i t i e s w i l l o c c u r o v e r t h e same D S N s t a t i o n e v e r y day.

The 24-hour o r b i t h a s b e e n d i v i d . e d i n t o two p e r i o d s ,

r e f l e c t i n g t h e k i n d of measurements b e i n g t a k e n . The p e r i -
a p s i s ( o r b i t a l low p o i n t ) p e r i o d i s a b o u t f o u r h o u r s l o n g .
The a p o a p s i s ( o r b i t a l h i g h p o i n t ) p e r i o d i s 2 0 h o u r s l o n g .

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 T H E PIONEER VENUS MISSIONS

I
h)
b P

REVERSE I

'
I
NIGHT
BUS PROBE

ORBITER
 -25-

PERSPECTIVE V I E W OF PIONEER V E N U S O R B I T
 PIONEER VENUS ORBITER
TYPICAL ORBITAL OPERATIONS

START STORED COMMANDS TO

OPERATE ION MASS SPECTROMETER
(IMS), ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETER
(UVS), RETARD1NG POTENTIAL
ANALYZER (RPA), NEUTRAL MASS
SPECTROMETER (NMS), INFRARED CONTINGENCY READ-OUT COMMAND MEMORY
COMMAND
RADIOMETER (IR), RADAR MAPPER,
PLASMA ANALYZER (PA), ELECTRON
TEMPERATURE PROBE (ETP) DURING

- LOAD RADAR
MAPPER MEMORY

I
h,
cn
1 ORBIT = 24 HOURS I
GAMMA BURST DETECTOR, MAGNETOMETER &
ELECTRIC FIELD DETECTOR OPERATE
CONTINUOUSLY DURING ORBIT
9 / /

PHOTOPOLARIMETER
OBSERVATIONS AND PLASMA
ANALYZER SEQUENCES

I
/ SEQUENCES
/
READ-oUT
RPA & PA
SEQUENCES
D A T A STORAGE
UNITS
 PIONEER VENUS ORBITER
ORBIT INSERTION (EXPERIMENT OPERATIONS)
/
/

SPACECRAFT BEHIND
PLANET - NO RADIO
COMMUNICATION
>
\,/ l8 MAGNETOMETER &
17 R ETAR DING POTENTI A L
ANALYZER ON
23
TRIM TO 5 rpm I
t
u
INFRARED RADIOMETER ON; 4
UNLOCK RADAR ANTENNA; I
RELEASE NEUTRAL MASS
1 ORBIT = 24 HOURS SPECTROMETER (NMS) HAT;
DEPLOY ELECTRON TEMPERATURE
PROBE (ETP) BOOM; NMS &
ETP ON
/ TELEMETRY TO HIGH-GAIN
ANTENNA
REOR IENT TO SOUTH
6 CELESTIAL POLE
DESPIN 15 TO 6 rpm

MOTOR BURNS
I
30 secs, CHANGES
VELOCITY 3780 kph
(2349 mph)
DESPIN
HIGH-GAIN
ANTENNA
\
LOAD RADAR MAPPER MEMORY
FOR FIRST ORBIT
 PIONEER VENUS ORBITER
ORBIT INSERTION (SPACECRAFT OPERATIONS)

DEC. 2: ORIENT SPACECRAFT

>/'
FOR ORBIT INSERTION & 0
0
SPIN-UP TO 30 rpm
11 P.M. DEC. 3:
LOAD COMMAND MEMORIES ,*:
L&d
op
TO FIRE ORBIT INSERTION ,5p
MOTOR
/ p+
START
1 A.M.
COMMAND
DEC. 4: /\++
MEMORIES TO FIRE 0
ORBIT INSERTION MOTOR

0
k0
22 21
/ I
23 h,
SPACECRAFT BEHIND a,
I
PLANET - NO RADIO
COMMUNICATION
\

1 ORBIT = 24 HOURS
BEGINS
ORBIT INSERTION:
SOLID ROCKET
MOTOR BURNS TELEMETRY TO
30 secs, CHANGES HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA
VELOCITY 3780 kph REORIENT TO SOUTH
(2349mph) CELESTIAL POLE
1
DESPIN c \
- 3 TO 6 rpm
 -29-

Mission o p e r a t i o n s w i l l u s e f i v e d a t a formats d u r i n g
t h e 4-hour p e r i a p s i s p e r i o d . Thesz f o r m a t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o
p e r m i t s emphasis i n c e r t a i n i n s t r u m e n t s when d e s i r a b l e ; f o r
example, one p r o v i d e s i n t e n s i v e aeronomy c o v e r a g e a t p e r i a p -
s i s , a n o t h e r stresses o p t i c a l c o v e r a g e .

The mapping f o r m a t g i v e s 4 4 p e r c e n t of t h e d a t a f l o w
t o t h e r a d a r mapper f o r Venus s u r f a c e s t u d y , and d i v i d e s t h e
r e s t between t h e u l t r a v i o l e t s p e c t r o m e t e r and t h e i n f r a r e d
radiometer.

Normally, c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l u s e o n l y two d a t a f o r m a t s
i n t h e 20-hour a p o a p s i s segment. The f i r s t of t h e s e w i l l
b e f o r t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f t h e whole p l a n e t i n u l t r a v i o l e t
l i g h t , which w i l l show t h e f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n o f Venus'
c l o u d s i n s e q u e n c e . Known as t h e imaging f o r m a t , i t a l l o -
c a t e s 6 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a t a s t r e a m t o t h e imaging and
c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r i n s t r u m e n t , and d i v i d e s t h e rest amonq
t h r e e s o l a r w i n d - p l a n e t i n s t r u m e n t s and t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l ex-
p e r i m e n t ' s gamma b u r s t d e t e c t o r . The o t h e r f o r m a t , known
as t h e g e n e r a l f o r m a t , a l l o c a t e s d a t a r e t u r n among a l l O r -
b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s e x c e p t t h e p i c t u r e - t a k i n g c l o u d photo-
p o l a r i m e t e r and t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r . A s much a s t h r e e -
q u a r t e r s of t h e t o t a l a p o a p s i s p e r i o d w i l l be devoted t o
imaging, which h a s v e r y l a r g e d a t a r e q u i r e m e n t s .

During t h e f i r s t 80 d a y s i n o r b i t , Dec. 5 , 1978 t o

Feb. 23, 1 9 7 9 , t h e O r b i t e r w i l l ? a s s b e h i n d Venus f o r oc-
c u l t a t i o n p e r i o d s o f up t o 23 m i n u t e s . This allows t h e
r a d i o s c i e n c e team t o measure e f f e c t s of Venus' atmosphere
on t h e s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l down t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 km
(31 m i . ) altitude. S i n c e t h e narrow beam s i g n a l i s b e n t
by t h e p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r e , t h e a n t e n n a ' s d i s h r e f l e c t o r
w i l l b e commanded as much as 1 7 d e g r e e s away from t h e
E a r t h - l i n e t o e x t e n d t h e t i m e o f r e c o r d i n g t h e s i g n a l as it
i s r e f r a c t e d around t h e s o l i d p l a n e t .

A l s o , d u r i n g o c c u l t a t i o n s , when communications a r e c u t
o f f , t h e Venus O r b i t e r w i l l s t o r e d a t a i n i t s m i l l i o n - b i t
memory. A f t e r emergence of t h e O r b i t e r , t h e d a t a memory
r e a d o u t w i l l be u s e d f o r r e t u r n o f s t o r e d d a t a . A second
o c c u l t a t i o n p e r i o d o c c u r s from May 7 - 1 6 , 1 9 7 9 , a l l o w i n g
a d d i t i o n a l r a d i o measurements o f t h e u p p e r atmosphere.

During t h e e i g h t months on o r b i t , h e a l t h o f t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t w i l l be m o n i t o r e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u o u s f l o w of en-
g i n e e r i n g d a t a . Redundant s y s t e m s f o r t h e most c r i t i c a l
f u n c t i o n s ( s u c h as command and d a t a r e t u r n ) w i l l be u s e d i f
needed.

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 ORBIT CHANGES SHOW VENUS'
INTERIOR DENSITY DISTR IBUTlON

/
/
/
/
GRAVITY ,'
SIGNATURE
r
----_-
I
\
\
\
\ BETA
1' VOLCAN
I
,: FEATUR
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I w
I 0
I I
 -31-

Mission O p e r a t i o n s e n g i n e e r s a l s o w i l l t r i m t h e o r b i t
a b o u t every 1 0 d a y s e i t h e r t o l o w e r p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e
which i s g r a d u a l l y r a i s e d by s o l a r g r a v i t y p e r t u r b a t i o n s
o r t o a d j u s t t h e o r b i t a l p e r i o d when it d r i f t s from the
desired value.

The p r i m a r y m i s s i o n e n d s a f t e r 2 4 3 d a y s . S h o r t l y a f t e r -
w a r d s , t h e O r b i t e r and Venus w i l l be b e h i n d t h e Sun and
communications w i l l b e g a r b l e d o r c u t o f f for s e v e r a l d a y s .
A f t e r emergence from s o l a r b l a c k o u t , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l
be a v a i l a b l e f o r extended mission operations.

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 -32-

RADAR MAPPER SCANS ON VENUS' SURFACE

INSTRUMENT SCANS A BAND 55" WIDE AROUND THE PLANET FROM 10"
SOUTH LATITUDE TO 45" NORTH LATITUDE
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MULTIPROBE OPERATIONS

On D e c . 9 , 1978, a t a b o u t 10:45 a . m . PST, t h e f o u r p r o b e s

w i l l a r r i v e a t Venus and e n t e r t h e a t m o s p h e r e . The Large
Probe w i l l d e s c e n d t o Venus' s u r f a c e i n 55 m i n u t e s and t h e
N o r t h , Day and N i g h t p r o b e s i n a b o u t 57 m i n u t e s .

Large P r o b e E n t r y E v e n t s

A t 2.5 h o u r s b e f o r e e n t r y ( t i m e o f e n t r y i s d e f i n e d a s
t i m e a t 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e ) , t h e Large P r o b e ' s command
u n i t w i l l o r d e r warmup o f t h e b a t t e r y and r a d i o r e c e i v e r .
Twenty-two m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e p r o b e w i l l b e g i n t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f r a d i o s i g n a l s t o E a r t h . A t e n t r y minus 1 7 m i n u t e s , t h e
p r o b e b e g i n s t r a n s m i t t i n g d a t a a t 256 b p s . The command u n i t
i n i t i a t e s warmup o f t h e s e v e n s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a b o a r d ,
plus instrument calibration. F i v e m i n u t e s b e f o r e t h e peak
e n t r y d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e o f 320 G , t h e p r o b e w i l l be t r a v e l i n g
4 1 , 6 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph).

The t i m e r w i l l command d a t a s t o r a g e f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i m e n t d u r i n g e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t .

T h i r t y - e i g h t s e c o n d s a f t e r e n t r y , t h e 316-kg ( 7 0 0 - l b . )
p r o b e b e g i n s t h e d e s c e n t p h a s e , d e p l o y s i t s p a r a c h u t e and
j e t t i s o n s i t s forward a e r o s h e l l - h e a t s h i e l d . F o r t y - t h r e e
s e c o n d s a f t e r e n t r y , a t a n a l t i t u d e of 6 6 km ( 4 0 m i . ) , a l l
instruments should be o p e r a t i n g . Seventeen minutes l a t e r ,
a t a n a l t i t u d e of 4 7 km ( 2 8 m i . ) , t h e p a r a c h u t e i s j e t t i s o n e d ,
and t h e a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y s t a b l e p r e s s u r e vessel d e s c e n d s t o
t h e s u r f a c e i n 39 m i n u t e s , i m p a c t i n g 55 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y .
The p r o b e j e t t i s o n s i t s p a r a c h u t e t o s p e e d i t s d e s c e n t t h r o u g h
Venus' v e r y d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e , so t h a t i t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e
before h e a t d e s t r o y s it.

During d e s c e n t , t h e Large P r o b e ' s s e v e n i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l

have o b t a i n e d d a t a t o d e t e r m i n e a l t i t u d e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f
cloud l a y e r s , atmosphere c o n s t i t u e n t s , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e ,
d e n s i t y , wind f l o w and v a r i a t i o n s of h e a t f l o w i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

Large Probe w i l l i m p a c t t h e s u r f a c e a t a b o u t 36 km/hr

( 2 2 mph). (None o f t h e p r o b e s i s r e q u i r e d t o s u r v i v e i m p a c t ,
b u t t h e y may r e t u r n some s u r f a c e d a t a , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t h r e e
smaller p r o b e s , which r e t a i n t h e i r h e a t s h i e l d s . )

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 -36-

PIONEER V E N U S ATMOSPHERE
PROBES SEPARATION

.......... .
...
...
. . .. *.

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.

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.. ... ..
* . * .

I .

SOUND E R ~

PROBE

DAY
PROBE

The transporter Bus releases the Sounder Probe 11.1 million km (6.9 million mi) from Venus on Nov. 15.
Four days later, the Bus releases the three identical North, Day, and Night Probes, 9.3 million km (5.8
million mi) from Venus.
 L A R G E PROBE DESCENT SEQUENCE

e
ENTRY

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4

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DEPLOY PILOT CHUTE / \

RELEASE AFT COVER
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EXTRACT CHUTE BAG I\

DEPLOY MAIN CHUTE

RELEASE
CHUTE
AEROSHELL/PRESSURE VESSEL
SEPARATION
 -38-

North, Day and Night Probe Events

The 91 kg (200 lb.) North, Day and Niqht probes also will
enter the planet's atmosphere at about 41,600 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph).
However, the angles of their flight paths into the atmosphere
vary greatly. This means that entry heating and durations
of maximum deceleration pulses vary widely. Peak decelera-
tion forces vary from 200 G to 5 6 5 G . Entry times also
differ by 11 minutes. A s with the Large Probe, entry is
defined as occurring at an altitude of 2 0 0 km (120 mi.).
Three hours before entry, the stable oscillator in the
radio transmitter for one-way Doppler tracking and the battery
on each smaller probe are warmed up by commands from the
onboard command units. Twenty-two minutes before entry, each
probe begins transmission of radio signals to Earth.
Seventeen minutes before entry, the smaller probes begin
transmitting data at 64 bps. The command unit initiates
warmup and calibration for the three instruments on each of
the probes.
Five minutes before entry, two cables and weights of
the yo-yo despin system are deployed to reduce the spin rates
of each probe from 48 to 15 rpm. The high spin rates imparted
by the Bus earlier were needed to disperse the probes to entry
points widely spaced over the planet. However, this wide
dispersion a l s o means that the smaller probes enter Venus'
high upper atmosphere somewhat tilted o f f their flight paths.
The "spindown" of the probes is needed to make it easier for
aerodynamic forces to line up the axes of the probes with the
flight paths. This must occur quickly before heating at the
edges of the probes' conical heat shields becomes serious.
Cables and weights are jettisoned immediately after spindown.
Five minutes before the peak deceleration pulse of
atmospheric entry, the command unit orders the "blackout"
format for storage of spacecraft data, plus heat shield
temperature and accelerometer measurements for the atmos-
pheric structure experiment. This is to assure no l o s s of
data during the 10-to-15-second communications blackout at
entry.
Within the first minute (18 to 46 seconds) after entry,
the nephelometer window on each Probe is opened, and the
atmospheric structure and net flux radiometer housing doors
are opened and instrument booms deployed.

At this time, the upper descent phase begins, with the

three probes in the altitude range of 72 to 65 km ( 4 3 to
39 mi.) and all instruments operating. The instrument
compartment doors on each side of the smaller probe after-
bodies serve to despin the probes.
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A small vane on the pressure sensor inlet prevents the

spin rate from falling to zero rpm, enabling instruments to
make observations over a full rotation of the probe.
At entry plus 16.4 minutes, as the thickening atmosphere
interferes with radio transmission, the data rate is reduced
to 16 bps. This occurs at an altitude of 30 km (18 mi.).
From this point, the North, Day and Night probes descend
into Venus' increasingly dense lower atmosphere, impacting
on the surface at 36 km/hr (22 mph) 57 minutes after their
entry times. Unlike the Large Probe, the smaller probes
retain their heat shields to the surface. The density of
the atmosphere is so great that the drag of these aero-
dynamic surfaces slows the probes to the desired descent
speed.
Bus Events
Eighty-eight minutes after all probes have entered the
Venus atmosphere, the Bus will enter on the day side of the
planet at a high latitude in the southern hemisphere. The
Bus has no heat shield for high-speed entry, and is expected
to burn up two minutes after entry. However, the Bus carries
two experiments on the composition of the atmosphere, an ion
and a neutral mass spectrometer. These instruments measure
constituents of the ionosphere and upper atmosphere from
200 km (120 mi.) down to 115 km (71 mi.). These are the
missions' only atmospheric composition measurements between
150 and 115 km (93 and 71 mi.), a region that contains the
maximum density of the Venusian ionosphere. The Bus, with
i t s more powerful transmitter, returns this data to Earth
at 1,024 bps before its destruction.

Entry Data Return--Probes, Bus and Orbiter

The four probes and the Bus will return their data
during a critical 1-hour, 38-minute-period on Dec. 9.
This will extend from Large Probe entry at 10:45,a.m. PST
to Bus burnup at 12:23 p.m. PST.
The probes and Bus will return data almost simultaneously.
All the spacecraft radio data directly to Earth. This means
that Deep Space Network stations must find, receive and record
five entry craft data signals plus Orbiter data, all at the
same time. To make sure of getting this critical data, the
two D S N 64-m (210-ft.) antennas at Canberra, Australia, and
Goldstone, Calif., will receive and record all incoming
signals simultaneously.

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 -41-

F r e q u e n c i e s of t h e p r o b e s i g n a l s w i l l s h i f t w i d e l y
b e c a u s e of t h e a b r u p t s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s a t e n t r y - -
from 4 1 , 6 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 m p h ) down t o a b o u t 6 5 km/hr
( 4 0 mph)-- and s i g n a l d i s t o r t i o n s by Venus' d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e .
To f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s i g n a l r e c e p t i o n s , t h e r e i s a 10-to-15
second communications b l a c k o u t a t peak e n t r y d e c e l e r a t i o n .
For a s h o r t t i m e there i s no s i g n a l a t a l l , and when t h e
s i g n a l d o e s resume i t s f r e q u e n c y h a s s h i f t e d . T o a s s u r e
g e t t i n g d a t a streams from t h e f i v e e n t r y c r a f t , ground
r e c e i v e r s w i t h bandwidths s u f f i c i e n t t o cover a l l p o s s i b l e
f r e q u e n c y s h i f t s w i l l r e c e i v e and record t h e incoming
signals.

The DSN's real-time receiver s y s t e m s a t b o t h G o l d s t o n e

and C a n b e r r a w i l l s e r v e a s backups t o t h e wide-band r e c o r d i n g
a r r a y s . F o r t h i s r e a l - t i m e r e c e p t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s , t h e
DSN h a s a c q u i r e d s p e c i a l a u t o m a t i c t u n i n g equipment t o
e n a b l e o p e r a t o r s t o s t a y l o c k e d on p r o b e s i g n a l s d u r i n g a s
much of t h e p r o b e e n t r y and d e s c e n t p e r i o d s a s p o s s i b l e ,
despite s h i f t s i n s i g n a l frequencies.

S c i e n t i s t s w i l l c a l c u l a t e a t m o s p h e r i c wind v e l o c i t i e s
and d i r e c t i o n s f r o m measurements of c h a n g e s i n p r o b e
t r a j e c t o r i e s ( v e l o c i t i e s ) , t h r o u g h t r i a n g u l a t i o n measurements
involving four stations. Two STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam and
S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l r e c o r d Bus and p r o b e d a t a , a l o n g w i t h
t h e D S N s t a t i o n s a t C a n b e r r a and G o l d s t o n e .
 PROBE DATA RETURN

During flight through the atmosphere of the Sounder, North, Day and Night probes and the Bus, NASA's
Deep Space Network must handle data from six spacecraft at once. All Pioneer Venus spacecraft transmit
directly to Earth from the planet.
-43-
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 -44-

THE PLANET VENUS

Venus is the planet most similar to Earth in size, mass
and distance from the Sun. But its surface is much hotter,
its atmosphere much denser, and its rotation much slower than
that of Earth.
The diameter of Venus is 1 2 , 1 0 0 km ( 7 5 1 9 mi.), compared
with Earth's 1 2 , 7 4 5 km ( 7 9 2 0 mi.). The mass of Venus is
0.81 times that of the Earth. The mean density of Venus is
5 . 2 6 grams per cubic cm compared with Earth's 5.5 grams per
cubic cm.

Because Venus is closer to the Sun, it receives about

twice as much energy as Earth. However, it is more reflective
than Earth because of its cloudy atmosphere. As a result of
these two competing factors, Venus absorbs about the same
amount of solar energy as Earth. Thus Venus would be expected
to have a temperature very similar to Earth's. In fact, the
surface of Venus is very hot, about 480 degrees 2 ( 9 0 0 degrees F).
This theory for the high temperature of Venus assumes that
the atmosphere allows the passage of the incoming solar radiation
to the lower atmosphere and the surface. However, the atmosphere
restricts the passage of heat radiation from the surface and the
lower atmosphere back into space. The heat is trapped. Earth
has a modest greenhouse effect that raises its surface temperature
by about 35 degrees C (95 degrees F.),but in some parts of the
infrared spectrum heat can escape by direct radiation from the
Earth's surface to space. Because of its density, composition
and clouds, the Venus atmosphere is very thick, and because it
is mostly carbon dioxide, it is essentially opaque to outgoing
heat radiation at all important wavelengths.
One of the most puzzling aspects of Venus is its lack of
water. If Venus is as dry as it seems, where did the oceans of
Venus go, if any ever existed? One speculation is that the
water rose into the upper atmosphere and was dissociated by
solar ultraviolet radiation into hydrogen and oxygen. The
hydrogen escaped into space from the top of the Venus atmosphere,
and the heavier oxygen diffused down to the oxidized crust.
Detailed analysis shows that it might not be Practical for Venus
to have lost an ocean of water by such a route. Perhaps Venus
formed close enough to the Sun so that the temperature prevented
water from being incorporated into the solid material that formed
the planet. If so, Venus would never have had enough water
within its rocks to form early deep oceans like those of Earth.
Direct measurements of gases within the Venus atmosphere may
point toward one of two alternatives: Either that water was
not incorporated into Venus as much as on Earth, or that water
outgassed and was subsequently lost.
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 -45-

O r b i t and R o t a t i o n of Venus

The r o t a t i o n of Venus i s v e r y slow and i n a r e t r o g r a d e

d i r e c t i o n , t h a t i s , opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s
r e v o l u t i o n a b o u t t h e Sun and t o t h e r o t a t i o n o f m o s t o t h e r
p l a n e t s . Venus t u r n s on i t s a x i s once i n 243.1 E a r t h d a y s .
S i n c e Venus' r o t a t i o n on i t s a x i s and r e v o l u t i o n i n o r b i t
around t h e Sun a r e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , t h e l e n g t h o f a s o l a r
day on Venus i s 1 1 7 E a r t h d a y s ( 5 8 . 5 E a r t h d a y s of " d a y l i g h t "
58.5 E a r t h d a y s o f n i g h t ) .

The o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus a r e t i l t e d t o each o t h e r

a b o u t 3.5 d e g r e e s . Venus' a x i s i s t i l t e d a b o u t 6 d e g r e e s
f r o m p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e p l a n e t ' s o r b i t . T h i s
compares w i t h E a r t h ' s a x i a l tilt of 23.5 degrees which p r o d u c e s
o u r s e a s o n s . Thus, s e a s o n a l e f f e c t s on Venus are small.

Some s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t Venus' p e r i o d o f r o t a t i o n
i s t i e d t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e E a r t h and Venus a r o u n d t h e
Sun. Venus p r e s e n t s t h e same h e m i s p h e r e toward E a r t h a t each
c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h ; t h a t i s , e a c h t i m e t h e p l a n e t p a s s e s between
Sun and E a r t h . I f t h e r o t a t i o n of Venus i s l o c k e d t o t h e close
a p p r o a c h e s o f E a r t h and Venus, t h e n t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of
mass w i t h i n Venus s h o u l d be s l i g h t l y asymmetric.
Why does Venus r o t a t e s o s l o w l y when m o s t o t h e r p l a n e t s
r o t a t e i n p e r i o d s of h o u r s r a t h e r t h a n months? One s p e c u l a t i o n
i s t h a t a l a r g e body h i t Venus a n d s t o p p e d i t s r o t a t i o n . T h i s
l a r g e body m i g h t have been c a p t u r e d as a s a t e l l i t e i n t o a
r e t r o g r a d e o r b i t and l a t e r impacted w i t h Venus t o s t o p i t s
normal r o t a t i o n and r o t a t e it s l o w l y i n a n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .

I t c o u l d be t h a t Venus was formed f r o m l a r g e f r a g m e n t s ,

and as a r e s u l t of t h e combined i m p a c t s o f these f r a g m e n t s n e v e r
had much r o t a t i o n . According t o a n o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n , s o l a r t i d a l
e f f e c t s i n Venus' d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e may have slowed r o t a t i o n
and t h e n " t u r n e d t h e p l a n e t o v e r " , a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s backward
rotation.

Radar a s t r o n o m e r s h a v e mapped a n area on t h e E a r t h - f a c i n g

s i d e of t h e p l a n e t a s l a r g e a s A s i a and have found what a p p e a r s
t o be a rugged s u r f a c e . According t o t h e radar r e s u l t s , there
are huge s h a l l o w c r a t e r s a s w e l l a s a n enormous v o l c a n o which
may be as l a r g e i n a r e a , though n o t as h i g h , as Olympus Mons
on Mars ( t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ' s l a r g e s t d i s c o v e r e d so f a r ) . Radar
a s t r o n o m e r s a l s o d e t e c t e d what a p p e a r s t o be a n enormous canyon.
T h i s chasm i s 1 4 0 0 k m ( 8 7 0 m i . ) l o n g , 1 5 0 k m ( 9 5 m i . ) w i d e , and
several k i l o m e t e r s deep.

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 -46-
VENUS' CLOUD CIRCULATION

Ultraviolet picture of Venus' clouds taken at 720,000 km (450,000 mi) by Mariner 10. This
photo consists of a mosaic of several T V frames. The dark markings of the clouds appear to
rotate in about four days in a retrograde direction.
 -47-

Venus' I n t e r i o r and Absence of Magnetic F i e l d

U n l i k e t h e E a r t h , Venus h a s no s i g n i f i c a n t m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
T h e g e n e r a t i o n of E a r t h ' s f i e l d i s a t t r i b u t e d t o a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g
dynamo i n t h e f l u i d core o f t h e p l a n e t . C o n v e c t i o n c u r r e n t s i n
t h e core g i v e r i s e t o e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s t h a t p r o d u c e t h e e x t e r n a l
m a g n e t i c f i e l d . T h i s t h e o r y , which a l s o seems t o a p p l y t o
J u p i t e r , p r e d i c t s t h a t s l o w - s p i n n i n g p l a n e t s l i k e Venus s h o u l d
n o t have m a g n e t i c f i e l d s .

Venus i s a p l a n e t whose s h a p e c o u l d be v e r y c l o s e t o a
s p h e r e a c c o r d i n g t o r a d a r measurements. They show i t s e q u a t o r
t o be a l m o s t a p e r f e c t c i r c l e . Because t h e p o l e s do n o t r o t a t e
i n t o view a s do p o i n t s on t h e e q u a t o r , c i r c u l a r i t y around t h e
p o l e s c a n n o t b e measured. The l a c k o f i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n
s h a p e , and of a s a t e l l i t e makes it d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
i n t e r n a l d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p l a n e t . Most models of
t h e i n t e r i o r a r e based on i t s s i m i l a r i t y t o E a r t h , c o n s i s t i n g
of a l i q u i d c o r e , a s o l i d m a n t l e and a s o l i d c r u s t . But t h e
t r u e n a t u r e of t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e p l a n e t i s v e r y much i n
d o u b t b e c a u s e s c i e n t i s t s do n o t know Venus' thermal s t r u c t u r e
o r t h e n a t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l s which make up i t s mass.

The Atmosphere of Venus

Carbon d i o x i d e i s t h e dominant g a s i n t h e Venusian

a t m o s p h e r e . There are a l s o t r a c e s of w a t e r , c a r b o n monoxide,
h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and hydrogen f l u o r i d e . Free oxygen h a s n e v e r
been found.

T h e c l o u d s which o b s c u r e t h e s u r f a c e of Venus c o n s i s t of
t h i c k h a z e s o f d r o p l e t s b e l i e v e d t o be made o f s u l f u r i c a c i d .
Venus' c l o u d s are p a l e y e l l o w and v e r y r e f l e c t i v e , r e t u r n i n g
i n t o s p a c e some 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e s u n l i g h t f a l l i n g on them.
Space p r o b e measurements have shown t h a t t h e r e a r e d i s t i n c t
c l o u d l a y e r s much h i g h e r t h a n t e r r e s t r i a l c l o u d s . P h o t o g r a p h s
t a k e n i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t reveal a f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n of t h e
markings i n t h e s e c l o u d s . T h i s r o t a t i o n i s l i k e t h a t o f t h e
p l a n e t , i n a retrograde d i r e c t i o n . Unusual dynamics o f t h e
a t m o s p h e r e a r e r e q u i r e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h i s high-speed c l o u d
motion.

The g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d f i g u r e f o r a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n
d i o x i d e on Venus i s 9 7 p e r c e n t . However, measurements made
by e a r l y Venera spacecraft (USSR) d i f f e r from r a d i o o c c u l a t i o n
measurements s u g g e s t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f a b o u t 7 0 p e r c e n t
c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e . And, i f t h e r e
i s much a r g o n i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , t h e amount of c a r b o n d i o x i d e
c o u l d be as l o w a s 2 5 p e r c e n t .
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 -48-

Adding to the uncertainty is the fact that the percentages

determined by the Veneras were obtained by sampling the
atmosphere in regions where there are sulfuric acid droplets.
The presence of the acid may have contaminated these measurements.
It is therefore possible to argue that the carbon dioxide is
considerably less than 9 7 per cent, with the remainder being
made up by some combination of nitrogen and argon.
The amount of carbon dioxide is important because it plays
a major role in the interpretation of the microwave spectrum
of the planet. If the atmosphere is 9 7 per cent carbon dioxide,
the microwave observations permit the presence of as much as
0.1 per cent water below the clouds. Some instruments on the
most recent Veneras 9 and 10 indicated that water vapor
constituted about 0.1 per cent of the atmosphere below the
main clouds. At the cloud tops it is only 0.0001 per cent,
however. But, if there is another gas in the atmosphere of
Venus that is not a good microwave absorber, the planet's
atmosphere might contain more water than is now believed.
Carbon dioxide is also important to theories about the
evolution of the atmosphere of Venus, and to the radiative
properties of the present atmosphere and its dynamic
characteristics.
The atmospheres of both Venus and Earth are assumed to
have originated from gases that were released from the interiors
of the planets which were hot when the planets first formed. In
the case of Earth, most of the outgassing may have occurred soon
after formation, from the heat of formation. Venus may never
have had much water to outgas in the first place if it was
formed from parts of the solar nebula that were poor in water.
Or it may be that Venus formed with as much water as the Earth,
but this water has now been lost.
The Earth holds its water in its oceans because it is much
cooler than Venus and there is a "lid" on its atmosphere. This
lid is the very cold tropopause where the temperature rises
with altitude. This prevents heated water vapor from rising
by convection to cooler heights where it could be,dissociated
by solar ultraviolet radiation. But if Earth were moved to
the same distance from the Sun as Venus, conditions could
change drastically. The additional solar energy would be
sufficient to evaporate all of Earth's oceans.

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 -49-

If Venus had been formed from the same mix of materials

as Earth and then outgassed its volatiles, we would expect it
to have an atmosphere about 350 times as massive as Earth's.
Carbon dioxide would account for a surface pressure of about
100 atmospheres, and water vapor would account for about 150
atmospheres. On Earth most of the 100 atmospheres of carbon
dioxide is tied up in carbonate rocks which are chemically
stable at terrestrial temperatures, but unstable at Venus
temperatures. Earth's oceans, if vaporized, would result in
an atmospheric pressure of about 250 atmospheres. Venus
does indeed have nearly 100 atmospheres of carbon dioxide,
but the water is apparently absent. There are no oceans,
and the atmospheric water vapor is a minor constituent.
One of the major questions to be answered by Pioneer Venus
is just how much water vapor is present. Water vapor would
be broken down by solar ultraviolet radiation into oxygen
and hydrogen. The hydrogen would escape into space leaving
the oxygen behind. Effectively the oceans would be leaking
into space.
This could have happened to Venus. If the primitive
atmosphere of Venus consisted mostly of steam (because the
planet is closer to the Sun than Earth), the resulting
convective atmosphere could not have had a barrier to
convection. The water vapor would have dissociated into
hydrogen and oxygen. Calculations suggest that within
about 30 million years perhaps 90 per cent of the water
could have been lost to the planet, but all could not be
lost in this way.
Furthermore, there is no easy way to explain what
happened to the leftover oxygen other than that it reacted
with the surface rocks. Yet without running water to
continually expose fresh rocks for oxidation, the process
might be insufficient to remove all the oxygen. Continental
drift might be a possible mechanism to expose fresh rocks.
There is a question, too, of what happens to the oxygen now
released in the upper atmosphere by photodissociation of
carbon dioxide to produce the carbon monoxide observed
spectroscopically. The incorporation of oxygen with sulfur
to form the sulfuric acid droplets does not seem to account
for all the missing oxygen.

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 -50-
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 -51-

On Venus, because of the high surface temperatures,

reactions between rocks, minerals and the atmosphere are
expected to be much faster than on Earth. However, on Earth
the action of running water constantly exposes new rocks to
the action of the atmosphere and aids oxidation and other
reactions between the rocks and the atmosphere. This is not
happening on Venus. If fresh rocks are not being exposed by
some other mechanism, the atmosphere of Venus may not have
achieved equilibrium with surface materials.
The Venus atmosphere can be divided into three distinct
regions: a region above the visible cloud tops which includes
the ionosphere and the exosphere; a region of clouds; and a
region from the base of the clouds to the surface.

Upper Atmosphere
The upper atmosphere of Venus has an ionosphere which is
different from that of Earth. Because Venus does not have a
significant magnetic field, the solar wind interacts directly
with the upper atmosphere and the ionosphere of the planet.
Among the atmospheric regions of Venus, the upper atmosphere
above the cloud tops is best understood. It has been investigated
from Earth and from flyby and orbiting spacecraft. Above 150 km
( 9 0 mi.) it is more rarefied than the atmosphere of Earth at the
same height. Like Earth's atmosphere, it is ionized by incoming
solar radiation to produce positively-charged ions and free
electrons of an ionosphere, which is thinner and closer to the
surface of the planet than Earth's ionosphere. Like Earth's
ionosphere, the ionosphere of Venus has layers at which the
number of electrons per cubic centimeter (electron density)
peaks. In Earth's ionospheric layers, the peak electron density
is about 100,000 to 1,000,000 electrons per cubic centimeter, and
occurs at an altitude of about 250 to 300 km (150 to 180 mi.).
The major ion is singly-charged carbon dioxide.
Mariner 10 found two clearly defined layers in the nighttime
ionosphere: a main layer at 142 km ( 8 7 mi.) altitude and a
lesser layer at 124 km ( 7 6 mi.). The peak intensity of the latter
was about 7 8 per cent of the higher layer. On the dayside there
was one main layer at 142 km ( 8 7 mi.) and several minor layers,
including one at 128 km ( 7 8 mi.) and another at about 1 8 0 km
(110 mi.). The Venera 9 and 10 orbiters obtained similar results,
but single layers seem to be the most common.
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 -52-

SOLAR WIND - VENUS INTERACTIONS

BOW SHOCK
TRANSITION
REG ION
_ -
/ .--- /- -- RAREFACTION

$J
SOLAR
 -53-

From a practical standpoint, Venus has no intrinsic

magnetic field. The field of Venus is less than 1/10,000 of
Earth's field. There is a region of rarefaction (lessened
density) of the solar wind flow at Venus, and the characteristics
of the plasma there indicate that Venus absorbs part of the flux
of the solar wind. On the dayside of Venus, there is a sharp
boundary to the ionosphere at 350 to 500 km ( 2 1 0 to 305 mi.).
This is believed to be caused by the interaction of the solar
wind with Venus' atmosphere. On the night side of the planet,
the ionosphere extends high into space and probably into a
plasma tail stretching away from the Sun.
Temperatures have been measured in regions above the visible
cloud layers by radio occultation. The temperature of the
exosphere (region where particles escape the planet) was derived
from density variation with altitude found by the ultraviolet
experiments of spacecraft. From observations of the ultraviolet
radiation from hydrogen and helium atoms, it is calculated that
the temperature of the exosphere of Venus when Mariner 10 flew
past the planet was about 1 2 7 degrees C ( 2 6 0 degrees F). At such
a temperature, the thermal escape of helium gas would be negligible.
Accordingly it is thought that if helium outgassed from the rocks
of Venus as it did on Earth the gas might have accumulated in
the upper atmosphere of Venus. A corona of hydrogen begins at
about 800 km (480 mi.) and contains up to 10,000 atoms per
cubic centimeter.

Haze Layers
At least two tenuous layers of haze can be seen in high
resolution pictures of the limb (edge of the disc) of Venus.
They extend from equatorial regions to higher latitudes. They
may be associated with temperature inversions in the high
atmosphere, and may result from processes similar to those in
Earth's atmosphere which produce layers of aerosols in the
stratosphere. Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended
in an atmosphere. The stratified layers of haze are in the
region 8 0 to 90 km (50 to 5 6 mi.) above the surface of Venus
where the atmospheric pressure is between 50 and 0.5 millibars.
(Pressure at Earth's surface is 1000 millibars). These haze
layers are extremely tenuous. At the topmost haze layer, if
the atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide, the temperature should
be -75 degrees C. However, temperatures determined from
occultations differ appreciably above 60 km ( 3 7 mi.)t suggesting
temperature inversions that separate the haze layers from the
topmost convective cloud deck as well as the upper from the
lower haze layers. In the region above 50 km (30 mi.), the
daytime atmosphere is about 15 degrees C ( 5 9 degrees F)
warmer than the temperature at night.
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 -54-

The Cloud Layers

Below the upper atmosphere is the 18-km (11-mi.)-thick
region containing the clouds of Venus visible from Earth. While
the clouds of Venus look extremely opaque, they are in fact very
tenuous. Veneras 9 and 10 determined that visibility within the
clouds is between 1 and 3 km (0.6 to 1.8 mi.). They are more
like thin hazes than terrestrial clouds. The particles making
up the clouds of Venus are spherical and about one to two
microns in diameter. These droplets apparently consist of
sulfuric acid, with concentrations varying from 50 to 500
per cubic centimeter.
The presence of sulfuric acid clouds explain the extreme
dryness of the Venus upper atmosphere. Nearly all the water
has chemically bound up in the sulfuric acid droplets. The
density of Venus' atmosphere at this level is about one-tenth
the density of Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Sulfuric acid
clouds remain as clouds over a wider range of temperature than
water clouds, although high temperatures cause some of the
water to evaporate from the droplets. There is evidence of
the presence of fluorine in the Venus atmosphere. This element
probably combines with water into the extremely stable and
corrosive fluorosulfonic acid. But none of these acids can
account for the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the
clouds. There must be an unknown ultraviolet absorber in the
clouds which gives rise to the dark markings seen in ultraviolet
pictures of Venus.
One speculation is that the dark regions seen in ultraviolet
light are oxygen-depleted regions where a significant amount of
ultraviolet-absorbing sulfur is being produced. There appears
to be a whole series of compounds of sulfur, oxygen and halo-
qens that enter into the chemistry of the atmosphere of Venus.
The Pioneer Venus measurements of the constituents of the
atmosphere of Venus with a mass spectrometer and gas chromatograph
should contribute greatly to our understanding of these chemical
processes that are responsible for the Venusian clouds and their
markings.
The dark markings of the clouds, seen in ultraviolet light,
have characteristic forms that have been studied from Earth.
There are horizontal Y-shaped features which sometimes have a
tail. There are features that look like a reversed letter C.
The features in the form of a reverse letter C appear more
often on the evening terminator than on the morning terminator.
Other features are like a reversed C with a bisecting bar.
Sometimes there are two parallel equatorial bands. The
patterns are a l s o almost always symmetrical about the equator
of Venus. The arms of these features are always open in the
direction of their retrograde motion which varies between
180 and 470 kph (112 to 2 6 5 mph).
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-55-
 -56-

VENUS ATMOSPHERE

140 MAIN
IONIZATION UPPER
WEAKLY ATMOSPHERE
IONIZED
. . . .. . . LAYERS
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2
Lu
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TROPOPAUSE
60 CLOUDS CLOUDS

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SHEAR

LOW HAZES
A € ROSOLS
DUST
LOWER
20 ATMOSPHERE
CLEAR

V I ATMOSPHERE

o - & w l SURFACE

CRUST

25 50 75 100
WIND SPEED m/s
 -57-

In the upper atmosphere the effects of solar heating are

S ignificant,and the C-bar, C- and Y-shaped features are all
a.ssociatedwith the sub-solar point, which is the point where
the Sun shines down on the Venus atmosphere from directly
overhead. However, the features move around the planet and
are not fixed with respect to the sub-solar point.
A big question about Venus' atmosphere is whether the
apparent motions of the ultraviolet markings are a result of
actual movement or merely a wave motion. The evidence today
points to an actual movement of mass: i.e., winds. But there
is some evidence of wave motions, diurnal tides and parallel
equatorial belts.
The division between the high wind velocities of the
stratosphere, and the near calm of the dense surface atmosphere
seems to come at about the 56 krn (36 mi.) level. The big change
in wind velocity thus appears to take place at the bottom of the
clouds where there must be a shear zone. Thus, the cloud bottoms
are expected to be extremely ragged.
The Soviet probes measured the amount of solar radiation
down to the surface. Above 5 0 km (31 mi.), scattering appears
to be by the cloud particles. Below about 25 km (15 mi.), the
scattering is Rayleigh scattering; i.e., by much smaller air
molecules. At the surface, with the Sun's position about 30
degrees from overhead, the integrated flux was measured as
being about equal to that on an overcast day on the Earth at
sea level in mid-latitudes.
The high velocity winds in the Venus atmosphere might arise
because the planet has such a massive and deep atmosphere. Large-
scale eddies containing a lot of energy could transport momentum
from low to high altitudes with a high amplification. The ion
wind speeds in the dense lower atmosphere produced by the heat
from the Sun and the rotation of the planet are amplified into
the thin upper atmosphere.

Lower Atmosphere
The penetration of Veneras 9 and 10 into the lower atmosphere
produced new information about this region. At about 50 km (30 mi.)
altitude, the wind velocity appears to be about 130 kph (80 mph).
At the landing site of Venera 9, the local wind velocity varied
from 1.2 to 2.5 kph (.9 to 1.4 mph); at the Venera 10 site, it
varied from 2.9 to 4.7 kph (1.8 to 9.2 mph). The two landers
thus confirmed a low wind velocity close to the surface, as well
as little dust content in the low atmosphere.
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 -58-

T h e r e are s t i l l many u n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e
a t m o s p h e r e of Venus t h a t need t o b e a n s w e r e d , s u c h a s :

0 How does t h e Venus weather machine r e a l l y work?

0 I t i s r e a l l y a g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t h a t makes Venus
so h o t compared w i t h t h e E a r t h ? O r i s there a
dynamic c a u s e ?

Did Venus once have a more moderate s u r f a c e

temperature?

0 What c a u s e s t h e d a r k markings i n t h e Venus c l o u d s ?

0 What are t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e ?

Thermal e m i s s i o n from t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e d i f f e r s v e r y

l i t t l e between n i g h t and day and between l o w and h i g h l a t i t u d e .
T h i s i n d i c a t e s a dynamic a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and
s u g g e s t s t h a t h e a t i n s u b s t a n t i a l amounts i s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d
around t h e p l a n e t h o r i z o n t a l l y . There a r e dynamic a c t i v i t i e s
a t all levels b e c a u s e s p a c e c r a f t h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e s o l a r
r a d i a t i o n p e n e t r a t e s through t h e clouds and, t h e r e f o r e , affects
t h e a t m o s p h e r e down t o t h e s u r f a c e . D i r e c t s o l a r h e a t i n g i s
most i m p o r t a n t above 56 km ( 3 4 m i . ) ; dynamic e f f e c t s below t h a t .
Over t h e w h o l e of t h e p l a n e t there i s a l s o t h e e f f e c t
of t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t t h e e q u a t o r r i s i n g as i t i s warmed by
s u n l i g h t , and s i n k i n g n e a r t h e P o l e s , as it c o o l s .

T h e S u r f a c e o f Venus

Radar has revealed l a r g e - s c a l e f e a t u r e s t h a t s u g g e s t

t e c t o n i c s and i m p a c t molding of Venus' topography. Details
o f t h e s u r f a c e have been p r o v i d e d by t h e t w o S o v i e t l a n d e r
spacecraft.

The r a d a r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e v e a l a l a r g e - s c a l e g r a n u l a r
s t r u c t u r e , s u g g e s t i v e of a r o c k - s t r e w n d e s e r t . Large b u t
s h a l l o w c i r c u l a r f e a t u r e s , m o s t l i k e l y c r a t e r s , a r e found i n
e q u a t o r i a l r e g i o n s . Some areas o f h i g h r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y a r e
i n t e r p r e t e d as e x t e n s i v e l a v a f l o w s and mountainous areas. A
major chasm stretches 1 4 0 0 k m ( 8 7 0 m i . ) n o r t h and s o u t h a c r o s s
the equator.

A t f i v e d e g r e e s s o u t h l a t i t u d e and 320 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e
i s t h e h i g h mountain B e t a w i t h a cratered t o p l i k e t h e l a r g e
M a r t i a n v o l c a n o e s . T h e r e a r e a l s o a r c u a t e r i d g e s . One is a t
l e a s t 8 0 0 k m ( 4 8 0 m i . ) l o n g . T h e r e a r e mountainous areas which
may be v o l c a n i c o r a r e s u l t o f c r u s t a l p l a t e movements.

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 -59-

P h o t o g r a p h s from one S o v i e t l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t c o n f i r m a
d r y r o c k y s u r f a c e t h a t h a s been f r a c t u r e d and moved a b o u t by
unknown p r o c e s s e s . The s e c o n d l a n d e r produced a p i c t u r e of
r o c k s w i t h rounded e d g e s and p i t t e d s u r f a c e s . The forms of
t h e s e r o c k s may be e x p l a i n e d by v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t i e s h a v i n g
t a k e n p l a c e on the s u r f a c e .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f c r a t e r s on Venus s u g g e s t s t h a t i t s s u r f a c e
h a s n o t been s u b j e c t e d t o t h e m a j o r t e c t o n i c c h a n g e s e x p e r i e n c e d
on E a r t h , b u t t h a t i t has p r o b a b l y e v o l v e d s o m e w h a t a l o n g t h e
same l i n e s as Mars. Some o l d c r a t e r e d t e r r a i n i s p r e s e r v e d
w h i l e o t h e r p a r t s have been m o d i f i e d by t e c t o n i c s and v o l c a n i s m .
Venus m i g h t , i n d e e d , have e v o l v e d t o a s t a g e between t h a t of
Mars and t h a t o f t h e E a r t h .
Venera 9 l a n d e d a t 3 3 degrees n o r t h l a t i t u d e . Its p i c t u r e
shows h e a p s o f r o c k s , m o s t l y a b o u t 30 c m ( 1 2 i n . ) o r more i n
s i z e , and w i t h r a t h e r s h a r p edges. The f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e rocks
i s b e l i e v e d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e c t o n i c p r o c e s s e s . T h e l a n d e r
i s b e l i e v e d t o b e on t h e s i d e of a h i l l i n which t h e r e i s some
downward movement of t h e rocks. The s h a r p e d g e s and l a c k of
r o u n d i n g of t h e rocks a t t h i s s i t e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y w e r e
formed from breakage of h a r d , l a y e r e d rocks, p o s s i b l y a l a v a
flow.

Venera 1 0 l a n d e d a t 1 5 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e , i n a n area
w i t h a much smoother s u r f a c e . T h i s i s b e l i e v e d t o be a p l a t e a u
o r p l a i n o f g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e a g e t h a n t h e s i t e o f Venera 9 .
There a r e s o m e r o c k y e l e v a t i o n s which a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a
r e l a t i v e l y dark, fine-grained soil. This implies t h a t the
r o c k s have been weathered, p o s s i b l y by c h e m i c a l a c t i o n w i t h
t h e a t m o s p h e r e . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e g e n t l e winds a t t h e
s u r f a c e c o u l d have been r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e w e a t h e r i n g .
G e n e r a l l y a t t h i s s i t e t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e Venusian s o i l i s
d a r k , b u t t h e r e are o u t c r o p s of l i g h t e r - c o l o r e d rock p e n e t r a t i n g
t h e s o i l . Some o f t h e d a r k s o i l f i l l s d e p r e s s i o n s o f t h e
o u t c r o p s . T h i s s u r f a c e i s i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g much o l d e r and
more weathered t h a n t h e s u r f a c e s e e n a t t h e Venera 9 s i t e . T h e
w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s may be a c h e m i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e
h o t r o c k s and t h e a t m o s p h e r e , p o s s i b l y by m i n e r a l a c i d s and
water v a p o r .

Measurements made by t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
s u r f a c e rocks have a d e n s i t y between 2 . 7 and 2 . 9 grams p e r
c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r , which i s t y p i c a l of t e r r e s t r i a l b a s a l t i c
rocks.

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 -60-

Surface temperatures appear to be high enough to make

portions of the surface glow a dull red. They are high enough
to melt zinc, but not most common rocks. The Venus rocks at
the two landing sites are about as radioactive as terrestrial
lavas and granites. This suggests that Venus, like Earth,
has differentiated by heating to form a dense core and a
lighter crust.
Though it has dramatic major features, the surface is
smoother than that of Earth and Mars. Radar-measured minimum
to maximum height differences are 10 km (6 mi.) -- the height
of Mt. Everest. This compares with 2 0 km (12.4 mi.) on the
Earth, from the bottom of the Mariannas Trench to the top
of Everest. It compares with 3 0 km (18.6 mi.) on Mars, from
the floor of the Hellas basin to the peak of Olympus Mons.
Craters on Venus seem to be shallower than on the other worlds
of the inner solar system.
On the Moon and Mercury, and to a somewhat lesser extent
on Mars, the ratio of craters diameter to depth is about 10
to 1. On Venus, according to the radar surveys, the ratio
is more like 100 to 1. The craters on Venus seem to be
extremely shallow; the reason is not known. It could result
from plastic deformation of the hot surface or from some
weathering process.

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 -61-

MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS

0 A p a r t from c a r b o n d i o x i d e , o f what d o e s t h e lower atmos-

p h e r e c o n s i s t , and how a r e i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s d i s t r i b u t e d ?

Venus p r o b a b l y h a s l e s s t h a n s e v e n p e r c e n t o f g a s e s
o t h e r t h a n c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n i t s lower a t m o s p h e r e . Most
l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r o t h e r m a j o r g a s e s a r e a r g o n and
n i t r o g e n . T h e r e a r e no measurements of l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e
g a s e s o t h e r t h a n t h e S o v i e t measurements o f c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and water v a p o r .

0 Of what m a t e r i a l s a r e Venus' c l o u d s made?

The v i s i b l e c l o u d s p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t of s u l p h u r i c a c i d
d r o p l e t s , p e r h a p s formed by s u l f u r compounds from t h e
surface.

0 What o t h e r c l o u d l a y e r s a r e t h e r e ?
Some k i n d s o f c l o u d p a r t i c l e s a b s o r b s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t
r a d i a t i o n . T h i s i s needed t o e x p l a i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
p h o t o g r a p h s which show d a r k r e g i o n s . T h e s e d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s of c l o u d p a r t i c l e s c o u l d be m e t a l h a l i d e s o r s u l f u r .

0 What c a n t h e lowermost a t m o s p h e r e t e l l u s a b o u t t h e
p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e and i n t e r i o r ?

S u r f a c e c o n s t i t u e n t s ( p o s s i b l y hydrogen f l u o r i d e and
mercury and s u l f u r compounds) may be d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e
bottom 20 km ( 1 2 m i . ) of t h e h o t , d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e .

0 How d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y v a r y g l o b a l l y
about t h e planet?

0 Why i s Venus' lower a t m o s p h e r e s o h o t ?

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y d u e t o a runaway g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t i n
which h e a t from t h e Sun i s more e a s i l y a b s o r b e d t h a n
reradiated.

0 What r o l e do v a p o r i z a t i o n - c o n d e n s a t i o n c y c l e s p l a y i n t h e
a t m o s p h e r e , and how do t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t Venus'
weather?

0 What a r e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s of t h e
u p p e r atmosphere?

0 How d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e v a r y i n s p a c e and t i m e i n t h e u p p e r
atmosphere?
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0 What a r e t h e r o l e s of g l o b a l c i r c u l a t i o n and l o c a l
t u r b u l e n c e i n s t a b i l i z i n g t h e u p p e r atmosphere?

0 What a r e t h e e f f e c t s of t h e n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s on iono-
s p h e r e composition?

0 How h i g h d o e s s u p e r r o t a t i o n ( f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n ) of t h e
cloud tops extend?

0 S i n c e Venus h a s no m a g n e t i c f i e l d , t h e s o l a r wind i n t e r -
a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . What mechanisms
d o e s t h i s c r e a t e , and do t h e y a f f e c t t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e ?

0 Where d i d Venus' a t m o s p h e r e c o m e from and where i s i t

going?

The main sources of Venus' atmosphere probably are o u t -

g a s s i n g from t h e i n t e r i o r , g a s e s from t h e o r i g i n a l s o l a r
n e b u l a and some s o l a r wind p a r t i c l e s .

e Where i s t h e water t h a t may h a v e o n c e been on Venus?

The o b v i o u s a n s w e r s a r e t h a t i t e i t h e r " l e a k e d " t o s p a c e

b e c a u s e o f h i g h Venus h e a t i n g , o r i t w a s n e v e r t h e r e .
B u t numerous q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n .

0 Why d o e s Venus' a t m o s p h e r e d i f f e r s o much from t h a t o f

i t s ''twin" p l a n e t , E a r t h ?

0 I s a l l Venus t e r r a i n r e l a t i v e l y low compared t o E a r t h and

M a r s o r does Venus' " i n v i s i b l e hemisphere" c o n t a i n high
m o u n t a i n s and d e e p canyons comparable t o t h o s e on E a r t h
and Mars?

0 Is Venus a s c l o s e t o a p e r f e c t s p h e r e as t h e e q u a t o r i a l
measurements s u g g e s t ?
0 Does Venus' i n t e r i o r c o n t a i n l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f h i g h
density material.

The l o c k i n g o f 17enus' r o t a t i o n t o E a r t h ' s o r b i t s u g g e s t s

s u c h mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

0 What i s t h e s u r f a c e topography?

0 What i s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e ?

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HISTORICAL DISCOVERIES ABOUT VENUS

684 BC Ninevah t a b i e t s r e c o r d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Venus.

1610 Using t h e newly-invented t e l e s c o p e , G a l i l e o

f i n d s t h a t Venus e x h i b i t s p h a s e s l i k e t h o s e of
t h e Moon.
1761 M i k h a i l V . Lomonosov ( U . S .S .R) i n t e r p r e t s o p t i c a l
e f f e c t s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t r a n s i t o f Venus a s due
t o a n a t m o s p h e r e on t h e p l a n e t .
1792 J o h a n n H . S c h r o t e r (Germany) c o n c l u d e s Venus h a s
a n atmosphere because t h e cusps a t t h e c r e s c e n t
p h a s e e x t e n d beyond t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c r e s c e n t .

1807 J o h a n n Wurm (Germany) d e t e r m i n e s t h e d i a m e t e r of

t h e v i s i b l e d i s c of Venus as 1 2 , 2 9 3 km ( 7 , 6 3 9 m i . ) .

1890 S c h i a p a r e l l i c o n c l u d e s from h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t
Venus r o t a t e s i n 225 d a y s .

1 9 20 Edward S t . J o h n ( U . S . ) and S e t h B . N i c h o l s o n
(U.S.) s u g g e s t t h a t Venus i s a d r y , d u s t y w o r l d
b e c a u s e t h e y c a n n o t d e t e c t any water v a p o r i n i t s
atmosphere.
1922 L y o t m e a s u r e s t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n o f s u n l i g h t re-
f l e c t e d from t h e c l o u d s o f Venus and i n t r o d u c e s
a new method o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s i z e and n a t u r e
of p a r t i c l e s i n i t s clouds.

1932 Walter S . Adams ( U . S . ) a n d Theodore Dunham ( U . S . )

d e t e c t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f Venus.

1942 R u p e r t W i l d t (U.S.) shows t h a t t h e h i g h s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e of Venus c o u l d a r i s e f r o m a g r e e n -
house e f f e c t i n an atmosphere w i t h a high propor-
t i o n of carbon d i o x i d e .

1 9 55 F r e d Hoyle ( U n i t e d Kingdom) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e
Venus c l o u d s a r e a p h o t o c h e m i c a l h y d r o c a r b o n smog.

1 9 56 R a d i o waves a t 3-cm w a v e l e n g t h a r e d e t e c t e d from

Venus and show t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is
v e r y h i g h ; a b o u t 330 d e g r e e s C (625 d e g r e e s F . ) .

1 9 57 C h a r l e s Boyer ( F r a n c e ) d i s c o v e r s a f o u r - d a y r o t a -
t i o n p e r i o d of t h e u l t r a v i o l e t m a r k i n g s i n t h e
c l o u d s o f Venus.

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1960 Adouin D o l l f u s ( F r a n c e ) d e t e r m i n e s p r e s s u r e a t
c l o u d t o p s as 9 0 m i l l i b a r s , u s i n g p o l a r i m e t r y .

1960 C a r l Sagan ( U . S .) c a l c u l a t e s h e a t i n g i n atmos-

p h e r e w i t h l a r g e amounts o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e and
w a t e r vapor, concludes s u r f a c e temperature can
b e r a i s e d by g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t o above t h e b o i l -
i n g p o i n t of w a t e r , 1 0 0 d e g r e e s C ( 2 1 2 d e g r e e s F . ) .
1962 Low r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y of Venus r u l e s o u t any
p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e r e b e i n g l a r g e b o d i e s of w a t e r
on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .

1962 R a d a r o b s e r v a t i o n of Venus e s t a b l i s h e s r o t a t i o n
a s r e t r o g r a d e i n a p e r i o d of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 0
days.

1962 Mariner 2 f l y b y confirms high s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e

( a t l e a s t 75 a t m o s p h e r e s ) a n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( a b o u t
650 d e g r e e s K) and shows no s u b s t a n t i a l m a g n e t i c
field.

1967 M a r i n e r 5 f l y b y u s e s r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n t o measure
s t r u c t u r e of u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and l o c a t e h e i g h t
of c l o u d s above s u r f a c e ; d i s c o v e r s i o n o s p h e r e and
f i n d s t h a t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i s major compound of
atmosphere.

1967 James P o l l a c k ( U . S . ) and Sagan c a l c u l a t e g r e e n -

h o u s e e f f e c t f o r m a s s i v e Venus a t m o s p h e r e , show-
i n g t h a t s o l a r energy a l o n e c a n h e a t s u r f a c e t o
above 450 d e g r e e s C ( 8 4 5 d e g r e e s F . ) .
1968 Radius of Venus s u r f a c e d e t e r m i n e d from r a d a r
t o b e 6,050 km ( 3 , 7 5 0 m i . ) w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y of
l e s s t h a n 5 km ( 3 m i . ) .

1968 S u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s a r e e s t i m a t e d
from r a d i o and r a d a r d a t a as 4 7 7 d e g r e e s C (890
d e g r e e s F . ) and 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s .

1 9 69 U.S.S.R. p r o b e s , V e n e r a 5 and 6, s u c c e s s f u l l y l a n d
on s u r f a c e , d e t e r m i n e a c c u r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e (750
d e g r e e s K) and p r e s s u r e ( 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s ) , a l s o
s t r u c t u r e of l o w e r atmosphere.

1971 A n a l y s i s of p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a by James Hansen

and A l b e r t A r k i n g ( U . S .) shows t h a t t h e c l o u d
p a r t i c l e s are s p h e r i c a l with a r e f r a c t i v e index
o f 1 . 4 4 , r a d i u s of 1 . 0 5 pm and a l o c a t i o n a t a
p r e s s u r e l e v e l o f 50 m i l l i b a r s .

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 -65-

1972 A.T. Young and G . S i l l (U.S.) i n d e p e n d e n t l y

c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a imply t h a t
Venus c l o u d s are composed o f s u l p h u r i c a c i d
droplets.

1972 U.S.S.R. Venera 8 l a n d e r m e a s u r e s r a d i o a c t i v e

c o n t e n t of s u r f a c e r o c k s , c o n c l u d e s Venus i s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . Also determines t h a t s u n l i g h t
( a few p e r c e n t ) p e n e t r a t e s t o s u r f a c e .
1973 Observations of carbon d i o x i d e a b s o r p t i o n s i n
Venus a t m o s p h e r e show a 20 p e r c e n t f l u c t u a t i o n
o v e r a f o u r - d a y p e r i o d , i n t e r p r e t e d a s upward
and downward m o t i o n s o f c l o u d deck p l a n e t w i d e .

1973 Radar s c a n s of Venus r e v e a l huge s h a l l o w c r a t e r s

on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .
1973 P o l l a c k makes o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Venus frdm h i g h -
f l y i n g a i r c r a f t and c o n c l u d e s t h a t c l o u d s a r e
deep hazes of s u l f u r i c acid d r o p s .

1 974 R i c h a r d G o l d s t e i n (U .S .) p r o d u c e s h i u k ? s o l u -
t i o n r a d a r images of s m a l l areas of t h e p l a n e t ' s
s u r f a c e showing many t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s .

1974 Mariner 1 0 (flyby) obtains detailed L l t r a v i o l e t

photographs of c l o u d s , determined c i r c u l a t i o n
p a t t e r n s i n upper atmosphere.

1976 U.S.S.R. Venera 9 and 1 0 l a n d e r s p h o t o g r a p h

s u r f a c e a t two l o c a t i o n s , showing exposed r o c k s
and e v i d e n c e o f e r o s i o n p r o c e s s e s .

1976 Arvydas K l i o r e ( U .S .) and c o l l e a g u e s c o n c l u d e

from r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n d a t a t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
d i s c r e t e c l o u d l a y e r s e x i s t below t h e main s u l -
f u r i c acid clouds.

1977 Radar images w i t h t h e upgraded A r e c i b o r a d a r

i n d i c a t e l a r g e v o l c a n o e s and c r a t e r s on p l a n e t .

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EXPLORATION OF VENUS BY SPACECRAFT

Venus h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d by 1 3 s p a c e c r a f t of which t h r e e
w e r e American and 1 0 w e r e R u s s i a n . F i v e o f t h e s e s p a c e c r a f t
w e r e f l y b y s and e i g h t w e r e l a n d e r s . S e v e r a l o f t h e R u s s i a n
s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t e d o f b o t h o r b i t e r s a n d l a n d e r s which s e p a -
r a t e d on a r r i v a l a t Venus. The r e c o r d i s a s f o l l o w s :

Venera 1 ( U . S . S . R . ) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus
May 1 9 6 1 . No science d a t a were
returned, according t o r e p o r t s .

Mariner 2 ( U . S . )
A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t : p a s s e d Venus
December 1 9 6 2 . Discovered t h a t t h e
temperature averages 426 degrees C
( 7 9 9 d e g r e e s F . ) on b o t h n i g h t and
day h e m i s p h e r e s , and t h a t t h e p l a n e t
h a s v i r t u a l l y no m a g n e t i c f i e l d and
no r a d i a t i o n b e l t s .

Venera 2 (U.S.S.R.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus

F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 6 . An a t t e m p t t o p h o t o -
g r a p h Venus a p p a r e n t l y w a s n o t
successful.

Venera 3 ( U . S . S . R . ) A lander spacecraft: entered the

a t m o s p h e r e March 1 9 6 6 . N o r e p o r t s
o f any s c i e n t i f i c d a t a b e i n g r e t u r n e d .

Venera 4 (U.S.S.R.) A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t ; e n t e r e d atmos-

p h e r e o f Venus O c t o b e r 1 9 6 7 , and
returned data during descent t o a
few a t m o s p h e r e s . Determined t h e
atmosphere i s mainly carbon d i o x i d e .

Mariner 5 ( U . S . )
A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d October
1 9 6 7 . P r o v i d e d t e m p e r a t u r e and
p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s t o 527 d e g r e e s C
( 9 8 1 d e g r e e s F . ) and 1 0 0 a t m o s p h e r e s
a t t h e s u r f a c e . Determined t h e de-
t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ,
and d i s c o v e r e d t h e a t o m i c hydrogen
corona.

Venera 5 ( U . S . S . R . ) A lander spacecraft: descent capsule

e n t e r e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e i n May 1 9 6 9 .
Measured t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
atmospheric composition.

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Venera 6 ( U . S . S . R . )
Venera 7 ( U . S . S . R . )
Venera 8 ( U . S . S . R . )
M a r i n e r 1 0 (U.S.)
Venera 9 (U.S.S.R.)
Venera 1 0 ( U S . .S .R . )
-67-
A lander spacecraft: capsule entered
t h e a t m o s p h e r e May 1 9 6 9 . Determined
low w a t e r v a p o r c o n t e n t : s u g g e s t e d
p r e s e n c e o f n i t r o g e n . Measured car-
bon d i o x i d e a s 93 t o 9 7 p e r c e n t o f
a t m o s p h e r e , and oxygen l e s s t h a n 0 . 4
p e r c e n t : s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e of n e a r l y
1 0 0 atmospheres.
A lander spacecraft; entry capsule
p e n e t r a t e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e December
1 9 7 1 ; d a t a were t r a n s m i t t e d f o r 23
m i n u t e s from t h e s u r f a c e . Measured
a s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 543 d e g r e e s C
( 1 , 0 0 9 d e g r e e s F . ) and a p r e s s u r e of
9 0 atmospheres.
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t : c a p s u l e landed
J u l y 1 9 7 2 , and t r a n s m i t t e d s u r f a c e
data f o r 1 0 7 minutes. Determined
amounts o f uranium, t h o r i u m and p o t a s -
sium i n s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s and showed
t h e y w e r e s i m i l a r t o amounts i n t e r -
r e s t r i a l r o c k s . Measured a s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 530 d e g r e e s C (986
degrees F.) .
Mercury-bound s p a c e c r a f t : p a s s e d Venus
February 1 9 7 4 . Obtained f i r s t p i c -
t u r e s from s p a c e c r a f t . Revealed t h e
s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of t h e c l o u d s i n
u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t . Confirmed t h e c-,
y- and ? s i - s h a p e d c l o u d m a r k i n g s ,
and f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n of t h e s e mark-
i n g s . Found s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of
h e l i u m and c o n f i r m e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f
hydrogen i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
Photographed h i g h - a l t i t u d e h a z e l a y e r s .
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t . Capsule reached
s u r f a c e O c t o b e r 1975 a t 33 d e g r e e s N .
l a t i t u d e , 293 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d f i r s t p i c t u r e from t h e s u r f a c e
o f Venus. Measured wind s p e e d s , p r e s -
s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
f l u x throughout t h e atmosphere t o t h e
s u r f a c e . O r b i t e r surveyed p l a n e t .
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t ; c a p s u l e reached
s u r f a c e O c t o b e r 1975 a t 1 5 d e g r e e s N .
l a t i t u d e , 295 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d second s u r f a c e p i c t u r e . O r b i t e r
s u r v e y e d p l a n e t and l o o k e d a t s u r f a c e
w i t h b i s t a t i c r a d a r . Determined s u r f a c e
e l e v a t i o n s d i f f e r e d b o n l y a few k i l o -
meters a l o n g o r b i t e r T r a c k .
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THE P I O N E E R VENUS SPACECRAFT

The P i o n e e r Venus m i s s i o n w i l l be a c c o m p l i s h e d by two

s e p a r a t e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e 9 r b i t e r and t h e M u l t i p r o b e . T h e
Orbiter, carrying 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, w i l l globally
s u r v e y Venus' a t m o s p h e r e and s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . It
w i l l s t u d y t h e Venusian s u r f a c e and p e r f o r m one a s t r o n o m i c a l
experiment.

The M u l t i p r o b e w i l l d i v i d e i n t o f i v e atmosphere e n t r y
c r a f t as i t a p p r o a c h e s Venus from E a r t h . These a r e t h e
t r a n s p o r t e r Bus, t h e Large and t h r e e Small P r o b e s . The
f o u r p r o b e s w i l l measure Venus' atmosphere from i t s t e n u o u s
b e g i n n i n g s down t o t h e d e n s e s u p e r h e a t e d r e g i o n s a t t h e s u r -
f a c e . A f t e r l a u n c h i n g t h e p r o b e s , t h e Bus, t o o , w i l l e n t e r
and measure c o m p o s i t i o n o f Venus' u p p e r atmosphere.

Together t h e f i v e atmospheric e n t r y c r a f t w i l l c a r r y
1 8 s c i e n t i f i c instruments. The Large Probe c a r r i e s s e v e n
i n s t r u m e n t s ; t h e S m a l l P r o b e s , t h r e e e a c h , and t h e Bus, two.

T o m e e t t h e P i o n e e r Venus r e q u i r e m e n t f o r two r e l a t i v e l y
s i m p l e and low c o s t s p a c e c r a f t , d e s i g n e r s c h o s e s p i n n i n g ve-
hicles. Spinning c y l i n d r i c a l s p a c e c r a f t provide s t a b i l i t y
w i t h minimum w e i g h t , good s o l a r c e l l deployment, v i e w i n g
f o r e x p e r i m e n t s i n a f u l l c i r c l e and s p i n s c a n f o r t h e
imaging s y s t e m .

The Basic Bus

The Venus O r b i t e r and Venus M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t s h a r e

a ' ' b a s i c bus'' d e s i g n . T h r e e q u a r t e r s of t h e s y s t e m on t h e
b a s i c b u s e s a r e common t o b o t h s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e d e s i g n , t h e f o u r atmosphere e n t r y p r o b e s a r e mounted
on t h e f l a t s u r f a c e which i s t h e t o p o r f o r w a r d end o f t h e
bus c y l i n d e r .

The common s y s t e m s on t h e b a s i c b u s f o r botfi s p a c e c r a f t

i n c l u d e a t h e r m a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d equipment and e x p e r i m e n t s com-
p a r t m e n t ; s o l a r - e l e c t r i c p a n e l s , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ; f o r w a r d and a f t "omni" a n t e n n a s ; communi-
c a t i o n s s y s t e m ; d a t a - p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m ; Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s
f o r o r i e n t a t i o n r e f e r e n c e d u r i n g c r u i s e and maneuvers; hy-
d r a z i n e p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s ; and t h r u s t e r s f o r o r i e n t a t i o n ,
c o u r s e changes and s p i n - r a t e c o n t r o l .

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Structure
T h e b a s i c b u s p o r t i o n s o f b o t h s p a c e c r a f t are t h e i r
main b o d i e s , f l a t c y l i n d e r s , 2.5 m ( 8 . 3 f t ) i n d i a m e t e r and
1 . 2 m (4 f t . ) h i g h .

The b u s e s p r o v i d e a s p i n - s t a b i l i z e d p l a t f o r m f o r
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s , s p a c e c r h f t s y s t e m s and i n t h e case
of t h e Multiprobe, t h e f o u r probe c r a f t . A c i r c u l a r equip-
ment s h e l f w i t h a n area o f 4 . 3 7 sq. m ( 5 0 sq. f t . ) i s l o c a t e d
i n t h e u p p e r o r foward end of t h e b u s c y l i n d e r . The s h e l f
i s mounted on t h e f o r w a r d end of t h e t h r u s t t u b e , t h e r i g i d
s t r u c t u r e which c o n n e c t s t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e l a u n c h ve-
hicle. T w e l v e e q u a l l y s p a c e d s t r u t s s u p p o r t t h e equipment
s h e l f p e r i m e t e r from t h e b a s e o f t h e t h r u s t t u b e . The
c y l i n d r i c a l s o l a r a r r a y i s , i n t u r n , a t t a c h e d t o t h e equip-
ment s h e l f w i t h 2 4 b r a c k e t s .

Thermal l o u v e r s ( f i f t e e n on t h e O r b i t e r and e l e v e n on
t h e M u l t i p r o b e ) a t t a c h e d t o t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e of t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f , open and c l o s e ( w i t h h e a t - s e n s i t i v e - b i m e t a l l i c
s p r i n g s ) t o c o n t r o l h e a t r a d i a t i o n from t h e equipment
compartment. Large h e a t p r o d u c e r s , s u c h as r a d i o ampli-
f i e r s , are l o c a t e d over several of t h e s e louvers.

Maneuver System

The maneuvering s y s t e m o f t h e b a s i c b u s c o n t r o l s s p i n
r a t e s , makes c o u r s e and o r b i t c o r r e c t i o n s , and m a i n t a i n s
spin a x i s position--usually perpendicular t o t h e e c l i p t i c
for b o t h s p a c e c r a f t .

Beneath t h e equipment compartment, a l s o a t t a c h e d t o t h e

t h r u s t t u b e , are t w o conical-hemispheric p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s ,
3 3 c m . ( 1 2 . 8 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r . The t a n k s s t o r e h y d r a z i n e
p r o p e l l a n t f o r two a x i a l and f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s . These
can change s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t i a t i o n , s p i n r a t e o r v e l o c i t y .

The maneuver s y s t e m h a s one mid-range Sun s e n s o r , two

e x t e n d e d - r a n g e Sun s e n s o r s , and a s t a r s e n s o r t o s e n s e
s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n and p r o v i d e a r e f e r e n c e f o r f i n d i n g
s p i n - a x i s a n g l e . The s t a r s e n s o r i s mounted on t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f and h a s a l o o k a n g l e of a b o u t 57 d e g r e e s t o t h e
s p i n axis. Sun s e n s o r s a r e a l l a t one p o i n t on t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f p e r i m e t e r . They look r a d i a l l y t h r o u g h a n open-
i n g i n t h e s o l a r a r r a y and see t h e Sun on e a c h r o t a t i o n .

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Redundant d a t a p r o c e s s o r u n i t s f o r m a t t h e Sun and

star sensor outputs f o r telemetry transmission t o the Earth,
t o calculate spacecraft orientation. These d a t a p r o c e s s o r s
a l s o p r o v i d e sequenced f i r i n g commands t o t h e t h r u s t e r s t o
make o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y and s p i n r a t e c h a n g e s .

The s y s t e m ' s t w o a x i a l t h r u s t e r n o z z l e s a r e a l i g n e d
w i t h t h e s p i n a x i s , and a r e l o c a t e d a t t o p and bottom o f
t h e bus c y l i n d e r , d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . They p o i n t
i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , and t o t u r n t h e bus s p i n a x i s ,
b o t h f i r e i n p u l s e s i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . T o s p e e d up o r
slow down t h e bus a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s s p i n a x i s , o n l y
one t h r u s t e r i s p u l s e f i r e d a t t w o p o i n t s 1 8 0 d e g r e e s a p a r t
around t h e c i r c l e of b u s r o t a t i o n . Either the top or
b o t t o m t h r u s t e r can be p u l s e d d e p e n d i n g on d e s i r e d d i r e c -
t i o n o f v e l o c i t y change.

The O r b i t e r h a s a t h i r d a x i a l t h r u s t e r . This i s loca-

t e d on t h e bottom of t h e b u s c y l i n d e r and a l l o w s c o n t i n u o u s
f i r i n g o f two bottom t h r u s t e r s t o make t h e moves i n an a x i a l
d i r e c t i o n needed f o r o r b i t c h a n g e s .

The f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s are a r r a n g e d i n two p a i r s ,

w i t h t h e p a i r s p o i n t i n g i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . They are
mounted a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n
a x i s , and t h i s p l a n e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y .
The r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s change t h e v e l o c i t y i n a d i r e c t i o n
perpendicular t o the spin axis.

These r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s a l s o have been p l a c e d a t f o u r

e q u i d i s t a n t p o i n t s a r o u n d t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e bus c y l i n d e r .
T h i s h a s t h e e f f e c t o f p o i n t i n g them a t o p p o s i t e a c u t e an-
g l e s t o t h e c i r c l e of r o t a t i o n . The r e s u l t i s t h a t f i r i n g
two of them 180 d e g r e e s a p a r t , t o g e t h e r , w i l l slow down
t h e s p i n r a t e . The o t h e r two w i l l s p e e d i t up.

Power System

The b u s s o l a r power s y s t e m p r o v i d e s 2 8 - v o l t DC elec-

t r i c power t o O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
and s p a c e c r a f t s u b s y s t e m s . Seven r e s i s t i v e s h u n t l i m i t e r s
h o l d t h e maximum v o l t a g e a t 30.8 v o l t s . When t h e v o l t a g e
d r o p s below 27.8 v o l t s , t h e b a t t e r i e s s t a r t t o s h a r e t h e
l o a d through d i s c h a r g e c o n t r o l l e r s . Small s o l a r a r r a y s re-
charge t h e b a t t e r i e s .

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A s w i t c h p r o t e c t s t h e m a i n power b u s from c u r r e n t
o v e r l o a d s o r u n d e r v o l t a q e by a u t o m a t i c a l l y t u r n i n g
o f f i n s t r u m e n t s , s w i t c h e d l o a d s , and t r a n s m i t t e r b u s e s .
The s y s t e m ' s a r r a y of s o l a r c e l l s i s s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r f o r
t h e M u l t i p r o b e b u s t h a n f o r t h e O r b i t e r bus b e c a u s e o f t h e
- i.g h e r power demands of O r b i t e r ' s 1 2 e x p e r i m e n t s . -The O r b i t e r
h
s o l a r a r r a y h a s 7 . 2 sq. m ( 7 7 . 8 sq. f t . ) of 2 x 2 cm ( . 8 x . 8 i n
c e l l s . When a t r i q h t a n g l e s t o t h e Sun l i n e , these p r o v i d e 2 2 6
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 3 1 2 w a t t s a t Venus. The M u l t i p r o b e s o l a r
a r r a y h a s 6 . 9 sq. m ( 6 5 . 7 sq. f t . ) of c e l l s and p r o v i d e s 2 1 4
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 2 4 1 w a t t s a t Venus.
The power s y s t e m ' s two 7.5 ampere-hour nickel-cadmium
b a t t e r i e s p r o v i d e a t o t a l o f 252 w a t t h o u r s of e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g y . Power i s p r o v i d e d t o i n s t r u m e n t s from t h e s c i e n c e
power bus t h r o u g h r e d u n d a n t b u s e s i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e
unit. On-off power s w i t c h i n g i s performed i n t h e i n d i v i -
d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r f l e x i b i l i t y i n s t e a d of c e n t r a l i z e d
s w i t c h i n g i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e u n i t . The power
i n t e r f a c e u n i t p r o v i d e s on-off s w i t c h i n g f o r p r o p u l s i o n
heaters.

Communications System

The communications s y s t e m f o r t h e two b u s e s can r e c e i v e

commands f r o m E a r t h i n any s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h
t w o r e d u n d a n t S-band t r a n s p o n d e r s , c o n n e c t e d t o two omni
d i r e c t i o n a l antennas. (A t r a n s p o n d e r i s a r a d i o system
which receives incoming s i g n a l s and t u n e s t h e o u t g o i n g
t r a n s m i t t e r t o a f r e q u e n c y which i s a t a c o n s t a n t r a t i o
t o t h e incoming s i g n a l . ) T h i s means t h a t DoDpler s h i f t
i n r a d i o f r e q u e n c y due t o s p a c e c r a f t motion can be measured
p r e c i s e l y on r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n s f r o m b o t h E a r t h t o s p a c e -
c r a f t and s p a c e c r a f t t o E a r t h - - b e c a u s e f r e q u e n c i e s , b o t h
l e a v i n g t h e E a r t h and a r r i v i n g a t t h e E a r t h are known p r e -
c i s e l y . T h i s allows s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y measurements ac-
c u r a t e t o .003 kph.

The receiver p o r t i o n of e a c h t r a n s p o n d e r i s f r e q u e n c y -
a d d r e s s a b l e ( r e s p o n d s o n l y t o c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s , and
t h e r e c e i v e r s are a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e v e r s e d by t h e command p r o -
c e s s o r l o g i c i f no command i s r e c e i v e d f o r 3 6 h o u r s . Hence,
i f one f a i l s t h e o t h e r t a k e s over. T h e two r e c e i v e r o u t -
p u t s are c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d t o r e d u n d a n t e x c i t e r s , e i t h e r of
w h i c h c a n b e selected by ground command, T h e t r a n s p o n d e r
p r o v i d e s e i t h e r a f i x e d - r a t i o incoming t o o u t g o i n g c a r r i e r
f r e q u e n c y , o r a f i x e d - f r e q u e n c y c a r r i e r s i g n a l i n case of
f a i l u r e o f t h e two-way s y s t e m .

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The s p a c e c r a f t - t o - E a r t h r a d i o l i n k i s p r o v i d e d by an
S-band t r a n s m i t t e r , which c a n r a d i a t e a t 10 o r 20 w a t t s , w i t h
r e d u n c a n t power a m p l i f i e r s o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e
f o r e o r a f t I'omni" a n t e n n a s . The omnis c o v e r a hemisphere
l o o k i n g f o r w a r d o r a f t . Both O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e -
c r a f t h a v e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e two Bus omnis, s p e c i a l i z e d
a n t e n n a s which w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n s on t h i e r com-
munications. E i t h e r omni a n t e n n a can be s e l e c t e d by ground
command. One omni a n t e n n a i s c o n n e c t e d t o one of t h e two
r e d u n d a n t r e c e i v e r s , and t h e o t h e r omni ( o r o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t
a n t e n n a d e s i g n a t e d by command) i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o t h e r
r e c e i v e r . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t c a n b e r e v e r s e d by commarid.

Command Sys t e m

The b a s i c b u s command s y s t e m a c c e p t s incoming commands

f r o m t h e b u s r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . Command d e m o d u l a t o r s t u r n o n
t h e system, convert t h e s i g n a l t o a u s a b l e b i n a r y b i t
s t r e a m , and p a s s i t on t o c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d command p r o c e s s o r s .
Commands are e i t h e r s t o r e d f o r l a t e r e x e c u t i o n , o r e x e c u t e d
immediately. S p a c e c r a f t u n i t s r e c e i v e commands from re-
d u n d a n t command o u t p u t modules. The command s y s t e m a c c e p t s
a pulse-code-modulated/frequency-shift-keyed/phase-modulated
(PCM/FSK/PM) d a t a s t r e a m a t f o u r b i t s p e r s e c o n d .

Each command word c o n s i s t s of 48 b i t s i n c l u d i n g 1 3

b i t s f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , which g i v e s a o n e - i n - a - m i l l i o n
p r o b a b i l i t y o f a f a l s e command. The s y s t e m h a s a t o t a l o f
1 9 2 p u l s e commands and 1 2 magnitude commands. The command
memory can s t o r e up t o 1 2 8 commands ( r e d u n d a n t l y ) f o r l a t e r
execution.

Data H a n d l i n a Svstem

The t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r f o r t h e b u s d a t a h a n d l i n g system
samples s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g measurement s o u r c e s i n
s e q u e n c e . I t t r a n s m i t s an i n s t r u c t i o n word t o t h e P i o n e e r
Command Module (CM) e n c o d e r which a d d r e s s e s a d a t a module
t o r e a d o u t t h e selected channel.

The i n t e r r o g a t e d c h a n n e l can be e i t h e r a n a l o g , i e r i a l
d i g i t a l o r b i n a r y o n e - b i t ( y e s - n o ) i n f o r m a t i o n . The PCM
e n c o d e r s h i p s t h e encoded measurement t o t h e t e l e m e t r y p r o -
c e s s o r , where it i s f r a m e - f o r m a t t e d , c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded
and u s e d t o b i p h a s e m o d u l a t e a s u b c a r r i e r . The s u b c a r r i e r
t h e n phase modulates t h e outgoing c a r r i e r s i g n a l .

T h e t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r s and PCM e n c o d e r s a r e c r o s s -
c o n n e c t e d and f u l l y r e d u n d a n t .

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C r i t i c a l t e l e m e t r y measurements a r e a s s i g n e d d a t a chan-
n e l s on two d i f f e r e n t d a t a modules. The d a t a h a n d l i n g
s y s t e m s can a c c e p t up t o 256 c h a n n e l s of d a t a .

A l l P i o n e e r Venus t e l e m e t r y d a t a a r e b i n a r y ( a s e r i e s
o f ones and z e r o e s ) , and a l l d a t a "words" c o n s i s t o f e i g h t
o n e s and z e r o e s a r r a n g e d i n t h e o r d e r d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n -
f o r m a t i o n t h e y c a r r y . Analog d a t a a r e c o n v e r t e d t o e i g h t -
b i t words. Data i n p u t s a r e m u l t i p l e x e d and f o r m a t t e d i n t o
f r a m e s o f 6 4 e i g h t - b i t s words. Of t h e 6 4 words, t h r e e a r e re-
q u i r e d f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h r e e
a r e subcommutated f o r s p a c e c r a f t h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a .

The o u t p u t of t h e d a t a s y s t e m i s an 8 t o 2048 b i t p e r
s e c o n d PCM/PSK c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded d a t a s t r e a m , b i p h a s e
modulated on a 16384 Hz s u b c a r r i e r .

The O r b i t e r S p a c e c r a f t

The Venus O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e b a s i c P i o n e e r
Bus. I t a l s o c o n s i s t s o f a despun, h i g h - g a i n d i s h a n t e n n a o n a
3-m ( 1 0 - f t . ) m a s t t o r e t u r n t h e l a r g e volume of
O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and imaging d a t a t o E a r t h . The O r b i t e r
carries 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, a m i l l i o n - b i t d a t a
memory t o s t o r e o b s e r v a t i o n s (when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d
Venus, o r t h e y c a n n o t be t r a n s m i t t e d t o E a r t h f o r o t h e r
r e a s o n s ) , and a s o l i d - f u e l r o c k e t motor f o r i n s e r t i o n i n t o
o r b i t a t the planet.

The Q r b i t e r , i n c l u d i n g a n t e n n a m a s t , i s n e a r l y 4.5 m
(15 f t . ) high. The b a s i c b u s c y l i n d e r making up i t s
main body i s a b o u t 2.5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and 1 . 2 m
(4 f t . ) h i g h . Launch w e i g h t o f t h e O r b i t e r i s a b o u t 582 kg
( 1 2 8 0 l b s . ) w i t h 45 kg ( 1 0 0 I b s . ) of s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s .
Weight a f t e r o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n i s 368 kg ( 8 1 0 l b s . ) .

T h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s ( t h e magnetometer e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o b e and e l e c t r i c f i e l d d e t e c t o r ) have s e n s o r e l e m e n t s
mounted on booms. The magnetometer s e n s o r s a r e mounted on
t h e t h r e e - s e c t i o n , d e p l o y a b l e 4 . 7 m ( 1 5 . 5 f t . ) boom. A
s i n g l e s e n s o r i s mounted a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e way o u t
from t h e bus c y l i n d e r , and a p e r p e n d i c u l a r p a i r are mounted
a t t h e boom's e n d . The boom is d e p l o y e d a f t e r l a u n c h by
f i r i n g p y r o t e c h n i c d e v i c e s , and e x t e n d s r a d i a l l y from t h e
u p p e r r i m o f t h e c y l i n d e r . T h e boom p o s i t i o n s t h e sensors
a t a p o i n t o f m i n i m u m m a g n e t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e from t h e s p a c e -
craft.

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ORBITER SPACECRAFT

MAGNETOMETER
BOOM
\ II
BACKUP HIGH GAIN
ANTENNA

MECHANICALLY DESPUN
ANTENNA ASSEMBLY

HIGH GAIN ANTENNA

FORWARD AXIAL
THRUSTER

SUN SENSOR

STAR SENSOR

SOLAR ARRAY DESPIN BEARING

RADIAL THRUSTER' EQUIPMENT SHELF

ORBIT INSERT1ON MOTOR AFT OMNI ANTENNA

 -75-

The b a l l - l i k e s e n s o r s ( a n t e n n a s ) f o r t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d
detector spring o u t 0.6 m (26 i n . ) a f t e r j e t t i s o n of t h e
l a u n c h f a i r i n g . The e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e u s e s t w o
s en sor e l e m e n t s mounted a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r .
The a x i a l s e n s o r i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e s p i n a x i s and
extends through t h e thermal t o p cover. The r a d i a l s e n s o r
i s on a 1 . 0 m ( 4 0 i n . ) boom, d e p l o y e d a f t e r o r b i t i n s e r t i o n .

The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r u s e s two d e t e c t o r s mounted

on t h e equipment s h e l f a b o u t 1 8 0 d e g r e e s a p a r t . T h i s a l -
lows complete c o v e r a g e of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e f o r a l l po-
s i t i o n s of spacecraft rotation.

Orbiter S c i e n t i f i c Instruments

A l l 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e mounted d i r e c t l y on
t h e t o p s i d e o f t h e equipment s h e l f . E i g h t o f t h e i n s t r u -
ments view t h e p l a n e t t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e s i d e o r t o p o f
t h e b u s c y l i n d e r . Of t h e e i g h t , two ( t h e c l o u d Photo-
p o l a r i m e t e r and t h e r a d a r mapper) employ s c a n n i n g s e n s o r s
which move t h r o u g h a r a n g e o f 1 4 0 d e q r e e s i n a p l a n e p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e bus e x p e r i m e n t s h e l f .

O r b i t e r Antenna Svstems

A b a s i c p a r t of t h e O r b i t e r system, n o t p a r t of t h e
b a s i c b u s , i s t h e despun, high-gain p a r a b o l i c - r e f l e c t o r
a n t e n n a , which f o c u s e s a 7 . 6 degree-wide r a d i o beam on t h e
E a r t h throughout t h e mission. The a n t e n n a d i s h i s 1 0 9 c m
( 4 3 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and a m p l i f i e s t h e O r b i t e r r a d i o s i g -
n a l 316 t i m e s . Venus and t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be 2 0 3 m i l l i o n k m
( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r from E a r t h a t t h e e n d o f t h e
243-day O r b i t e r p r i m a r y m i s s i o n t h a n a t P l a n e t - a r r i v a l .
The a n t e n n a i s needed t o r e t u r n d a t a a t h i g h r a t e s o v e r
t h e s e d i s t a n c e s . The h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a d i s h , a sleeve
d i p o l e a n t e n n a , and t h e f o r w a r d rromni" a n t e n n a a r e a l l
mounted on t h e despun 2.9-m ( 9 . 8 - f t . ) m a s t F r o j e c t i n g up
a l o n g t h e s p i n - a x i s from t h e t o p of t h e O r b i t e r c y l i n d e r .
The sleeve d i p o l e a n t e n n a b r o a d c a s t s a r a d i o beam which
forms a p a n c a k e - l i k e p a t t e r n a r o u n d t h e s p a c e c r a f t , p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o i t s s p i n a x i s . T h i s p r o v i d e s a backup f o r
t h e narrow-beam d i s h a n t e n n a i n c a s e of f a i l u r e o f t h e d e s p i n
system. The bus a f t omni a n t e n n a p r o v i d e s t h e f o u r t h O r -
b i t e r a n t e n n a . The omnis b r o a d c a s t i n a h e m i s p h e r i c p a t -
t e r n , forward o r a f t .

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S i n c e t h e O r b i t e r d i s h a n t e n n a d o e s n o t s p i n , as d o e s
t h e s p a c e c r a f t below i t , it c o n s t a n t l y f a c e s E a r t h , b o t h on
c r u i s e and o r b i t . The despun c o n d i t i o n of t h e a n t e n n a and
i t s m a s t i s m a i n t a i n e d by b e a r i n g , e l e c t r i c m o t o r , and
s l i p - r i n g arrangement.

A q u a d r i p o d s t r u c t u r e , mounted on t h e upper end of t h e

b u s t h r u s t t u b e , s u p p o r t s t h e B e a r i n g and Power T r a n s f e r
Assembly (BAPTA) which m e c h a n i c a l l y d e s p i n s t h e a n t e n n a s .
The m a s t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e despun f l a n g e of t h e b e a r i n g
assembly. The t h r e e a n t e n n a s on t h e m a s t a r e c o n n e c t e d t o
t r a n s m i t t e r s and receivers by a s e r i e s of t r a n s f e r s w i t c h e s
through the d u a l frequency r o t a r y j o i n t . P u l s e commands
from E a r t h t o these s w i t c h e s are p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h t h e BAPTA
s l i p r i n g s and b r u s h e s .

The c o n t r o l s y s t e m p r o v i d e s r e d u n d a n t d e s p i n c o n t r o l
e l e c t r o n i c s t o d r i v e one G f two r e d u n d a n t BAPTA m o t o r s t o
d e s p i n and p o i n t t h e h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a toward t h e E a r t h .
The d e s p i n c o n t r o l s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s as a c l o s e d l o o p ,
autonomously o p e r a t i n g t h e s y s t e m t o m a i n t a i n a n t e n n a
pointing .
Motor t o r q u e commands a r e g e n e r a t e d by t h e d e s p i n con-
t r o l e l e c t r o n i c s b a s e d upon Sun o r s t a r s e n s o r and BAPTA
m a s t e r i n d e x p u l s e s . An e l e v a t i o n d r i v e m a i n t a i n s a n t e n n a
pointing during occultations.

For t h e o c c u l t a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e O r b i t e r c a r r i e s an
e x t r a 750 m i l l i w a t t X-band t r a n s m i t t e r , whose s i g n a l f r e -
quency i s always m a i n t a i n e d a t a r a t i o o f 1 1 . 3 t o t h a t o f
t h e main S-band t r a n s m i t t e r . B o t h S and X-Band s i g n a l s a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e d i s h a n t e n n a , which can b e moved 1 5 de-
grees from t h e E a r t h l i n e a s t h e O r b i t e r p a s s e s behind. Venus.
T h i s p e r m i t s k e e p i n g t h e r a d i o beam t o b e a i m e d ' a t Venus'
jupper a t m o s p h e r e f o r a l o n g e r t i m e . R e f r a c t i o n by t h e a t -
mosphere bends t h e narrow-beam s i q n a l around t h e p l a n e t so
i t r e a c h e s E a r t h d e s p i t e these p o i n t i n g a n g l e s .
The X-band s i g n a l c a n n o t b e m o d u l a t e d , and i s o n l y f o r
s t u d y o f atmosphere e f f e c t s on r a d i o s i g n a l s a t two,wave-
l e n g t h s . The X-band beam w i d t h i s 2 . 2 d e g r e e s compared w i t h
t h e S-band 7 . 6 d e g r e e s .

Ground commands c o n t r o l t h e a n t e n n a p o i n t i n g a n g l e .
The e l e v a t i o n d r i v e f o r t h e a n t e n n a d i s h c o n s i s t s of a
m o t o r - d r i v e n j a c k s c r e w . E l e c t r o n i c s c o n v e r t commands i n t o
d i s c r e t e p u l s e s t o c o n t r o l t h e motor.

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Orbiter D a t a Storaqe

F o r p e r i o d s when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d Venus and ra-

d i o communication i s c u t o f f , t h e d a t a memory c a n s t o r e up
t o a m i l l i o n d a t a b i t s . O c c u l t a t i o n s l a s t up t o 2 6 m i n u t e s ,
and a m i l l i o n - b i t memory a l l o w s d a t a t o b e t a k e n a t a min-
i m u m r a t e o f a b o u t 700 b i t s p e r s e c o n d i n t h i s t i m e . The
d a t a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y can a l s o h e l p when Deep Space Network
(DSN) s t a t i o n s a r e n o t l i s t e n i n g t o t h e O r b i t e r f o r v a r i o u s
r e a s o n s . S t o r e d d a t a a r e p l a y e d back a t a minimum r a t e o f
1 7 0 b p s , and t h e O r b i t e r can p l a y back d a t a w h i l e t a k i n g
and t r a n s m i t t i n g new d a t a .

O r b i t e r Data-Handling System

The O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t d a t a - h a n d l i n g s y s t e m u s e s t h e
bus d a t a s y s t e m components, p l u s i t s m i l l i o n - b i t memory. It
a c c e p t s i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s and t h e 1 2
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , a n a l o g and one-
b i t b i n a r y (yes-no) form. I t c o n v e r t s a n a l o g and yes-no
i n f o r m a t i o n t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form, and a r r a n g e s a l l i n f o r -
m a t i o n i n f o r m a t s f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h i s c o n s i s t s of a
c o n t i n u o u s sequence o f major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , e a c h composed
o f 6 4 minor frames. Each minor frame c o n t a i n s 6 4 e i g h t -
b i t words ( 5 1 2 b i t s p e r minor f r a m e ) . The words i n a minor
f r a m e a r e a r r a n g e d i n t o one o f 1 3 preprogrammed f o r m a t s ,
s e l e c t a b l e by command. Each minor frame c o n t a i n s w i t h i n
it:
e H i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a ( i n one
of t h e 13 f o r m a t s ) ;
Sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s :
0 S p a c e c r a f t d a t a ; and

e Frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a .
The t h r e e sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s i n e a c h minor
frame c a r r y d a t a which can b e r e p o r t e d a t low r a t e s . One
i s f o r l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e and s c i e n c e h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a , and
t h e two o t h e r s a r e f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a .

The O r b i t e r ' s 1 3 h i g h - r a t e d a t a f o r m a t s i n c l u d e s e v e n
s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r u s e on o r b i t . The o t h e r h i g h - r a t e f o r -
m a t s a r e D a t a memory p l a y b a c k ( c o n t a i n i n g some r e a l - t i m e
s c i e n c e ) , Data memory r e a d o u t ( s t o r e d d a t a o n l y ) , Launch-
c r u i s e , Engineering-only format, A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system
f o r m a t ( f o r m a n e u v e r s ) , and Command memory r e a d o u t f o r m a t .

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The d a t a s y s t e m o p e r a t e s i n r e a l - t i m e f o r t e l e m e t r y
s t o r a g e mode. I t s memory s t o r e s b o t h s c i e n c e and e n g i n e e r i n g
d a t a . Twelve t e l e m e t r y s t o r a g e p l a y b a c k and real-time d a t a
r a t e s between 8 and 2048 b p s a r e a v a i l a b l e . A r a t e o f
1 0 2 4 bps i s u s e d d u r i n g i n t e r p l a n e t a r y c r u i s e .

Of t h e s e v e n s c i e n c e f o r m a t s u s e d on o r b i t , f i v e are f o r
t h e c l o s e - i n p e r i a p s i s s e c t i o n of t h e o r b i t . Two are f o r
t h e far-out apoapsis p o r t i o n of t h e o r b i t .

Of t h e f i v e c l o s e - i n f o r m a t s , t w o emphasize a c q u i s i -
t i o n o f aeronomy d a t a . A t h i r d g e n e r a l f o r m a t a l l o w s d a t a
t a k i n g by v i r t u a l l y a l l e x p e r i m e n t s .

The f o u r t h c l o s e - i n f o r m a t , t h e O p t i c a l , i s f o r j u s t
two i n s t r u m e n t s . I t a l l o c a t e s 73 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a t a
stream t o t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r , t h e r e s t of t h e p h o t o -
p o l a r i m e t e r . The l a s t f o r m a t , t h e Mapping f o r m a t , g i v e s
4 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a t a s t r e a m t o t h e r a d a r mapper, and t h e
rest i s d i v i d e d among f o u r o t h e r "mapping" t y p e i n s t r u m e n t s .

Of t h e two s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r t h e f a r - o u t a p o a p s i s
o r b i t a l segment, t h e Imaging f o r m a t p r o v i d e s 6 7 p e r c e n t of
t h e d a t a stream f o r c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r p i c t u r e s o f
Venus' c l o u d s , and t h e r e s t f o r f o u r s p a c e e n v i r o n m e n t i n -
s t r u m e n t s . The G e n e r a l f o r m a t f o r a p o a p s i s c a r r i e s d a t a f o r
a l l i n s t r u m e n t s e x c e p t t h e i n f r a f e d and imaging i n s t r u m e n t s ,
b u t makes b i g a l l o c a t i o n s t o t h e s p a c e e n v i r o n m e n t measure-
ments o f t h e magnetometer, s o l a r wind i n s t r u m e n t and t h e
gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r .

O r b i t a l I n s e r t i o n Rocket

The o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n motor r e d u c e s O r b i t e r v e l o c i t y
by 3,816 kph (2,366 mph) f o r o r b i t a l c a p t u r e by Venus.
I t i s a s o l i d p r o p e l l a n t e n g i n e , a t t a c h e d t o t h e bus t h r u s t
t u b e below t h e equipment compartment. The e n g i n e h a s
1 8 , 0 0 0 Newtons ( 4 0 0 0 l b s . ) of t h r u s t , and t h e i n s e r t i o n r o -
c k e t b u r n r e d u c e s O r b i t e r w e i g h t by 1 8 1 kg ( 3 9 8 l b . ) .

The M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t

The f i r s t s i m u l t a n e o u s m u l t i p l e - e n t r y c r a f t measure-
ments of t h e atmosphere of a n o t h e r p l a n e t w i l l be accomplished
by t h e Venus M u l t i p r o b e .

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I-
LL
a
cc
0
W
0
a
e
v>
 -80-

The f o u r p r o b e s w i l l b e l a u n c h e d from t h e M u l t i p r o h e
Bus 1 3 m i l l i o n km ( 7 . 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) from t h e p l a n e t and
w i l l t h e n f l y t o t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s , two on t h e day s i d e
and two on t h e n i g h t s i d e o f Venus.

The M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t weighs 9 0 4 kg ( 1 , 9 9 0 l b . )
and c a r r i e s 5 1 kg ( 1 1 2 l b s . ) o f s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . The
s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t s o f t h e P i o n e e r Venus b a s i c bus m o d i f i e d
t o c a r r y t h e f o u r atmosphere p r o b e s . I t s diameter i s t h a t
o f t h e Bus, 2.5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) . From t h e bottom o f t h e Bus t o
t h e t i p o f t h e main p r o b e , i t i s 2 . 9 m ( 9 . 5 f t . ) h i q h .

During t h e f l i g h t t o Venus, t h e f o u r p r o b e s a r e c a r r i e d
on t h e Bus by a l a r g e i n v e r t e d cone s t r u c t u r e and t h r e e
e q u a l l y - s p a c e d c i r c u l a r clamps s u r r o u n d i n g t h e cone. These
a t t a c h m e n t s t r u c t u r e s a r e b o l t e d t o t h e Bus t h r u s t t u b e ,
t h e s t r u c t u r a l l i n k t o t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The Large Probe
i s c e n t e r e d on t h e Bus s p i n a x i s , and i s l a u n c h e d toward
Venus by a p y r o t e c h n i c - s p r i n g s e p a r a t i o n s y s t e m . The r i n g
s u p p o r t clamps a t t a c h i n g t h e S m a l l P r o b e s are h i n g e d . F o r
l a u n c h o f t h e S a r n l l P r o b e s , t h e clamps open by t h e f i r i n g
o f e x p l o s i v e n u t s . When o p e n , t h e y a l l o w t h e p r o b e s t o
s p i n o f f t h e Bus i n a t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n due t o Bus ro-
tation. C o n t r o l l e r s i n c r e a s e Bus s p i n from 1 5 t o 4 8 rpm
f o r Small Probe launch.

The M u l t i p r o b e ' s f o r w a r d omni a n t e n n a e x t e n d s above t h e

t o p o f t h e Bus c y l i n d e r , and a n a f t omni e x t e n d s down below
i t . Both omni a n t e n n a s have h e m i s p h e r i c r a d i a t i o i - p a t t e r n s .
A t t a c h e d t o t h e equipment s h e l f i s an a f t - p o i n t i n g , medium-
g a i n h o r n a n t e n n a , f o r u s e d u r i n g c r i t i c a l maneuvers when
t h e a f t e n d o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s p o i n t e d toward t h e E a r t h ,
a s i t i s when t h e p r o b e s a r e l a u n c h e d toward Venus.

The remaining systems on t h e Multiprobe s p a c e c r a f t are

t h o s e c a r r i e d on b o t h O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e b u s e s . These c o m -
mon b u s s y s t e m s a r e : The i n s t r u m e n t - e q u i p m e n t compartment and
b a s i c b u s s t r u c t u r e : t h e s o l a r a r r a y , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ; t h e Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s , p r o p e l l a n t s t o r a g e
t a n k s and t h r u s t e r s o f t h e b u s maneuvering and s t a b i l i z i n g s y s -
tem. O t h e r Bus s y s t e m s a r e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s , r e k e i v e r s and p r o -
c e s s o r s of t h e b u s communications, command and d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m .
These s y s t e m s a l l o w t h e Bus t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e M u l t i -
probe s p a c e c r a f t , a s i t does f o r t h e O r b i t e r , a s t a b l e , ro-
t a t i n g p l a t f o r m and a p r o t e c t i v e , t e m p e r a t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d
e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and s p a c e c r a f t
systems.

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 -81-

They a l s o p r o v i d e e l e c t r i c power, make maneuvers, re-

c e i v e commands, p r o c e s s e x p e r i m e n t d a t a , and t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o Barth.

M u l t i p r o b e Data System

The d a t a s y s t e m f o r t h e M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t u s e s t h e
s t a n d a r d b u s components. However, d a t a f o r m a t s a r e o r -
ganized t o m e e t requirements of t h e Multiprobe mission.
The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m h a n d l e s d a t a from b o t h Bus and
probes b e f o r e probe launch. A f t e r probe launch, i t handles
Bus d a t a o n l y . The p r o b e s have t h e i r own d a t a s y s t e m s .
(See s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e . )

The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m a c c e p t s e n g i n e e r i n g and
m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e f o u r p r o b e s a b o a r d
t h e s p a c e c r a f t , u n t i l p r o b e l a u n c h , a s w e l l as from t h e
Multiprobe bus i t s e l f . I t a l s o h a n d l e s d a t a from t h e two
e x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d on t h e M u l t i p r o b e b u s . A s on t h e O r -
b i t e r , t h e system a c c e p t s d a t a i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , analog
and o n e - b i t b i n a r y s t a t u s ( y e s - n o ) form. I t c o n v e r t s t h e
a n a l o g d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l b i n a r y from a n d a r r a n g e s a l l
information f o r transmission t o Earth i n the standard P i -
o n e e r Venus s e r i e s o f major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , e a c h composed
o f 6 4 minor f r a m e s .

Each minor frame i s composed o f a s e r i e s o f 6 4 e i g h t -

b i t words. The words i n a minor frame a r e a r r a n g e d i n
s e v e r a l f o r m a t s . Each minor frame c o n t a i n s h i g h - r a t e
science o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a , p l u s sub-commutated f o r m a t s ,
s p a c e c r a f t d a t a , and frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a . One sub-
commutated f o r m a t c a r r i e s l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e a n d s c i e n c e
h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a ; two are f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t i n f o r -
makion. Twelve r e a l - t i m e (no d a t a s t o r a g e o n t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e ) d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e s b e t w e e n 8 and 2 0 4 8 b p s can
be used. Like t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Multiprobe a l s o has high-
d a t a - r a t e f o r m a t s f o r A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l ( u s e d d u r i n g maneu-
v e r s ) , f o r E n g i n e e r i n g d a t a o n l y , and f o r command- memory
r e a d o u t . A s i n g l e format f o r atmosphere e n t r y t r a n s m i t s
h i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e d a t a . Assuming t h e e x p e c t e d d a t a r a t e
o f 1 0 2 4 bps a t e n t r y , d a t a r a t e f o r t h e t w o M u l t i p r o b e Bus
e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l b e 256 b p s f o r t h e n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o -
m e t e r , and 1 1 2 bps f o r t h e i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r .

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 -82-
Multiprobe Bus Experiments

After launch of its four probes 20 d a y s out from

Venus, the Multiprobe Bus becomes a probe itself, providing
the mission's only high upper atmosphere composition
measurements. These operate as the Bus enters but before
it starts to burn up at 115 km (71 mi.) altitude.
These two mass spectometer instruments are attached to
the equipment shelf with their inlets projecting above
the flat top of the Bus cylinder.

VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES

Because of its high pressures (nearly 100 times Earth's),

high temperatures and corrosive constituents, Venus'
atmosphere presents a difficult problem for flight designers.
The high entry speeds of about 41,600 kph (26,000 mph) add
to the problem.
The Large and Small Probes are geometrically similar.
The main component of each is a spherical pressure vessel,
which houses the scientific instruments and the following
spacecraft systems: communications, data, command and power.
The Large Probe weighs about 316 kg (698 lbs.); the Small
Probes, 93 kg (206 lbs.) each.
Conical aeroshells provide stable flight paths and heat
protection for all four probes during atmospheric entry. The
heat shield-carrying aeroshells are 45-degree cones with spheri-
cally blunted tips, whose radii are equal to half the base radii
of the cones.
All instruments within the pressure vessels of all four
probes require either observing or direct sampling access to
the hostile Venusian atmosphere. This access is one of the
hardest problems of the mission. The Large Probe has 14
sealed penetrations of several types. Each Small Probe has
seven. Pressure vessel penetrations for all probes include
15 sapphire and one diamond window.

The Large Probe

The Large Probe weighs about 316 kg (695 lbs.) and is
about 1.5 meters (5 feet) in diameter. It returns data at
256 bps. Its seven scientific instruments weigh 28 kg
(62 lbs.). These include two instruments to identify atmos-
phere components. The other five instruments will measure
the clouds, atmospheric structure, energy distribution and
circulation. The probe enters at the equator on the day side
of the planet.

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 -83-

Large Probe Structure

The Large Probe consists of the forward aeroshell-heat
shield, the pressure vessel and the aft cover. Both aero-
shell and aft cover are jettisoned at main chute deployment.
The spherical pressure vessel is 7 3 . 2 cm ( 2 8 . 8 in.) in
diameter, and is made of titanium for light weight and high
strength at high temperatures. Because it is jettisoned at
relatively cool, high altitudes, the aeroshell can be made
of less heat-resistant aluminum.
The weight limits on interplanetary spacecraft and the 14
hull penetrations required that the pressure vessel be designed
with great care and machined with precision for both lightness
and strength. The flight vessel has been tested successfully
under Venus-like conditions of 100 Earth atmospheres of pressure
and 470 degrees C (900 degrees F) temperatures. Test vessels
have withstood higher pressures.
The vessel is made in three pieces, joined by flanges,
seals and bolts. Sections are the aft hemisphere, a forward
cap and a flat ring section between the two. The vessel has
14 sealed penetrations (one for the antenna, four for electri-
cal cabling, two for access hatches and seven for scientific
instruments). Four instruments use nine observation windows
through four of the hull penetrations. Eight windows are of
sapphire, and one of diamond. These materials admit light or
heat at the wavelengths being measured, while withstanding
Venusian heat and pressure. The solar flux radiometer has
five windows through one hull penetration; the nephelometer,
two windows and the infrared and cloud particle instruments,
one window each.
Three vessel penetrations are inlets for direct atmosphere
sampling by three instruments--mass spectrometer, gas chroma-
tograph and atmosphere structure experiment. At its aft pole
the spherical vessel has a hemisphere pattern antenna for
communication with Earth. Two four-inch arms on one side hold
the reflecting prism for the cloud particle instrument. A
single arm on the other side has a temperature sensor at its tip.
Three parachute-shroud towers are mounted above aerodynamic drag
plates, spaced equally around the equator of the sphere. The
vessel has an electronics access port for system checkout, and
a cooling port used in ground tests.

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 LARGE PROBE
RADIO
TRANSPARENT WINDOW
PR ESSUR E
V ESSEL/D ECEL MOD
UMBl LlCAL
CABLE CUTTER CLOUD PARTICLE
SPECTROMETER
PARACHUTE TOWER WINDOW

SOLAR FLUX DESCENT MODULE

RADIOMETER
WINDOW

NEUTRAL PYROTECHNIC
MASS SPEC. INLET CONNECTOR
PRESSURE VESSEL
AERO FAIRING SEPARAT ION ASSE MB LY

CUT OUT FOR

TEMPERATURE
SENSOR

UA
ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE
PILOT CHUTE
AND MORTAR
D EC E LE RAT ION PROBE/BUS I N FLIGHT
MODULE D ISCONN ECT
 LARGE PROBE PRESSURE VESSEL

ACCESS HATCH

PRESSURE VESSEL

I
DER 03
cn
I

ACCELEROMETER

PYROTECHNIC
CONTROL UNITS
AERO FAIRING
PRESSURE VESSEL
 -86-

Flight Sequence
About 20 minutes before atmospheric entry, with the probe
traveling at speeds of about 41,600 kph (26,000 mph), timer
commands turn on and warm up the Large Probe instruments and
systems. The craft establishes its radio link with Earth.
At an altitude of about 120 km ( 7 5 mi.), significant
atmospheric braking has begun, and three-axis accelera-
tions and heat shield temperature data are being stored
for later playback (providing spacecraft flight data for
use by the atmospheric structure experiment). Entry
occurs with peak deceleration of 3 2 0 G at about 78 km (49
mi.). As deceleration forces slack off, a G-switch starts
a timer, ending data storage and starting a timing sequence
for aeroshell and heat shield jettison.
Just below 68 km ( 4 2 mi.), when the Large Probe has slowed to
about 680 kph (420 mph), the pilot chute is mortar-fired
from a small compartment in the side of the aeroshell. This
small parachute is attached by lines to the aft cover which
is separated by an explosive nut and pulled free. The cover,
in turn, is attached to the main parachute. The pilot chute
then extracts the main chute from its compartment within the
conical aeroshell. The main chute then opens. After vehicle
stabilization, mechanical and electrical ties to the aeroshell
are severed by explosive nuts, or by cable cutters, and the
main chute pulls the spherical pressure vessel out of its
surrounding aeroshell. The aeroshell falls away.
Once the pressure vessel is freed of the aeroshell and aft
cover, the scientific instruments have full access to Venus'
atmosphere, and the parachute has slowed its descent rate to
2 7 0 kph (165 mph). Seventeen minutes later, at 47 km (28 mi.)
altitude, the main chute is jettisoned, and the aerodynamically
stable pressure vessel descends to the surface in 39 minutes.

Flight Systems
Thermal protection during atmosphere entry is provided
by the carbon phenolic heat shield covering the forward facing
conical aeroshell, and by coating all other surfaces of the
aeroshell and aft cover with a low density elastomeric material.
The conical aeroshell is a one-piece aluminum structure with
integrally-machined stiffening rings. The ablative carbon
phenolic heat shield is bonded to this structure. The aeroshell
cone has a base diameter of 142 cm (4.7 ft.) .

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 -87-

The 4 . 9 meter ( 1 6 . 2 f t . ) - d i a m e t e r d a c r o n main p a r a c h u t e i s

of t h e c o n i c a l r i b b o n t y p e . L o c a t e d i n a c u r v e d compartment
on one side o f t h e a e r o s h e l l , t h e m o r t a r - d e p l o y e d dacron p i l o t
c h u t e i s 7 6 crn ( 2 . 5 f e e t ) i n d i a m e t e r . A f t e r s e p a r a t i o n of
t h e a e r o s h e l l , a f t c o v e r and main c h u t e have o c c u r r e d , t h e
p r e s s u r e vessel d e s c e n d s t o t h e s u r f a c e . The motion i s s t a -
b i l i z e d by l o c a t i n g t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e p r e s s u r e
v e s s e l w e l l f o r w a r d and by a n a i r f l o w s e p a r a t i o n r i n g around
t h e sphere's e q u a t o r . Drag p l a t e s on t h e f l o w s e p a r a t i o n r i n g
s l o w t h e d e s c e n t r a t e , and v a n e s attached t o t h e a i r f l o w r i n g
m a i n t a i n s p i n f o r c o n t i n u o u s v i e w i n g i n a f u l l c i r c l e by t h e
experiments d u r i n g d e s c e n t . A f a i r i n g c o v e r s t h e forward
hemisphere of t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l , p r o v i d i n g a smooth aerody-
namic s u r f a c e d u r i n g d e s c e n t .

Heat P r o t e c t i o n

The L a r g e Probe p r e s s u r e v e s s e l i s made of t i t a n i u m f o r

heat resistance. W i t h i n t h e s p h e r i c a l v e s s e 1 , i n s t r u m e n t s and
s y s t e m s a r e mounted on t w o p a r a l l e l s h e l v e s made of b e r y l l i u m
t o serve as h e a t s i n k s . Equipment i n s i d e t h e v e s s e l i s f u r t h e r
p r o t e c t e d f r o m h e a t by a 2 . 5 c m (1 i n . ) - t h i c k k a p t o n b l a n k e t ,
which c o m p l e t e l y l i n e s t h e i n t e r i o r .

S c i e n t i f i c Instruments

The s e v e n s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s on t h e Large Probe i n c l u d e

t h e g a s chromatograph and mass s p e c t r o m e t e r , w h i c h measure t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n of Venus' atmosphere d i r e c t l y . The o t h e r f i v e i n s t r u -
ments e i t h e r "look o u t " windows o r s e n s e v e h i c l e m o t i o n s and/
o r t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h a c c e l e r o m e t e r s and a w i r e - c o n n e c t e d h e a t
sensor, respectively.

The i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r r e q u i r e s a diamond window because

diamond i s t h e o n l y m a t e r i a l t r a n s p a r e n t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
w a v e l e n g t h s and a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and
p r e s s u r e s of t h e atmosphere. T h i s window i s a b o u t three-
q u a r t e r s o f an i n c h i n diameter and an e i g h t h of an i n c h t h i c k
( a b o u t t h e s i z e o f a q u a r t e r ) . I t w e i g h s 1 3 . 5 c a r a t s and w a s
shaped by diamond c u t t e r s i n The N e t h e r l a n d s from a 2 0 5 - c a r a t
i n d u s t r i a l g r a d e rough diamond. T h e n e p h e l o m e t e r ( c l o u d - s e n s o r )
u s e s two s a p p h i r e windows. The c l o u d p a r t i c l e i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t s
a l a s e r beam t h r o u g h a s a p p h i r e window t o an o u t s i d e r e f l e c t i n g
p r i s m and back t o i t s s e n s o r . T h e s o l a r f l u x r a d i o m e t e r h a s f i v e
s a p p h i r e windows.

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Communications System

S c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t and s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s d a t a a r e
r e t u r n e d by t h e communications s y s t e m . S p a c e c r a f t d a t a i n -
c l u d e i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measurements, elec-
t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w and v o l t a g e and o n - o r - o f f s t a t u s o f
s y s t e m s and i n s t r u m e n t s .

The p r o b e ’ s s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r and h e m i s p h e r i c a l
c o v e r a g e a n t e n n a r e t u r n a 256-bps d a t a s t r e a m t o E a r t h . T h e
system u s e s f o u r 1 0 - w a t t s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r s p r o v i d i n g a
t r a n s m i t t e r power of 4 0 w a t t s .
A t r a n s p o n d e r receives an S-band c a r r i e r wave a t 2 . 1 GHz,
and sets t h e p r o b e t r a n s m i t t e r t o s e n d a t 2 . 3 GHz. The t r a n s -
ponder r e c e i v e r i s u s e d o n l y f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k i n g .
The incoming s i g n a l c a r r i e s no i n f o r m a t i o n , and t h e p r o b e d o e s
n o t r e c e i v e commands.

Command System

Once t h e Large Probe has separated from t h e Bus, o n b o a r d

e l e c t r o n i c s p r o v i d e a l l p r o b e commands. The command s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s o f a command u n i t , a p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t and
t h e s e n s o r s t o s e r v i c e t h e command u n i t .

The s y s t e m can p r o v i d e 6 4 s e p a r a t e commands f o r s p a c e c r a f t

s y s t e m s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . It contains the c r u i s e
t i m e r ( t h e o n l y o p e r a t i n g u n i t d u r i n g t h e 24-day p e r i o d be-
tween Bus s e p a r a t i o n and e n t r y ) , a n e n t r y s e q u e n c e programmer
and a command d e c o d e r . Commands a r e i n i t i a t e d by a c l o c k
g e n e r a t o r o r a G - s w i t c h t o s e n s e d e c e l e r a t i o n forces. A t e m -
p e r a t u r e s w i t c h p r o v i d e s backup f o r t h e t i m e r a t p a r a c h u t e
jettison.
T h e p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t i s made up o f 1 2 s q u i b d r i v e r s
which provide c u r r e n t t o f i r e e x p l o s i v e n u t s f o r s e p a r a t i o n
of t h e a e r o s h e l l , t h e a f t c o v e r and main c h u t e ; and a c t u a t o r s
f o r t h e cable c u t t e r , p i l o t c h u t e mortar and m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
i n l e t cover.

Data Handling System

The L a r g e P r o b e d a t a h a n d l i n g u n i t can a c c e p t 36 a n a l o g ,
1 2 s e r i a l d i g i t a l , and 2 4 o n e - b i t (yes-no) s t a t u s c h a n n e l s ’ f r o m
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and p r o b e s y s t e m s . The u n i t c o n v e r t s
t h e a n a l o g and yes-no d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form and a r r a n g e s
a l l d a t a i n major t e l e m e t r y frames composed of 1 6 minor frames
f o r time-multiplexed t r a n s m i s s i o n t o Earth. Each minor frame
i s composed o f a s e r i e s of 6 4 e i g h t - b i t words ( 5 1 2 d a t a b i t s
p e r minor frame).

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 -89-

The data handling system provides for two data formats:

blackout and descent. A storage capacity of 3 0 7 2 bits is pro-
vided by a data memory, for use during entry blackout. Following
the blackout period, the stored data will be read out of the
memory and telemetered in the descent format. Data are stored
at 1 2 8 bps. In the descent format, transmission will be at
2 5 6 bps. Allocation of this bit rate among the seven Large
Probe experiments will range from 16 to 44 bps per experiment.
Only the atmospheric structure and nephelometer experiments
will use the entry blackout storage format at 72 bps and 4 bps,
respectively. Two subcommutated formats for lowrate phenomena
also provide housekeeping data, and additional data for the
atmospheric structure, nephelometer, cloud particle spectro-
meter and solar flux radiometer experiments.

Power Svstem
The power system uses a silver-zinc battery, providing
40 ampere hours of energy at 2 8 volts. The system consists
of a battery, a power interface unit and a current sensor.
The power interface unit controls power and contains fuses
and power switching relays for vehicle systems. Power for
probe checkout and heating is provided by the Bus prior to
probe to probe separation. During this time, the batteries
are open-circuited by switches in the power interface unit.

The Small Probes

Atmosphere entry points for the Small Probes are spread
over the face of Venus--two on the night side at high northern
and mid-southern latitudes, and the third at mid-southern lati-
tudes on the day side.
Like the Large Probe, each of the Small Probes consists
of a forward heat shield, a pressure vessel and an afterbody.
The three small probes are identical. Each is 0.8 m ( 3 0 in.)
in diameter and weighs 9 0 kg ( 2 0 0 lb.). Each carries three
scientific instruments, weighing 3.5 kg (7.7 lb.). The three
Small Probe instruments return less detailed information than
the seven on the Large Probe. But except for the atmospheric
composition measurements, made only by two Large Probe instru-
ments, Small Probe atmosphere measurements are in many respects
comparable to Large Probe data. The Small Probes transmit
data at 6 4 bps during flight down to 30 km (18 mi.) altitude
and 1 6 bps from there to the surface.

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 -90-

Neither forward aeroshell nor afterbody of the Small

Probes ever separates from the pressure vessel, nor is a para-
chute used for deceleration as with the Large Probe. The
Small Probes are slowed entirely by aerodynamic braking, and
instruments gain access to the atmosphere through doors in the
integral afterbody. Both aeroshell and pressure vessel are
made of titanium for light weight and strength at high tempera-
tures. The afterbody is made of aluminum.

Small Probe Structures

The pressure vessel nests into the aeroshell and is
permanently attached to it. The afterbody also is permanently
attached to the pressure vessel, and its shape closely follows
the contours of the vessel's aft hemisphere, protecting it from
atmosphere heat. As in the case of the Large Probe, the pres-
sure vessels for the three small probes had to be very careful-
ly designed and machined because of weight limitations, the seven
hull penetrations required and the strength requirements at high
Venusian pressures and temperatures.
The pressure vessels are fabricated in two hemispheres
and joined with flanges, bolts and seals. The flight vessels
were tested at Venus surface temperatures and pressures, and
the test vessels tested even under more severe conditions.
Three doors in the afterbody open after entry heating
at about 7 0 km altitude (44 mi.), providing access by the three
instruments to the atmosphere. Two of these doors.open out
from each of two protective housings--one for the atmospheric
structure and the other for the net flux radiometer instrument.
These housings project like ears from each side of the pres-
sure vessel sphere. The temperature sensor and atmospheric
pressure inlet for the atmospheric structure instrument extend
10 cm (4 in.) from the door of one housing, and the nex flux
radiometer sensor extends similarly on the opposite side.
When the doors to these two housings open after atmospheric
entry at 7 0 km (44 mi.) altitude, they are retained, rather than
jettisoned, and serve to slow spacecraft spin rate. A vane, less
than one square inch, is attached to the pressure sensor inlet
to assure that the vehicle will spin throughout the descent,
so that instruments can see in a full circle as the probe
rotates. The cloud sensor (nephelometer) cover opens and
folds down. As with the Large Probe, a hemispherical-pattern
antenna is mounted at the aft pole of the pressure vessel
sphere.

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 -91-

SMALL PROBE
NET F L U X ATMOSPHERE
RADIOMETER STRUCTURE DOOR

ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE
TEMPERATURE

INLET A N D

/u
SPIN CONTROL VANE
Y 0 - Y0
NEPHELOMETER /CABLE

(SI

CABLE

CARBON PHENOLIC
RING FOR SEPARATION HEAT SHIELD
CLAMP
DECELERATION MODULE
 -92-

Each Small Probe pressure vessel has a total of seven

sealed penetrations: one for the antenna, one for the two
sapphire nephelometer windows, one for the atmospheric pres-
sure inlet and a hatch for ground test cooling and systems
checkout. The other three vessel penetrations are feed-
throughs for electrical cables. Each external radiometer
sensor on each small probe has two diamond windows.

Flight Sequence
For the three Small Probes, atmospheric entry speeds
are about 4 2 , 0 0 0 kph (26,000 mph), and peak decelerations vary
in entry flight path angles.
Twenty minutes before entry, all systems and instruments
are activated and communications with Earth are established.
Just before entry, spin rates are cut about three times from
48 to 14 rpm, The 48-rPm spin rate imparted by spin-off
launch from the Bus disperses the probes over the planet to
desired entry points. But it also means that the probes
enter the upper atmosphere somewhat tilted to their entry
flight paths. With the slower 15-rpm rotation, aerodynamic
forces quickly line up the axes of the probes with their entry
heating damage could occur on the edges of the probes conical
heat shields.
A yo-yo system spins down the probes. Two weights are
cut loose by a pyrotechnic cable cutter, and probe spin
swings the weights out on 2.4 m (8-ft.) cables. With this
weight moved radially outward, rotation rate must slow to
maintain the same rotational momentum. Weights and cables
are then jettisoned.
In order to save weight and also because a longer stay-
time at upper altitudes is not needed, the small probes do
not use parachutes. On the large probe, more time is needed
for measurements of atmosphere and cloud composition. The
small probes do not carry atmospheric composition instruments.
As with the Large Probe, heat shield temperature and
probe acceleration data are stored for the atmospberic struc-
ture experiment during the entry communications blackout. A
G-switch ends data storage after blackout.

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I .
 -93-

Flight Systems
Thermal protection during entry is provided by ablative
carbon phenolic heat shields, which are 45-degree cones with
the same geometry as the Large Probe heat shield. For fur-
ther heat protection, the entire afterbody is coated with
a low-density elastomeric material. The heat shield material
is bonded to the Small Probe titanium aeroshell. Base diameter
of the aeroshell heat shield cone is 76 cm (30 in.).
The conical aeroshell provides aerodynamic braking and flight
stability, as does location of the probe center of gravity well
forward in the vehicle. Designers chose the aeroshell cone
structure primarily for flight through the searing heat and
extreme deceleration of atmosphere entry. However, the cone
also provides stable flight and substantially slows descent
rate in Venus' thick lower atmosphere.

Heat Protection
A s with the Large Probe, heat protection for the small
probes is provided by a kapton blanket completely lining the
interior of an 45 cm (18-in.) diameter spherical titanium pressure
vessel. It, too, has two shelves which carry all equipment
and scientific instruments, and are made of beryllium to
serve as heat sinks. Since the aeroshell descends to
the surface with the pressure vessel, it, too, is made of
light-weight, heat-resistant titanium.

Scientific Instruments
The three scientific instruments on the small probes
measure atmospheric structure (pressure, temperature and
acceleration from which altitude and density are determined),
cloud particles and layers, and heat distribution in the
atmosphere. These measurements, and claculations based
on them, will allow characterization of Venus' atmosphere.
For the atmospheric structure experiment, the outside
inlet for the pressure sensor, and the arm carrying the harp-
like temperature sensor both extend from the experiment housing.
The pressure sensor itself and temperature-sensor electronics
are internal, as are the accelerometers used for density cal-
culations.

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 -94-

T h e cloud s e n s o r instrument (nephelometer) i s e n t i r e l y

i n s i d e t h e p r e s s u r e vessel, and l o o k s o u t t h r o u g h t w o s a p p h i r e
windows. For t h e n e t f l u x radiometer ( h e a t d e p o s i t i o n i n s t r u -
ment) s e n s o r s a r e c o m p l e t e l y e x t e r n a l , mounted on a s m a l l boom
e x t e n d i n g from t h e e x p e r i m e n t h o u s i n g . The r a d i o m e t e r s e n s o r
w i t h i t s t w o diamond windows t u r n s c o n s t a n t l y i n a h a l f c i r c l e ,
f i r s t l o o k i n g up and t h e n down. Instrument e l e c t r o n i c s are
internal.

Communications

Communications s y s t e m s f o r t h e S m a l l probes c o n s i s t o f
s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r s and h e m i s p h e r i c a l c o v e r a g e a n t e n n a s ,
i d e n t i c a l w i t h those f o r t h e L a r g e Probe. Each t r a n s m i t t e r
h a s one 1 0 - W a t t , s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r . T h i s compares w i t h
40 w a t t s f o r t h e Large Probe. T h i s system can t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o t h e D S N ' s 64-m (210-foot) a n t e n n a s a t a r a t e of 6 4 b p s above
30 km ( 1 9 m i . ) a l t i t u d e and 1 6 b p s below t h a t t o i m p a c t . The
S m a l l P r o b e s do n o t c a r r y a r e c e i v e r f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k -
i n g as d o e s t h e L a r g e Probe, and Doppler t r a c k i n g i s done u s i n g
an o s c i l l a t o r ( s t a b l e t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y one p a r t i n a b i l l i o n )
on t h e p r o b e s as a r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c y f o r ground t r a c k i n g
comDutations.
D a t a r e t u r n e d i n c l u d e s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g i n f o r -
m a t i o n . T h i s i n c l u d e s i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measure-
m e n t s , e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w and v o l t a g e s , and on-off s t a t u s
of i n s t r u m e n t s and p r o b e s y s t e m s .

Command System
The command s y s t e m on t h e S m a l l P r o b e s i s i d e n t i c a l t o
t h a t on t h e L a r g e P r o b e . I t p r o v i d e s 6 4 commands, a l l o r i g i -
n a t e d on b o a r d t h e p r o b e s by t i m e r s , programmers, G-switches
and o t h e r l o g i c s and d e v i c e s .

D a t a H a n d l i n g System

Components o f t h e d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m on t h e S m a l l
P r o b e s are i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e f o r t h e L a r g e P r o b e . The d a t a -
h a n d l i n g u n i t c a n a c c e p t 36 a n a l o g , 1 2 d i g i t a l and 2 4 one-
b i t c h a n n e l s from i n s t r u m e n t s and s y s t e m s . L o g i c of d a t a
formats also i s i d e n t i c a l .

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 -95-

The s y s t e m f o r e a c h S m a l l Probe p r o v i d e s f o r t h r e e
high-rate d a t a formats: u p p e r d e s c e n t , l o w e r d e s c e n t and
e n t r y b l a c k o u t . As w i t h t h e L a r g e P r o b e , a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y
of 3072 b i t s i s p r o v i d e d by t h e d a t a memory. F o l l o w i n g t h e
e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t , s t o r e d d a t a w i l l b e p l a y e d
back and t e l e m e t e r e d i n t h e u p p e r d e s c e n t f o r m a t a t 6 4 b p s .
R e a l t i m e t r a n s m i s s i o n w i l l o c c u r i n i t i a l l y a t 6 4 bps i n t h e
upper d e s c e n t format, c h a n g i n g t o 1 6 b p s a t 30 km ( 1 9 m i . )
a l t i t u d e (lower d e s c e n t f o r m a t ) . Data r a t e a l l o c a t i o n among
t h e three S m a l l Probe i n s t r u m e n t s r a n g e s f r o m 6 t o 2 0 bps i n
t h e upper f o r m a t and 1 . 5 t o 7.25 bps i n t h e lower f o r m a t .

Power S y s t e m s

S m a l l Probe power s y s t e m s are s i l v e r - z i n c b a t t e r i e s

w h i c h p r o v i d e 11 ampere-hours of e n e r g y a t a normal 2 8
volts. The s y s t e m i n c l u d e s a b a t t e r y , power i n t e r f a c e u n i t
and c u r r e n t s e n s o r . O t h e r components a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e
f o r t h e Large P r o b e .

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 -96-

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Orbiter

Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e
v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s and ob-
s e r v e s u l t r a v i o l e t a t m o s p h e r i c m a r k i n g s and c l o u d c i r c u l a -
t i o n s . U l t r a v i o l e t images p r o v i d e t h e v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e f o r
d a t a from o t h e r O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and f o r t h i s i n s t r u m e n t ' s
polarization readings.
A 3.7-cm ( 1 . 5 - i n . ) t e l e s c o p e w i t h a r o t a t i n g f i l t e r
wheel o b s e r v e s t h e p l a n e t a t f i x e d a n g l e s , u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r
r o t a t i o n f o r s c a n s across t h e p l a n e t and motion a l o n g t h e
s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r y a r o u n d Venus f o r c o m p l e t e p l a n e t a r y
mapping. The a n g l e o f t h e t e l e s c o p e may b e v a r i e d by ground
command f o r s e l e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s from any p o i n t i n o r b i t .

The i n s t r u m e n t u s e s a n u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) f i l t e r ( f o r
maximum c o n t r a s t ) t o t r a c k t h e p u z z l i n g fast-moving UV
a b s o r b i n g m a r k i n g s . F i v e p l a n e t a r y images c a n b e made i n
e a c h s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . The f i e l d o f view i s a b o u t o n e - h a l f
m i l l i r a d i a n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a r e s o l u t i o n of a b o u t 30 km
(19 m i . ) d i r e c t l y below t h e O r b i t e r .

The i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s s c a t t e r e d s u n l i g h t p o l a r i z a t i o n
b a s e d on c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i z e , s h a p e and d e n s i t y .
V e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i n r e l a -
t i o n t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s e x t r a c t e d from t h i s d a t a .

While t h e O r b i t e r i s a t p e r i a p s i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o b s e r v e s
i n v i s i b l e l i g h t t h e high-haze l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere.
T h e s e " l i m b s c a n s ' ' h a v e a r e s o l u t i o n as s m a l l a s . 5 km ( . 3 m i . ) .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5 kg (11 l b . ) and u s e s 5.4 w a t t s .

S u r f a c e Radar Mapper -- The r a d a r mapping e x p e r i m e n t

makes f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s t u d i e s of l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f t h e
p l a n e t ' s h e m i s p h e r e n o t v i s i b l e from E a r t h . T h i s e x p e r i m e n t
w i l l p r o v i d e t h e o n l y d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e t o
b e o b t a i n e d from t h e O r b i t e r . From o b s e r v i n g t h e echo of
s e v e r a l r a d i o frequencies, experimenters d e r i v e surface
h e i g h t s a l o n g t h e o r b i t a l t r a j e c t o r y t o an accuracy of 1 0 0 m
( 3 0 0 f t . ) o r b e t t e r , g i v i n g a good e s t i m a t e of g l o b a l topo-
g r a p h y and s h a p e . S u r f a c e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c a n a l s o
b e d e r i v e d from t h e r a d a r d a t a .

A l o w power ( 2 0 w a t t s peak p u l s e power) S-band ( 1 . 7 5 7

GHzlradar system o b s e r v e s t h e s u r f a c e f o r o n e o u t of e v e r y
1 2 s e c o n d s of s p a c e c r a f t r o t a t i o n .

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 ORBITER EXPERIMENTS

MAGNETOMETER MAGNETOMETER
SENSOR BOOM

\/
RETARDING niJ ELECTRIC FIELD

I
W
SPECTROMETER 4
I

ULTRAVIOLET
SPECTROMETER

TEMPERATURE

NEUTRAL MASS
SPECTROMETER GAMMA BURST
DETECTOR ON
SHELF NOT
VISIBLE

RADIOMETER \ RADAR MAPPER ANTENNA

 -98-

Measurements a r e made whenever t h e O r b i t e r i s below

3 , 0 0 0 km ( 1 , 8 6 0 m i . ) , s u b j e c t t o c o n s t r a i n t s s e t by t h e
r e v o l v i n g r a d a r a n t e n n a and by c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r ex-
p e r i m e n t s f o r t h e l i m i t e d t e l e m e t r y c a p a c i t y . The i n s t r u -
ment a u t o m a t i c a l l y compensates f o r Doppler s h i f t c a u s e d
by t h e r a d i a l m o t i o n o f t h e O r b i t e r .

T e a m s c i e n t i s t s s u b t r a c t t h e o b s e r v e d d i s t a n c e between
t h e O r b i t e r and t h e s u r f a c e from t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s o r b i t a l
r a d i u s ( o b t a i n e d from DSN t r a c k i n g ) t o f i n d a b s o l u t e topo-
g r a p h i c a l measurements. S u r f a c e r e s o l u t i o n i s b e s t a t a p e r i a p s i s
a l t i t u d e of 2 0 0 km ( 1 7 4 m i . ) : 2 0 km ( 1 2 m i . ) l o n g and 1 6
km ( 9 . 6 m i . ) a c r o s s t h e s u b o r b i t a l t r a c k . Data g a t h e r e d
by t h e i n s t r u m e n t and telemetered t o E a r t h w i l l b e computer-
a s s e m b l e d i n t o r a d a r maps o f t h e p l a n e t .

R e s o l u t i o n i s comparable t o t h e E a r t h - b a s e d r a d a r
s t u d i e s ; enough t o d i s c e r n m a j o r s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 9 . 7 kg ( 2 1 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 1 8

watts.
I n f r a r e d R a d i o m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e
" h e a t " ( i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n ) e m i t t e d by t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t
v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s from 6 0 k m (36 m i . ) a t t h e t o p of t h e
d e n s e c l o u d l a y e r s o u t t o 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) . In addition,
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r w a t e r v a p o r above t h e c l o u d
l a y e r s , measures t h e s i z e of h e a t t r a p p i n g cloud l a y e r s
and m e a s u r e s t h e p l a n e t a r y s o l a r r e f l e c t a n c e ( a l b e d o ) .
The r a d i o m e t e r ' s d a t a y i e l d s a v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e
of t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e as w e l l a s a h o r i z o n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e a l o n g t h e s u b o r b i t a l t r a c k . Such i n f o r m a t i o n i s
i m p o r t a n t i n u n c o v e r i n g t h e e x t e n t and d r i v i n g f o r c e s o f
t h e seeming f o u r - d a y c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e .

The i n s t r u m e n t f e a t u r e s e i g h t d e t e c t o r s , e a c h s e n s i t i v e
t o a d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n of t h e i n f r a r e d s p e c t r u m . F i v e
d e t e c t o r s measure t h e i n f r a r e d e m i s s i o n s a t f i v e s e l e c t e d
w a v e l e n g t h s of t h e p n ( m i c r o m e t e r s ) , a b s o r p t i o n band o f
c a r b o n d i o x i d e . Each w a v e l e n g t h samples a s p e c i f i c d e p t h
i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , depending on h e a t a b s o r b i n g c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s o f t h e C 0 2 m o l e c u l e and t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e
w i t h a l t i t u d e . One d e t e c t o r e x c l u s i v e l y d e t e c t s and maps
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of water v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s ) i n t h e
u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . A n o t h e r d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s t h e s i z e and
s h a p e o f c l o u d l a y e r s , and t h e l a s t d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s t h e
t o t a l solar reflectance.

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 VENUS ORBITER IMAGING SYSTEM
PER IAPSIS
CLOSEST

I
W
u)
I

' PERlAPSlS

The Cloud Photopolarimeter uses motion along the Orbiter's flight path around Venus, and spacecraft
rotation for picture scanning of the planet in ultraviolet light. The .instrument can make five planetary
images in each spacecraft orbit. It has a resolution of about 30 km (19 miles). It also measures cloud
particle characteristics, and will make pictures of haze layers a t the planet edge with a resolution of 15 km
(0.3 mile).
 -100-

A 48-mm-aperture t e l e s c o p e m i r r o r feeds a l l e i g h t
c h a n n e l s . The t e l e s c o p e i s set a t 45 d e g r e e s t o t h e
O r b i t e r s p i n a x i s so t h a t s c a n s are made by s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t i o n . When l o o k i n g a t o n e p l a n e t ' s limb t h e narrow
f i e l d of view g i v e s v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n of 5 km ( 3 m i . )
a t p e r i a p s i s . When t h e O r b i t e r i s i n b e s t p o s i t i o n f o r
l i m b s c a n n i n g o f t h e p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r i c " e d g e , I' t h e
i n s t r u m e n t o b t a i n s a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on c l o u d l a y e r s and
t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r v a p o r .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5.9 kg ( 1 3 l b . ) and u s e s 5.2
watts.

Airglow U l t r a v i o l e t S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The u l t r a v i o l e t
s p e c t r o m e t e r o b s e r v e s t h e numerous a t m o s p h e r i c m a r k i n g s
which c a n b e s e e n o n l y t h r o u g h u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) f i l t e r s .
The i n s t r u m e n t t r a c k s t h e UV a b s o r b i n g masses which r o t a t e
i n f o u r d a y s , m e a s u r e s t h e e s c a p e r a t e of atomic hydrogen
from t h e o u t e r a t m o s p h e r e and m e a s u r e s t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
s c a t t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c l o u d t o p s and h a z e s a t a b o u t
80 km (50 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .

A b s o r p t i o n of UV r a d i a t i o n i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e
p r o d u c e s o p t i c a l UV e m i s s i o n s known as t h e " a i r g l o w " .
V a r i o u s a i r g l o w e m i s s i o n s a r e c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l
p r o c e s s e s ( e . g . , s p l i t - u p of molecules i n t o e l e c t r o n i c a l l y
e x c i t e d atoms). By v i e w i n g day and n i g h t a i r g l o w a t wave-
l e n g t h s between 1 , 1 0 0 Angstroms and 3,400 Angstroms, t h e
s p e c t r o m e t e r c a n t h u s i d e n t i f y t h e mechanism which e x c i t e s
t h e g a s e s o f t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . The t e m p e r a t u r e s of
t h e upper atmosphere a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s c a n also b e
i n f e r r e d from d a t a from limb s c a n s a t t h e a t m o s p h e r e ' s
e d g e , a t selected w a v e l e n g t h s .

The i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e Lyman Alpha c o r o n a t o f i n d

hydrogen e s c a p i n g from t h e f a r t h e s t r e a c h e s o f Venus'
atmosphere. These d a t a are i m p o r t a n t because escaping
a t o m i c hydrogen i s t h e l a s t s t e p when a p l a n e t i s l o s i n g
water.
The s p e c t r o m e t e r f e a t u r e s a 125-mm t e l e s c o p e and mono-
c h r o m a t o r t o r e s t r i c t (upon ground command) t h e v i e w i n g
s p e c t r u m t o any UV w a v e l e n g t h . P h o t o m u l t i p l i e r t u b e s con-
v e r t t h e impinging W r a d i a t i o n t o e l e c t r i c a l impulses,
which a r e t h e n t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t o
u l t r a v i o l e t p l a n e t a r y maps.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 1 kg ( 6 . 9 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 7

watts.

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N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s
t h e d e n s i t i e s o f n e u t r a l i o n i z e d a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s i n
Venus' u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e between 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) a t p e r i -
a p s i s and 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) . F i n d i n g t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i -
z o n t a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e n e u t r a l g a s molecules w i l l h e l p
d e f i n e t h e c h e m i c a l s t a t e of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . V a r i a -
t i o n s o f hydrogen and helium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l t e l l t h e
e x t e n t of g a s e s c a p e from t h e a t m o s p h e r e . R e s e a r c h e r s w i l l
f i n d t h e h e i g h t of t h e homopause (above which a t m o s p h e r e
mixing s t o p s ) by comparing t h e d e n s i t i e s o f i n e r t g a s e s a t
t h e O r b i t e r a l t i t u d e s w i t h measurements made by t h e L a r g e
P r o b e and Bus n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o m e t e r s below 1 5 0 km ( 9 3 m i . ) .

Noble g a s e s , o t h e r n o n - r e a c t i v e g a s e s and c h e m i c a l l y
a c t i v e g a s e s up t o 4 6 atomic mass u n i t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d and
measured. Gas m o l e c u l e s are f i r s t i o n i z e d and t h e n d e f l e c t e d
by a m a g n e t i c f i e l d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r m a s s . The a v e r a g e
v e r t i c a l s p a c i n g of sample p o i n t s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 0 m
( 2 4 0 f t . ) a t 5 0 0 km ( 3 0 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l
s p a c i n g f o r sampling a l o n g t h e O r b i t e r p a t h i s a b o u t 2 km
(1.2 m i . ) .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4 . 5 kg ( 9 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 1 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r

measures t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d i o n s i n t h e Venusian u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e from 1 5 0 km
( 9 0 m i . ) t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e . The i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t l y mea-
s u r e s i o n s i n a m a s s r a n g e from hydrogen i o n ( p r o t o n ) t o
i o n s of i r o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o from 1 t o 56 a t o m i c mass
units. Such d a t a a r e i m p o r t a n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e b a s i c
n a t u r e of t h e i o n o s p h e r e and i t s r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e s o l a r wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t makes f i r s t a n e x p l o r a t o r y sweep of 1 . 5

s e c o n d s , d u r i n g which a s e a r c h i s made f o r up t o 1 6 d i f -
f e r e n t i o n s . I t t h e n makes a s e r i e s of sweeps, r e p e a t i n g
t h e sampling of t h e e i g h t most p r o m i n e n t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d
d u r i n g t h e e x p l o r a t o r y sweep. (The Bus i n s t r u m e n t i s i d e n -
t i c a l t o t h e Orbiter version except t h a t these operating
s e q u e n c e s c a n n o t be m o d i f i e d by ground command a s t h e y c a n
on t h e O r b i t e r . )

I n f l i g h t , a s e n s o r i s exposed t o a s t r e a m of atmos-
p h e r i c i o n s , which f l o w i n t o a n aluminum c y l i n d e r e n c l o s i n g
a series of p a r a l l e l w i r e g r i d s . Each i o n s p e c i e s i s a c c e l -
e r a t e d by a s p e c i f i c v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d s so t h a t
t h e i o n s impinge o n a c o l l e c t o r a t t h e rear of t h e s e n s o r
c y l i n d e r . The i o n stream's a c c e l e r a t i n g v o l t a g e w i l l y i e l d
i t s i d e n t i t y and i t s a m p l i t u d e w i l l r e v e a l i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 kg ( 6 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 5 w a t t s .

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S o l a r Wind P l a s m a A n a l y z e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s o l a r wind and i t s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . The i n s t r u m e n t
m e a s u r e s v e l o c i t y , f l o w d i r e c t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
s o l a r wind. Such f i n d i n g s s h o u l d h e l p e x p l a i n h o w t h e
i o n o s p h e r e r e a c t s w i t h t h e s o l a r wind and p o s s i b l y t h e
r o l e t h e s o l a r wind p l a y s i n Venus' weather p a t t e r n s .
The r e g i o n around Venus, t h e c a v i t y "shadowed" by t h e
s o l a r wind, i s d e t e r m i n e d t o t h e e x t e n t a l l o w e d by t h e
s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . The i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r streams of
solar p a r t i c l e s i n t h i s region.
The plasma a n a l y z e r i s a n electrostatic/energy-per-
u n i t c h a r g e s p e c t r o m e t e r . The s o l a r wind f l u x ( r a t e o f
f l o w of t h e s o l a r wind) i s measured by t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f
i n - r u s h i n g p a r t i c l e s by a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d between
two metal p l a t e s . I f t h e p a r t i c l e s are w i t h i n t h e energy
r a n g e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p l a t e s ' v o l t a g e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y
e x i t between t h e p l a t e s , h i t t i n g o n e o f f i v e d e t e c t o r s .
Which t a r g e t the p a r t i c l e s h i t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s o l a r wind
d i r e c t i o n . By v a r y i n g t h e v o l t a g e between t h e p l a t e s , t h e
i n s t r u m e n t y i e l d s a c o m p l e t e p a r t i c l e s p e c t r u m of t h e s o l a r
wind.

T h e i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 9 kg ( 8 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 2
watts.

Magnetometer -- T h e magnetometer s t u d i e s Venus' m a g -

n e t i c f i e l d and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s o l a r wind w i t h t h e
p l a n e t . I t " s e a r c h e s " . f o r s u r f a c e - c o r r e l a t e d m a g n e t i c fea-
t u r e s , s u c h a s r e g i o n s of c r u s t m a g n e t i z e d i n t h e p a s t p e r -
h a p s when Venus had much s t r o n g e r m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s . The
measurements of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of E a r t h ' s s i s t e r p l a n e t
may s h e d l i g h t on w h a t i n t e r n a l f l u i d m o t i o n s p r o d u c e p l a n e -
t a r y magnetic f i e l d s . ( I t i s s t i l l n o t known what m o t i o n s
are r e s p o n s i b l e for E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d s . )

I t a p p e a r s Venus h a s a v e r y weak m a g n e t i c f i e l d ; y e t ,
i t may p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind
interaction. T h e magnetometer s h o u l d f i n d whether i t i s
t h e weak i n t r i n s i c m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a n i n d u c e d m a g n e t i c
f i e l d o r t h e i o n o s p h e r e i t s e l f which d e f l e c t s t h e s o l a r
wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t s of t h r e e s e n s o r s on 4.7-m
( 1 5 . 5 - f t . ) booms, l o n g enough t o i s o l a t e t h e m from much
o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The inboard s e n s o r ,
t i l t e d 45 d e g r e e s t o t h e s p i n a x i s e x c l u s i v e l y measures
t h e O r b i t e r ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d , which w i l l be s u b t r a c t e d from
t h e outboard sensors' readings.
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Each s e n s o r c o n s i s t s of a r i n g a r o u n d which i s wrapped

a r i b b o n of p e r m e a b l e metal. Any e x t e r n a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d
c a u s e s t h e core t o p r o d u c e a n e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l . A f e e d -
back s i g n a l t h e n c a n c e l s t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d so t h a t t h e
magnetometer always o p e r a t e s i n a z e r o f i e l d c o n d i t i o n .
The s t r e n g t h of t h e f e e d b a c k s i g n a l i s a measure o f t h e
e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 kg ( 4 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 2
w a t t s power.
E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector=-- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t w i l l h e l p
answer q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n t e r -
a c t i o n s between Venus and t h e s o l a r wind, t h e m i l l i o n - m i l e -
an-hour i o n i z e d g a s t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y streams outward from
t h e Sun t o t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

T h e d e t e c t o r w i l l determine t h e k i n d s of i n t e r a c t i o n s
between the plasma ( t h e mass of i o n s and e l e c t r o n s ) of
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and t h e s o l a r wind, t h e e x t e n t t o which
the s o l a r wind i s deflected a r o u n d Venus, t h e e x t e n t t o
which t h e s o l a r wind h e a t s t h e i o n o s p h e r e , t h e e x t e n t of
i o n i z a t i o n c a u s e d by e x o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind i n t e r a c t i o n and
s o l a r wind t u r b u l e n c e . The i n s t r u m e n t a l s o searches f o r
"whistlers" -- e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e s which t r a v e l
along a p l a n e t ' s magnetic f i e l d l i n e s .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s e l e c t r i c components of plasma
waves and r a d i o e m i s s i o n s i n the f r e q u e n c y r e g i o n from
1 0 0 t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 H e r t z which induce a c u r r e n t i n t h e i n s t r u -
m e n t ' s V-type e l e c t r i c d i p o l e a n t e n n a . T h e c u r r e n t i s
a m p l i f i e d and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e d and r e l a y e d back
t o E a r t h . Four 30 p e r c e n t bandwidth c h a n n e l s are employed;
each i s u s e f u l a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s a l o n g t h e O r b i t e r t r a -
j e c t o r y , as i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h v a r y i n g d e n s i t i e s of t h e
s o l a r wind. The 0.6-m ( 2 6 - i n . ) - l o n g a n t e n n a i s d e s i g n e d
t o l e a n on t h e O r b i t e r s h r o u d and d e p l o y a u t o m a t i c a l l y
when the s h r o u d i s ejected.

T h e i n s t r u m e n t weighs 0 . 8 kg (1.74 l b .) and u s e s 0 . 7

w a t t s of power.
E l e c t r o n T e m p e r a t u r e P r o b e s -- T h e p r o b e s measure t h e
t h e r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Venus' ionosphere: electron
t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i o n plasma mass and con-
c e n t r a t i o n , a s well a s t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own e l e c t r i c a l
potential. Such measurements w i l l h e l p s c i e n t i s t s under-
s t a n d t h e h e a t i n g mechanisms of Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , c u r r e n t l y
b e l i e v e d t o i n c l u d e h e a t i n g a t h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s by t h e s o l a r
wind and a t lower a l t i t u d e s by s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n .
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Two c y l i n d r i c a l probes 7 c m ( 3 i n . ) by 0 . 2 5 c m ( 0 . 5
i n . ) a r e u s e d . One p r o b e i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t s p i n a x i s on a 0.4-m ( 1 6 - i n . ) boom, and t h e o t h e r
p r o b e i s mounted p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n a x i s on a 1-m
( 4 0 - i n . ) boom. (The booms a r e l o n g enough t o p l a c e t h e
s e n s o r s beyond much of t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n c l o u d and i o n
s h e a t h s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t w h i c h m i g h t d i s t o r t read-
ings.) T h e l o n g e r boom a l l o w s measurement of e l e c t r o n con-
t e n t a n d t e m p e r a t u r e f o r c o n d i t i o n s of v e r y l o w e l e c t r o n
concentrations.

Each p r o b e h a s i t s own power g e n e r a t o r w h i l e s h a r i n g

i n f l i g h t d a t a a n a l y s i s c i r c u i t r y . A s a w t o o t h v o l t a g e sweeps
each p r o b e t w i c e p e r s e c o n d and i s e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a d a p t e d t o
match t h e e x i s t i n g e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g
measured.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 2 kg ( 4 . 7 6 lb.) and u s e s 4 . 8

w a t t s of power.

Charqed P a r t i c l e R e t a r d i n g P o t e n t i a l A n a l y z e r -- This
i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e l o -
c i t y of t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t i o n s i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e ( p r e s u m a b l y
c a r b o n d i o x i d e and oxygen i o n s . ) I t a l s o m e a s u r e s t h e con-
c e n t r a t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e and e n e r g y of s u r r o u n d i n g photo-
e l e c t r o n s i n the ionosphere.

T h e instrument i s designed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r d e t e c t i n g
t h e l o w e n e r g y plasma p a r t i c l e s i n Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , a s
opposed t o t h e much more h i g h l y e n e r g i z e d s o l a r wind p a r -
t i c l e s . However, t h e a n a l y z e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e d a t a c o n c e r n -
i n g t h e solar wind-ionosphere i n t e r a c t i o n a t an a l t i t u d e of
4 0 0 t o 5 0 0 km ( 2 4 0 t o 300 m i . ) a t t h e p o i n t where t h e s o l a r
wind streams i n t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e .

By v a r y i n g e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l s , c o l l e c t o r g r i d s of
6 c m ( 2 . 5 i n . ) d i a m e t e r s e l e c t i v e l y allow v a r i o u s i o n o s p h e r i c
p a r t i c l e s t o s t r i k e a d e t e c t o r . C u r r e n t i n d u c e d i n t h e de-
t e c t o r i s a m p l i f i e d by a n e l e c t r o m e t e r .
Measurements a r e t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s a 1 o n g . a 120-km ( 7 2 -
m i . ) o r b i t segment t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma r e g i o n .
Onboard a n a l y s i s s e l e c t s t h e optimum p o i n t i n t h e spacecraft
r o t a t i o n a t which t o sample t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma, s o t h a t
each s c a n i s completed i n a small f r a c t i o n of a s p i n p e r i o d .
The i n s t r u m e n t a c h i e v e s a 20-km ( 1 2 - m i . ) r e s o l u t i o n f o r
total ion concentration.
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 4
w a t t s of power.

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G a m m a R a y B u r s t D e t e c t o r -- T h e gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r
o b s e r v e s t h e i n t e n s e s h o r t d u r a t i o n ( o n e - t e n t h second t o a
f e w t e n t h s o f s e c o n d s ) " b u r s t s " of h i g h e n e r q y p r o t o n s from
o u t e r s p a c e . T h i s phenomenon w a s n ' t d i s c o v e r e d u n t i l 1973,
and t h e n a t u r e a n d o r i g i n o f t h e s o u r c e s a r e s t i l l unknown.
T h e gamma r a y b u r s t s o c c u r randomly i n t i m e ( r o u g h l y 1 0 p e r
y e a r ) a n d a p p e a r t o o r i g i n a t e from random p o i n t s i n t h e u n i -
v e r s e . The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r i s t h e o n l y e x p e r i m e n t
on P i o n e e r Venus which i s n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i r e c t s t u d y
of Venus and i t s e n v i r o n s .

The Venus O r b i t e r , s e p a r a t e d f r o m E a r t h by r o u g h l y one

a s t r o n o m i c a l u n i t ( 1 4 9 m i l l i o n km o r 93 m i l l i o n m i . ) p r o v i d e s
a means t o o b t a i n a " f i x " on t h e s t r a n g e b u r s t s , by correla-
t i n g i t s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e made by o r b i t i n g E a r t h
s a t e l l i t e s . Measurements o f t h e gamma r a y s o u r c e s w i l l b e
made w i t h a n a c c u r a c y of l e s s t h a n one a r c m i n u t e , p r e c i s e
enough f o r a n a t t e m p t a t o p t i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s o u r c e s .

Two sodium i o d i d e p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r d e t e c t o r u n i t s sen-

s i t i v e t o photons i n t h e 0 . 2 t o 2 . 0 m i l l i o n e l e c t r o n v o l t s
(MeV) energy range provide a continuous t i m e h i s t o r y f o r
t h o s e b u r s t s i n t e n s e enough t o be d e t e c t e d and g i v e a c o a r s e
p r o f i l e of t h e gamma b u r s t e n e r g y r a n g e . A memory u n i t o f
20,000 "bits" f o r s t o r i n g data f o r later readout i s required
t o accommodate t h e v e r y h i g h d a t a r a t e s t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g a
brief burst.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 5 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 3

w a t t s of power.
O r b i t e r Radio S c i e n c e

I n t e r n a l D e n s i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n Experiment -- T h i s e x p e r i -
ment d e t e r m i n e s V e n u s ' s i n t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e p r o -
cesses which have produced t h a t d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e p l a n e t ' s
g l o b a l s h a p e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Venus' surface
f e a t u r e s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n t e r n a l d e n s i t i e s . R e -
s e a r c h e r s hope t o c o n s t r u c t a model o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s
which g o v e r n e d Venus' p l a n e t a r y e v o l u t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p o f
t h i s experiment's data.

S c i e n t i s t s u s e t h e two-way Doppler t r a c k i n g o f t h e
O r b i t e r , which i s also u s e d f o r n a v i g a t i o n , t o f i n d v e r y
s m a l l changes i n i t s o r b i t . They u s e t h e s e o r b i t c h a n g e s
t o c h a r t Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d . T h i s g r a v i t y i n f o r m a t i o n
c a n t h e n b e used t o c a l c u l a t e v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a n e t d e n s i t y .

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An S-band s i g n a l of 2 . 2 G H z i s t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m a D S N
a n t e n n a , r e c e i v e d by t h e O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t and r e t r a n s -
m i t t e d b a c k t o t h e DSN a n t e n n a . Doppler s h i f t s i n f r e q u e n c y
of these s i g n a l s mean c h a n g e s i n s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y . Most
of the v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s a r e d u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e o r b i t a l
m o t i o n s of E a r t h , Venus and t h e P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r . How-
e v e r , l o c a l a n o m a l i e s i n t h e i n t e r n a l mass d i s t r i b u t i o n of
Venus i n d u c e a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s . A n a l y s i s of t h e
v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i n -
t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of Venus.

Comparison of t h i s d a t a w i t h t h e r a d a r mapping d a t a
may s u p p o r t t h e e x i s t e n c e of b a s i c on-going p h y s i c a l p r o -
cesses, s u c h a s E a r t h - l i k e p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ( t h e movement
of m a s s i v e c r u s t a l p l a t e s s l o w l y p a s t one a n o t h e r ) . The
d a t a a l s o w i l l i n f e r t h e l i k e l y c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e
of Venus' i n t e r i o r .

C e l e s t i a l Mechanics E x p e r i m e n t -- T h e c e l e s t i a l mechanics
e x p e r i m e n t s t u d i e s Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d , l e a d i n g t o c a l c u -
l a t i o n s of i t s g l o b a l s h a p e and i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e dynamics
of t h e p l a n e t ' s u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e . The e x p e r i -
ment a l s o m e a s u r e s t h e d i r e c t i o n of Venus' s p i n a x i s , rota-
t i o n o f t h e p l a n e t ' s p o l e s , d e n s i t y of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e ,
r e l a t i v i s t i c e f f e c t s of s o l a r g r a v i t y on t h e O r b i t e r t r a c k i n g
s i g n a l and improves o u r knowledge of t h e e x a c t p l a n e t a r y t r a -
j e c t o r i e s of Venus and E a r t h .
S c i e n t i s t s u s e Doppler t r a c k i n g t o c h a r t t h e p l a n e t ' s
g r a v i t y f i e l d . A DSN a n t e n n a on E a r t h t r a n s m i t s a r a d i o
s i g n a l of 2 . 2 G H z t o t h e O r b i t e r , which r e t r a n s m i t s t h a t
s i g n a l , m u l t i p l i e d by 2 4 0 / 2 2 1 ( t o d i s c r i m i n a t e o u t g o i n g from
incoming s i g n a l s ) . Unexpected f r e q u e n c y s h i f t s i n t h e s e
s i g n a l s mean c h a n g e s i n s p a c e c r a f t p o s i t i o n . T h e s e c h a n g e s
are c a u s e d by t h e m a s s and g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of Venus,
g r a v i t y f i e l d of the Sun and Venus' own a t m o s p h e r e , w h i c h
e x e r t s a d r a g on t h e O r b i t e r . More d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of t h e
a t m o s p h e r e a r e p o s s i b l e j u s t b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e o c c u l t a -
t i o n s of t h e O r b i t e r by Venus, when t h e r a d i o s i g n a l must
p a s s q u i t e close t o t h e p l a n e t s u r f a c e on i t s way t o E a r t h .
D i s t o r t i o n s ( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) of t h e O r b i t e r s i g n a l d u r i n g
these p e r i o d s r e v e a l v a r i a t i o n s i n u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e d e n s i t y .

S i m u l t a n e o u s r a d i o t r a c k i n g of the O r b i t e r w i t h e x t r a -
g a l a c t i c radio sources w i l l a l l o w very precise determination
of t h e o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e e x t r a -
galactic objects.

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Dual Frequency Radio O c c u l t a t i o n Experiment -- This

e x p e r i m e n t s t u d i e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e of Venus by o b s e r v i n g
how O r b i t e r X- and S-band r a d i o s i g n a l s p e n e t r a t e Venus'
atmosphere on t h e way t o r e c e i v e r s on E a r t h . T h e 4 0 o c c u l -
t a t i o n s w i t h Venus which t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y e n c o u n t e r s
o v e r i t s m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e w i l l p r o d u c e 80 p r o f i l e s of t h e
s i g n a l d i s t o r t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p l a n e t ' s lower and upper
a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e .

By a n a l y z i n g t h e s c i n t i l l a t i o n s i n r a d i o s i g n a l s c a u s e d
by v a r i o u s a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n i n f e r t h e
r e f r a c t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t i e s of t h e atmos-
p h e r e f r o m 3 4 k m ( 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e up t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
A s t h e radio s i g n a l s p i e r c e t h e ionosphere, i n v e s t i g a t o r s
c a n measure s i g n a l d i s t o r t i o n due t o v a r y i n g e l e c t r o n den-
s i t i e s i n t h i s barely-known r e g i o n . S i n c e most of these
measurements a r e made on V e n u s t : n i g h t s i d e , d a t a i s p r o v i d e d
on t h e r e p o r t e d l y v a r i a b l e Venusian n i g h t t i m e i o n o s p h e r e .

T h e O r b i t e r h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a i s s p e c i a l l y aimed d u r i n g
o c c u l t a t i o n s so t h a t t h e refracted radio s i g n a l i s o p t i m a l l y
aimed a t E a r t h . D S N s t a t i o n s on E a r t h a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
s p e c i a l r e c e i v e r s t o t r a c k t h e incoming s i g n a l s a s t h e i r
p h a s e and f r e q u e n c i e s a r e m o d i f i e d d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
t h r o u g h Venus I s atmosphere.
Atmospheric and S o l a r Wind T u r b u l e n c e E x p e r i m e n t -- T h e
e x p e r i m e n t o b s e r v e s t h e s m a l l scale t u r b u l e n c e ( l e s s t h a n 1 0
km o r 6 m i . ) i n t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e above 3 5 km ( 2 2 m i . )
a l t i t u d e . I t w i l l r e v e a l t h e v a r i a t i o n of a t m o s p h e r i c t u r -
b u l e n c e w i t h l a t i t u d e , l o n g i t u d e and a l t i t u d e c h a n g e s d u r i n g
t h e 4 0 o c c u l t a t i o n s when O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t s i g n a l s must
p a s s t h r o u g h Venus' a t m o s p h e r e on t h e i r way t o E a r t h t r a c k -
i n g s t a t i o n s . Because t h e s i g n a l s t r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e i o n o -
s p h e r e as w e l l , f l u c t u a t i o n s i n e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y c a n a l s o b e
i n f e r r e d from t h e d a t a .

F o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n of t h e normal m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e
( a r o u n d August 19791, t h e O r b i t e r w i l l p r o v i d e d e n s i t y and
v e l o c i t y measurements of t h e s o l a r wind n e a r t h e Sun. Venus
w i l l t h e n a p p r o a c h s u p e r i o r c o n j u n c t i o n ( E a r t h and Venus
w i l l b e on o p p o s i t e s i d e s of t h e S u n ) . T h i s i s a n i d e a l
t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s o l a r wind, t h e stream of i o n i z e d
p a r t i c l e s c o n s t a n t l y s w i r l i n g o f f t h e Sun. Because t h e s o l a r
wind i s s o c h a n g e a b l e , r e p e a t e d O r b i t e r o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e
s o l a r wind n e a r t o and f a r from t h e Sun w i l l p r o v i d e needed
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o l a r wind d e n s i t y , t u r b u l e n c e and v e l o c i t y
u n i f o r m i t y . Two DSN s t a t i o n s w i l l a n a l y z e t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s
( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) i n the O r b i t e r S- and X-band s i g n a l s a s t h e y
p a s s t h e s o l a r wind o n t h e i r way t o E a r t h .

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Atmospheric Drag E x p e r i m e n t -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t a k e s
d r a g measurement f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e of a n o t h e r p l a n e t ' s atmos-
p h e r e , as t h e a t m o s p h e r e " f r i c t i o n " o f Venus s l o w s t h e O r b i -
t e r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l u s e d r a g measurements t h r o u g h o u t
t h e O r b i t e r m i s s i o n t o s e a r c h f o r any v a r i a t i o n s i n atmos-
p h e r i c d e n s i t y t h a t c o r r e l a t e w i t h s o l a r wind a c t i v i t y c h a n g e s
i n s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n and d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y on
t h e p l a n e t ' s n i g h t side. I n a d d i t i o n , p r o j e c t s c i e n t i s t s are
l o o k i n g f o r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e seeming f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n of t h e
lower a t m o s p h e r e e x t e n d s i n t o t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
D S N s t a t i o n s a n a l y z e t h e Doppler e f f e c t on t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t ' s X- and S-band r a d i o s i g n a l , c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c
d r a g - i n d u c e d change i n t h e O r b i t e r ' s d i r e c t i o n and s p e e d .

The e n t i r e s p a c e c r a f t , e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s h a p e of a c y l i n -
d e r , a c t s a s t h e t e s t i n s t r u m e n t . Atmospheric d e n s i t y i s
d e t e r m i n e d b e s t i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f p e r i a p s i s (between 1 5 0
and 2 5 0 km o r 9 3 and 1 5 5 m i . ) , where t h e d r a g e f f e c t i s much
g r e a t e r than elsewhere along t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y . A s t h e
p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e c h a n g e s , v a r i a t i o n s of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y
with a l t i t u d e can b e p l o t t e d .

Knowledge of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y a i d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r f i n d i n g s , i n f e r s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m -
p e r a t u r e of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and a i d s i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a
model of Venus' upper atmosphere.

Large Probe Experiments

N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o -

m e t e r m e a s u r e s t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e l o w e r 6 0 km
( 3 6 m i . ) o f Venus' a t m o s p h e r e ( l a r g e 1 y t h e a t m o s p h e r e below
t h e m a s s i v e c l o u d l a y e r s ) a s t h e L a r g e P r o b e d e s c e n d s by
p a r a c h u t e . Knowledge of t h e r e l a t i v e abundances of g a s e s
w i l l h e l p answer q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n , s t r u c t u r e
and h e a t b a l a n c e of Venus.
The i n s t r u m e n t d e t e r m i n e s t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and
concentration of non-reactive gases,chemically g c t i v e gases
and r a t i o s of i n e r t g a s i s o t o p e s . Water v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s )
i s a l s o measured.

The i n s t r u m e n t i s mounted i n s i d e t h e L a r g e P r o b e p r e s -
s u r e v e s s e l . I t r e c e i v e s a c o n t i n u o u s f l o w of a t m o s p h e r i c
g a s t h r o u g h t w o u n i q u e ceramic i n l e t t u b e s t h a t p r o t r u d e
through t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l w a l l . The i n l e t t u b e s are c a l l e d
C e r a m i c Micro Leaks (CMLS) and a r e made t o g r e a t l y l i m i t t h e
amount of g a s e n t e r i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h o u t c h e m i c a l l y
a l t e r i n g it.
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cn
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 -110-

T h e CMLs a r e p a s s i v e d e v i c e s and t h e amount o f g a s

f l o w i n g t h r o u g h them i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a t m o s p h e r i c
p r e s s u r e . T o p r e v e n t " f l o o d i n g " of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , one CML
i s sealed when t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s a b o u t 1 . 5 b a r s .
A f t e r e n t e r i n g the instrument, t h e atmospheric gas i s f i r s t
i o n i z e d and t h e s e p a r a t e d i o n s s o r t e d o u t f o r m a s s and
q u a n t i t y o f each c o n s t i t u e n t by t h e i r d i f f e r e n t d e f l e c t i o n s
i n p a s s i n g through magnetic f i e l d s .
The spectrometer can i d e n t i f y g a s e s w i t h masses up t o
2 0 8 atomic m a s s u n i t s , b e l i e v e d t o be a l a r g e enough m a s s
range f o r a l l molecules l i k e l y t o b e encountered i n t h e
lower a t m o s p h e r e . S e n s i t i v i t y i s o n e p a r t p e r m i l l i o n .
S i x t y a t m o s p h e r i c s a m p l i n g s are p l a n n e d , w i t h a mass s p e c t r u m
t a k i n g 6 4 s e c o n d s . An o n b o a r d m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l s t h e
i n s t r u m e n t and a c c u m u l a t e s d a t a f o r t e l e m e t r y t o E a r t h .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 0 . 9 kg ( 2 4 l b . ) and u s e s 14 w a t t s .

G a s Chromatograph -- T h e g a s chromatograph m e a s u r e s t h e
g a s e o u s c o m p o s i t i o n of Venus' l o w e r atmosphere. B y f i n d i n q
t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s of i n f r a r e d o p a c i t y ( t h o s e gases t h a t t r a p
h e a t ) , s c i e n t i s t s s h o u l d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d why Venus h a s 480-
d e g r e e C (900-degree F . ) s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s . From t h e
measurement of g a s e s produced by r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y , s c i e n -
t i s t s c a n i n f e r t h e d e g r e e of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n Venus'
i n t e r i o r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l a l s o b e a b l e t o deduce t h e
s i m i l a r i t y of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s o l i d p a r t s of Venus
a n d E a r t h by t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of v a r i o u s s u l f u r i c gases.

T h e i n s t r u m e n t s a m p l e s t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e t h r e e t i m e s
d u r i n g t h e Large P r o b e ' s d e s c e n t . T h e atmosphere f l o w s i n t o
a t u b e p e n e t r a t i n g t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e L a r g e P r o b e and i n t o
a helium g a s stream, w h i c h sweeps t h e s a m p l e i n t o t w o chroma-
t o g r a p h columns. Atmospheric g a s e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e
t i m e i t t a k e s them t o f l o w t h r o u g h t h e columns. As a c a l i -
b r a t i o n check, t w o samples of f r e o n ( a gas n o t l i k e l y t o be
e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e ) a r e added t o t h e t h i r d sample,
and t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n n o t e d .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 6 . 3 kg ( 1 3 . 8 l b .) and u s e s 4 2
w a t t s , t h e most of any P i o n e e r Venus i n s t r u m e n t .

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S o l a r F l u x Radiometer --This i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s where

s o l a r e n e r g y i s d e p o s i t e d i n t h e lower Venusian a t m o s p h e r e ,
g i v i n g a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of s u n l i g h t i n p u t . I t r e v e a l s
how much s u n l i g h t i s a b s o r b e d by t h e c l o u d s and how much
s u n l i g h t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e , i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r re-
s o l v i n g w h e t h e r Venus h a s a g r e e n h o u s e w e a t h e r machine and
e x p l a i n i n g why i t s s u r f a c e i s s o h o t .

The i n s t r u m e n t c o n t i n u a l l y m e a s u r e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
s u n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y d i r e c t l y above and below t h e Large P r o b e
h o r i z o n as t h e p r o b e d r i f t s t o t h e p l a n e t s u r f a c e . F i v e
q u a r t z l e n s e s of 3 mm ( 1 / 8 i n . ) d i a m e t e r i n s i d e f i v e f l a t
s a p p h i r e windows c o l l e c t t h e l i g h t a n d t r a n s m i t i t by q u a r t z
rods t o an e l e c t r o n i c l i g h t detector. Sunlight i n t e n s i t y i s
d e t e c t e d i n t h e s p e c t r a l r a n g e of 0 . 4 t o 1 . 8 p m ( m i c r o m e t e r s ) ,
t h e w a v e l e n g t h r a n g e f o r most s o l a r e n e r g y . V e r t i c a l r e s o -
l u t i o n i s 700 t o 1 , 0 0 0 m ( 2 , 3 0 0 t o 3 , 3 0 0 f t . ) . L e n s e s a r e
p o s i t i o n e d b o t h up and down t o f i n d t h e amount of s o l a r
e n e r g y absorbed i n l a y e r s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T o a v o i d h a v i n g
t h e p r o b e o r i t s p a r a c h u t e i n t h e f i e l d o f view, t h e r a d i o -
m e t e r s a m p l e s s u n l i g h t i n narrow 5-degree f i e l d s of view.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 . 6 kg ( 3 . 5 l b . ) and u s e s 4 w a t t s .

I n f r a r e d Radiometer -- The i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r m e a s u r e s
t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n i n t h e atmos-
p h e r e from L a r g e P r o b e p a r a c h u t e deployment a t 6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . )
down t o t h e s u r f a c e . I t a l s o d e t e c t s c l o u d l a y e r s and w a t e r
v a p o r , b o t h o f which may w e l l be t r a p p i n g enormous amounts
of h e a t and p r e v e n t i n g t h e i r r e r a d i a t i o n back i n t o s p a c e .
F i n d i n g major h e a t s o u r c e s ( a n d t r a p s ) i s e s s e n t i a l t o p r o v i n g
Venus h a s a g r e e n h o u s e h e a t i n g mechanism.

S i x p y r o e l e c t r i c i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r s were c h o s e n b e c a u s e
t h e y do n o t need s p e c i a l c o o l i n g equipment f o r t h e i r u s e i n
t h e extreme atmospheric h e a t . Each d e t e c t o r views t h e atmos-
phere v i a r o t a t i n g l i g h t p i p e s through a d i f f e r e n t i n f r a r e d
f i l t e r between 3 and 50 m i c r o n s . The views of t h e d e t e c t o r s
i s d i r e c t e d a t 4 5 d e g r e e s above and below t h e p r o b e h o r i z o n
t h r o u g h a diamond window h e a t e d t o p r e v e n t p a r t i c l e contami-
n a t i o n d u r i n g p a s s a g e through c l o u d s . The d i f f e r e n c e i n i n f r a -
r e d r a d i a t i o n , c l o u d o p a c i t y and water v a p o r between t h e t w o
viewing a n g l e s i s t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h every 6 seconds, g i v i n g
a v e r t i c a l i n f r a r e d s p a t i a l r e s o l u t i o n of 250 m ( 8 2 5 f t . ) o r
better.

Two of t h e s i x d e t e c t o r s m o n i t o r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and
o p t i c a l u n i f o r m i t y of t h e diamond v i e w i n g window, t w o d e t e c -
t o r s d e t e c t and measure w a t e r v a p o r , o n e d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s
c l o u d o p a c i t y and t h e r e m a i n i n g d e t e c t o r measures t h e i n f r a r e d
i n t e n s i t i e s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s t h e L a r g e Probe p a s s e s
through.
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 6 kg ( 5 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 5 w a t t s .
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Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e S p e c t r o m e t e r--T h i s instrument

m e a s u r e s t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e and s h a p e and d e n s i t y of Venus'
c l o u d s i n t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e from 67 k m ( 4 0 m i . ) down t o
the surface.

Through measurements of p a r t i c l e s i z e and m a s s , t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o v i d e s a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of p a r t i c u l a t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n for 34 d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , ranging
f r o m 1 t o 500 microns i n diameter (a micron i s one m i l l i o n t h
of a m e t e r o r r o u g h l y t w o t e n - t h o u s a n d t h s of a n i n c h ) . Such
measurements w i l l g i v e c l u e s t o b a s i c c l o u d f o r m a t i o n p r o -
cesses and c l o u d - s u n l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n s on Venus. The s p e c t r o -
meter a l s o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i c e c r y s t a l s -- i f any are p r e s e n t
-- from o t h e r c r y s t a l l i n e p a r t i c u l a t e s by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
i c e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " a s p e c t r a t i o " -- t h e r a t i o of p a r t i c l e
thickness to s i z e .
T h e i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t s a l a s e r beam o n t o a n e x t e r n a l
m i r r o r s u p p o r t e d 1 5 c m ( 6 i n . ) from t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ' s
o u t e r s u r f a c e . The m i r r o r d i r e c t s t h e beam back i n t o a
backscatter detector. A s a p a r t i c l e e n t e r s t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s
f i e l d of view, i t s shadow i s imaged o n t o a p h o t o d i o d e a r r a y
d e t e c t o r , w h e r e i t s shadow s i z e i s measured and recorded.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4.4 kg ( 9 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 20 w a t t s .

L a r q e and S m a l l P r o b e I n s t r u m e n t s

Atmospheric S t r u c t u r e E x p e r i m e n t s -- These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
d e t e r m i n e Venus' a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e from 200 km ( 1 2 0 m i . )
t o i m p a c t a t f o u r e n t r y s i t e s w e l l s e p a r a t e d from o n e a n o t h e r .
T e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and a c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s on a l l f o u r
p r o b e s y i e l d d a t a on t h e l o c a t i o n and i n t e n s i t i e s of atmos-
p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e , t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e s w i t h pres-
s u r e and a l t i t u d e , the a v e r a g e a t m o s p h e r i c m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t
and the r a d i a l d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t e r o f Venus. If t h e
P r o b e s s u r v i v e i m p a c t ( a remote p o s s i b i l i t y ) , t h e y w i l l re-
v e a l any seismic a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r u s t of t h e p l a n e t .

T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s are d u a l resistance.thermometers.
Each has o n e f r e e w i r e e l e m e n t p r o t r u d i n g i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e
f o r maximum s e n s i t i v i t y and o n e e l e m e n t bonded t o t h e s u p p o r t
frame f o r maximum s u r v i v a b i l i t y . I t s extreme temperature
r a n g e p e r m i t s i t t o r e c o r d t e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m below f r e e z i n g
t o 4 7 0 d e g r e e s C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F.).
P r e s s u r e s e n s o r s are m u l t i p l e range, m i n i a t u r e s i l i c o n
diaphragm s e n s o r s . The w i d e r a n g e needed f r o m 3 0 m i l l i b a r s
t o 1 0 0 b a r s p r e s s u r e i s a c h i e v e d by 1 2 s e n s o r s of o v e r l a p p i n g
s e n s i t i v i t y . T h i s a l s o p r o v i d e s redundancy i n case of a
sensor malfunction.
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A c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s ( f o u r on t h e l a r g e r p r o b e , o n e
on e c h of t h e s m a l l p r o b e s ) h a v e p e n d u l o u s mass, main-
t a i n e d i n n u l l ( z e r o ) p o s i t i o n by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a
c u r r e n t i n a c o i l i n s i d e t h e m a s s with a magnetic f i e l d .
The n u l l i n g c u r r e n t i s t h e measure of a c c e l e r a t i o n .

An e l e c t r o n i c s package d i s t r i b u t e s power t o a l l s e n -
s o r s , samples t h e i r o u t p u t , c h a n g e s t h e i r r a n g e s and stores
data.

The i n s t r u m e n t s on t h e L a r g e P r o b e weigh 2.3 kg ( 5 . 1

l b . ) and u s e 4 . 9 w a t t s . On e a c h of t h e S m a l l P r o b e s t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s weigh 1 . 2 kg ( 2 . 7 l b . ) and u s e 3 . 5 w a t t s .

Nephelometer -- The n e p h e l o m e t e r s e a r c h e s f o r c l o u d
p a r t i c l e s ( s o l i d o r l i q u i d ) i n t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e from
6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . ) t o t h e s u r f a c e . By p r o v i d i n g a l l f o u r p r o b e s
w i t h n e p h e l o m e t e r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s can d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
c l o u d l a y e r s v a r y from l o c a t i o n t o l o c a t i o n o r are u n i f o r m l y
d i s t r i b u t e d across t h e p l a n e t .

A l i g h t e m i t t i n g d i o d e (LED) of 9 , 0 0 0 Angstroms t o g e t h e r
with a p l a s t i c Fresnel lens f o r focusing t h e l i g h t illuminate
t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h r o u g h a window mounted i n t h e p r o b e p r e s s u r e
vessel. The t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t beam i s p r o j e c t e d a d i s t a n c e
beyond t h e t u r b u l e n t a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p r o b e s a s
t h e y d e s c e n d . Through a second window, a receiver m e a s u r e s
t h e i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t b a c k s c a t t e r e d ( a b o u t 1 7 5 d e g r e e s ) by
atmospheric p a r t i c l e s . Both windows a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e
s e a r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s of t h e Venusian atmosphere and from
stray light.
I n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l u s e t h e backward l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g
p r o p e r t y of c l o u d s and h a z e s t o c o n s t r u c t a v e r t i c a l p r o -
f i l e o f p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e t w o s m a l l probes descending i n t h e s u n l i t
s i d e w i l l b e m e a s u r i n g t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o l a r
s c a t t e r e d l i g h t a t 3,500 Angstroms and 5,300 Angstroms.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 4

watts.

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S m a l l Probe ExDeriments

N e t F l u x Radiometer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t maps t h e p l a n e -
t a r y p o s i t i o n s of s o u r c e s and absorbers of r a d i a t i v e e n e r g y
and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a d i a -
t i v e e n e r g y ( h e a t and s u n l i g h t ) powers t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c i r -
c u l a t i o n on Venus as w e l l a s E a r t h . T h e i n s t r u m e n t d a t a w i l l
b e r e l a t e d t o t h e observed atmospheric motions, temperature
s t r u c t u r e and c l o u d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m o t h e r P i o n e e r Venus
e x p e r i m e n t s t o g a i n a more a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of Venus' w e a -
t h e r machine.

The i n s t r u m e n t s on each of t h e three S m a l l P r o b e s a r e

i d e n t i c a l a n d c a n o p e r a t e e q u a l l y i n e i t h e r day o r n i g h t
h e m i s p h e r e s . F o l l o w i n g d e s c e n t i n t o t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e
below 72 km ( 4 5 m i . ) t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s s e n s o r i s d e p l o y e d
f r o m a p r o t e c t i v e e n c l o s u r e t o a p o s i t i o n l o c a t i n g i t beyond
t h e t u r b u l e n c e n e a r t h e b a s e of t h e h e a t s h i e l d . Data col-
l e c t i o n c o n t i n u e s u n t i l impact.

The i n s t r u m e n t ' s f l u x p l a t e i s o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e
p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e . A d i f f e r e n c e between upward and downward
r a d i a n t e n e r g y f a l l i n g on t h e two s i d e s of t h e p l a t e p r o d u c e s
a t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t t h r o u g h i t , which i n d u c e s a n e l e c t r i c a l
c u r r e n t . The p l a t e i s f l i p p e d 1 8 0 d e g r e e s e v e r y s e c o n d t o
a s s u r e even d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 3 . 8 w a t t s .
MultiDrobe Bus ExDeriments

N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h e n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -
m e t e r m e a s u r e s t h e v a r i o u s components (atoms and m o l e c u l e s )
of t h e a t m o s p h e r e s and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m
a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0 km ( 6 0 0 m i . ) t o 1 3 0 km ( 8 0 m i . ) , e m p h a s i z i n g
t h e a l t i t u d e r a n g e 1 5 0 t o 1 2 0 km (90 t o 7 5 m i . ) which n e i t h e r
t h e O r b i t e r n o r t h e f o u r p r o b e s reach. (The Bus i s e x p e c t e d
t o b u r n up a t a n a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 1 2 0 km ( 7 5 m i . ) .

From t h e i n s t r u m e n t d a t a , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n d e r i v e t h e
h e i g h t o f the t u r b o p a u s e ( t h e r e g i o n above w h i c h a t m o s p h e r i c
g a s e s do n o t m i x ) , f i n d t h e r a t i o s of a t m o s p h e r i c i s o t o p e s
and d e r i v e eddy d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s (mathematical e x p r e s -
s i o n s d e s c r i b i n g how r a p i d l y t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s m i x e d ) . T h e
c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ' s maximum d e n s i t y c a n a l s o b e
d e t e r m i n e d , as w e l l a s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e x o s p h e r e , t h e
o u t e r m o s t f r i n g e of Venus ' a t m o s p h e r e .

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The i n s t r u m e n t i o n i z e s a t m o s p h e r i c components up t o 4 6
a t o m i c mass (hydrogen t o i r o n ) by e l e c t r o n bombardment. It
t h e n s e p a r a t e s them a c c o r d i n g t o their masses by how f a r
t h e y a r e d e f l e c t e d by a m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The i n s t r u m e n t f e a -
t u r e s a f a s t d a t a s a m p l i n g and t e l e m e t e r i n g c a p a c i - t y t o cope
w i t h t h e 3 km-per-second ( 1 1 0 mph) Bus d e s c e n t s p e e d . One
day b e f o r e Venus e n c o u n t e r , a known amount of g a s i s r e l e a s e d
i n t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and measurement, t o b e
used as a r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s p e c t r o m e t e r ' s s e n s i t i v i t y .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 6 . 8 kg ( 1 5 l b . ) and u s e s 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r

m e a s u r e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d i o n s i n t h e u p p e r Venus a t m o s p h e r e from 1 2 0 km ( 7 5
m i . ) up t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e .

(See O r b i t e r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r f o r i n s t r u m e n t
description.)

M u l t i p r o b e Radio S c i e n c e E x p e r i m e n t s

--
D i f f e r e n t i a l Long B a s e l i n e I n t e r f e r o m e t r y This
i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n o f Venus'
winds a s t h e f o u r p r o b e s d e s c e n d t h r o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
By comparing t h e d e s c e n t p a t h s o f t h e p r o b e s w i t h s i m u l -
t a n e o u s measurements o f a t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s -
s u r e from p r o b e s e n s o r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n a s s e m b l e a b e t t e r
model of Venus' atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
r e g a r d t o wind s p e e d s .
While t h e f o u r p r o b e s d e s c e n d t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e Bus
f o l l o w s a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y i n t h e upper atmosphere.
T h i s t r a j e c t o r y serves as a reference. Probe v e l o c i t i e s
c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d and measured v e r y a c c u r a t e l y r e l a t i v e
t h e b u s , and a b s o l u t e p r o b e v e l o c i t i e s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
from t h e known b u s v e l o c i t y . I n v e s t i g a t o r s assume d e v i a -
t i o n s of t h e p r o b e t r a j e c t o r i e s from a n a t m o s p h e r e l e s s
m a t h e m a t i c a l model a r e c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c w i n d s .

Two w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d D S N s t a t i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a c k i n g
a l l s p a c e c r a f t determine t h a t p a r t of t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
a l o n g t h e Earth-Venus l i n e of s i g h t . D i f f e r e n t i a l l o n g - b a s e d
i n t e r f e r o m e t r y u s e s t h r e e DSN s t a t i o n s t o f i n d t h e o t h e r two
components o f t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r t o t r i a n g u l a t e o r g e t a
" f i x 1 ' i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s on t h e c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g p a t h s
of t h e f a l l i n g p r o b e s .

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Atmospheric P r o p a g a t i o n Experiment -- T h i s investiga-

t i o n a t t e m p t s t o g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t Venus' surface
and a t m o s p h e r e by t h e e f f e c t s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e on t h e
p r o b e s ' r a d i o s i g n a l s . A s t h e probes descend, P i o n e e r
s c i e n t i s t s s e a r c h f o r e v i d e n c e o f a v e r y weak s i g n a l t h a t
t r a v e l s downward, r e f l e c t s o f f t h e s u r f a c e of Venus and
t h e n bounces t o E a r t h . Such a d i s t o r t e d s i g n a l i s Doppler
s h i f t e d away from t h e p r o b e s i g n a l of 2 , 3 0 0 MHz ( m i l l i o n
H e r t z ) by l e s s t h a n Hz and i s a l m o s t u n d e t e c t a b l e . I f t h i s
s i g n a l i s discovered, it should r e v e a l information about
t h e Venusian s u r f a c e -- h e n c e , a i d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e r a d a r mapping d a t a .

The d e s c e n d i n g p r o b e s a l s o r e v e a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e a t m o s p h e r e . P r o b e r a d i o s i g n a l s weaken w i t h d e c r e a s i n g
a l t i t u d e due t o C 0 2 a b s o r p t i o n , a t m o s p h e r e r e f r a c t i o n and
a d d i t i o n a l a b s o r p t i o n from c l o u d l a y e r s o r some o t h e r ab-
s o r b e r . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e p r o b e s i g n a l s s h o u l d r e v e a l
t h e unknown a b s o r b e r : i f i t i s a c l o u d l a y e r , i n v e s t i g a t o r s
c a n measure t h e h e i g h t and t h i c k n e s s of t h e l a y e r .

A t m o s p h e r i c T u r b u l e n c e E x p e r i m e n t s -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s t u d i e s t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e , t h u s
a i d i n g i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e dynamics of Venus' atmos-
phere circulation. A s a l l f o u r probes descend t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
t h e i r t r a n s m i t t i n g s i g n a l s w i l l l i k e l y be d i s t o r t e d by s m a l l
r e g i o n s of t u r b u l e n c e c a u s e d by t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s . D S N r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n s on E a r t h w i l l
a n a l y z e t h e s i g n a l s f o r d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c t u r -
b u l e n c e . The p r o b e d a t a complements a t m o s p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e
d a t a above 35 km ( 2 1 m i . ) t a k e n by t h e O r b i t e r .

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P R I N C I P A L I N V E S T I G A T O R S AND S C I E N T I F I C INSTRUMENTS

Orbiter Spacecraft

D r . James Hansen Cloud P o l a r i m e t e r , Imaging

Goddard I n s t i t u t e of S p a c e Experiment
Studies

Dr. Gordon P e t t e n g i l l Radar Mapper

(Team Leader) , Massachusetts
I n s ti t u t e of Technology

D r . Fredric Taylor T e m p e r a t u r e Sounding

J e t Propulsion Laboratory I n f r a r e d Radiometer

D r . Ian S t e w a r t Ultraviolet Spectrometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o

D r . Hasso Niemann N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

Harry T a y l o r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . J o h n Wolfe S o l a r Wind/Plasma A n a l y z e r
A m e s Research C e n t e r

Dr. Christopher R u s s e l l Magnetometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
L o s Angeles

D r . Frederick Scarf E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector

TRW, I n c .

L a r r y Brace E l e c t r o n Temperature Probe

Goddard Space F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . W i l l i a m Knudsen Retarding P o t e n t i a l Analyzer

Lockheed M i s s i l e s and
Space C o .

Dr. W. D. Evans G a m m a Ray B u r s t Detector

Los A l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c
Laboratory

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O r b i t e r Radio S c i e n c e

Radio s c i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t s measure i n t e r a c t i o n of
s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l s w i t h Venus and i t s a t m o s p h e r e ,
u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r and f i v e p r o b e c r a f t a s i n s t r u m e n t s .
D r . Gordon P e t t e n g i l l , M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Tech-
nology, i s team l e a d e r .

Dr. Roger P h i l l i p s Venus I n t e r n a l D e n s i t y

J e t Propulsion Laboratory Distribution
Dr. I . I . Shapiro C e l e s t i a l Mechanics
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e
of Technology

D r . Arvydas K l i o r e Radio O c c u l t a t i o n
J e t Propulsion Laboratory

D r . Thomas C r o f t Radio O c c u l t a t i o n
S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e

D r . R i c h a r d Woo Atmospheric and S o l a r Corona

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

D r . Gerald Keating Atmospheric Drag

Langley Research C e n t e r

Multiprobe S p a c e c r a f t (Large Probe)

.
D r J o h n Hoffman
U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s , D a l l a s
Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

Vance Oyama G a s Chromatograph

Ames Research C e n t e r

Alvin Seiff Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e

Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

D r . M a r t i n Tomasko S o l a r Flux Radiometer

U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a

R o b e r t B o e se I n f r a r e d Radiometer
Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

Dr. Robert Knollenberg Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e

P a r t i c l e Measuring Systems, I n c . Spectrometer
D r . B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer ( c l o u d s e n s o r )
Ames Research C e n t e r

Dr. J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer

U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s -more-
 -119-

M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t (Three S m a l l P r o b e s )

Alvin S e i f f Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e
Ames Research C e n t e r

D r . B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer
A m e s Research C e n t e r

Dr. J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer

U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s
Dr. V e r n e r Suomi N e t Flux R a d i o m e t e r
U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n

M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t (Bus)
Dr. Ulf von Zahn Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
U n i v e r s i t y of Bonn,
W e s t Germany
Harry Taylor Ion M a s s Spectrometer
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

M u l t i p r o b e Radio S c i e n c e ( A l l Probes)
D r . C h a r l e s C . Counselman D i f f e r e n t i a l Long-Baseline
M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of I n t e f erometry
Technology
Dr. Thomas C r o f t Atmospheric A t t e n u a t i o n
S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e
D r . R i c h a r d Woo Atmospheric T u r b u l e n c e
J e t Propulsion Laboratory

Interdisciplinary Scientists

I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n t i s t s h a v e b e e n selected f o r
b o t h t h e M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r M i s s i o n s t o p r o v i d e a s s i s -
t a n c e i n a n a l y s e s of t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e . They are:

Dr. S i e g f r i e d Bauer
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . Thomas Donahue
U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan

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D r . R i c h a r d Goody
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y

D r . Donald Hunten
U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a

D r . James P o l l a c k
A m e s Research C e n t e r

Nelson S p e n c e r
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

H a r o l d Masursky
U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y

D r . George M c G i l l
U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s

D r . Andrew Nagy
U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan

D r . Gerald Schubert
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s

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M I S S I O N OPERATIONS

F o r Pioneer Venus, m i s s i o n c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l be o p e r a t -
i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t w o d i f f e r e n t s p a c e c r a f t on t w o d i f f e r e n t
m i s s i o n s . The O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e w e r e l a u n c h e d w i t h i n
t h r e e months of e a c h o t h e r to a r r i v e a t t h e p l a n e t less
t h a n a week a p a r t .
During t h e Venus e n c o u n t e r p e r i o d , l a u n c h o f t h e
f o u r p r o b e s from t h e t r a n s p o r t e r Bus t o t h e i r a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y p o i n t s w i l l be a c c o m p l i s h e d ; t h e Bus w i l l be r e t a r -
g e t e d f o r i t s e n t r y : t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be p l a c e d on i t s
24-hour, h i g h - i n c l i n a t i o n , h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t . Five
d a y s a f t e r O r b i t e r e n c o u n t e r , p r o b e e n t r y w i l l be moni-
t o r e d , and t h e c r i t i c a l p r o b e d a t a r e c e i v e d and s t o r e d
for later analysis.

With c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e M u l t i p r o b e m i s s i o n - - a f t e r i m -
p a c t o f t h e p r o b e s on t h e s u r f a c e and burn-up of t h e Bus
controllers w i l l continue t o operate the Orbiter f o r t h e
e i g h t months of i t s p r i m a r y m i s s i o n . C o n t r o l l e r s may make
s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e o r b i t d u r i n g t h i s e x t e n d e d
mission period.

S i n c e a l l P i o n e e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y unautomated s p a c e -
c r a f t , m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s o f t e n r e q u i r e 24-hour-a-day
c o n t r o l and c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s and p l a n n i n g i n s h o r t t i m e
spans. Ground-controlled s p a c e c r a f t provide f l e x i b i l i t y
f o r c h a n g i n g p l a n s and o b j e c t i v e s . They a l s o o f f e r econ-
omies i n s p a c e c r a f t d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus c o n t r o l and s p a c e c r a f t o p e r a t i o n s w i l l
be a t t h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r ( P M O C ) , Ames
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . , from t h e t i m e b o t h
s p a c e c r a f t s e p a r a t e from t h e i r l a u n c h v e h i c l e s t h r o u g h
t h e end o f t h e O r b i t e r m i s s i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus o p e r a t i o n s w i l l be made somewhat more

complex by t h e c o n t i n u e d o p e r a t i o n a t t h e PMOC o f t h e
p r e v i o u s l y launched Pioneer s p a c e c r a f t . Pioneers 6 t o 9
c o n t i n u e t o c i r c l e t h e Sun and r e t u r n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y d a t a .
Pioneer 1 0 continues t o e n t e r p r e v i o u s l y unexplored
s p a c e on i t s way o u t of t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ( i t i s now ap-
p r a c h i n g Uranus' o r b i t ) . P i o n e e r 11 i s d e s c e n d i n g back
toward t h e e c l i p t i c and man's f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h S a t u r n
i n September 1 9 7 9 .

The PMOC i s t h e c e n t r a l m i s s i o n c o n t r o l c e n t e r . It
i s u n d e r o p e r a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r .
T h i s area will o r i g i n a t e a l l command i n f o r m a t i o n and re-
ceive and d i s p l a y t e l e m e t r y d a t a r e q u i r e d f o r m i s s i o n con-
t r o l . Although a l l commands are o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e PMOC,
emergency p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e backup command g e n e r a t i o n a t
t h e DSN s t a t i o n s , i f necessary.
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The PMOC h a s computing c a p a b i l i t y b o t h f o r commanding

t h e two s p a c e c r a f t and f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e d a t a s t r e a m
a s it i s r e c e i v e d from t h e D S N s t a t i o n s f o r u s e by f l i g h t
c o n t r o l l e r s monitoring s p a c e c r a f t performance.

S e v e r a l g r o u p s o f s p e c i a l i s t s d i r e c t and s u p p o r t l a u n c h
i n t e r p l a n e t a r y , o r b i t a l and a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y o p e r a t i o n s .
T h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s team c o n s i s t s o f p e r -
s o n n e l from government and c o n t r a c t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and
o p e r a t e s u n d e r c o n t r o l of t h e P r o j e c t Manager and M i s s i o n
O p e r a t i o n s System Manager.

Because P i o n e e r Venus i n c l u d e s two m i s s i o n s , t w o

f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s g r o u p s have been named f o r each--an O r -
b i t e r g r o u p and a M u l t i p r o b e g r o u p . Both g r o u p s have t h e
same e l e m e n t s . The S c i e n c e A n a l y s i s Team i n each g r o u p
i s composed o f s c i e n c e o p e r a t i o n s p e o p l e from t h e p r o j e c t
and t h e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( o r t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s )
f o r e a c h e x p e r i m e n t on b o a r d t h e O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e .
They d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a t u s o f e a c h s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t ,
and f o r m u l a t e command s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s .

Both g r o u p s a l s o have S p a c e c r a f t Performance Analy-

s i s t e a m s , made up of e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s on s p a c e -
c r a f t s y s t e m s s u c h as: communications, t h e r m a l c o n t r o l
and power. These teams a n a l y z e and e v a l u a t e s p a c e c r a f t
p e r f o r m a n c e and p r e d i c t s p a c e c r a f t r e s p o n s e s t o commands.

A t h i r d organization serves both spacecraft. T h i s is

t h e N a v i g a t i o n and Maneuvers g r o u p , which h a n d l e s space-
c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n i n s p a c e ; o r b i t a l i n j e c -
t i o n , t r i m , and changes and p r o b e - t a r g e t i n g and l a u n c h .
T h i s g r o u p is made up o f e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s i n
spacecraft o r i e n t a t i o n geometry, t r a j e c t o r i e s , and maneu-
vers. The J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , under c o n t r a c t t o
Ames, does computer a n a l y s i s of D S N t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
t o determine s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s .
The M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s Team a l s o i n c l u d e s a l a u n c h
s p e c i a l i s t , a hardware e x p e r t and a computer s y s t e m s de-
velopment and o p e r a t i o n s g r o u p .

S u p p o r t g r o u p s a t Ames and o t h e r 3ASA f a c i l i t i e s a s -

s i s t t h e m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s team t o p e r f o r m computer s o f t y a r e
development, m i s s i o n c o n t r o l and o f f - l i n e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g .

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DATA RETURN, COMMAND AND TRACKING

N A S A ' s Deep Space Network ( D S N ) w i l l t r a c k and re-

c e i v e d a t a d i r e c t l y from a l l s i x P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t
( t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Bus and t h e f o u r p r o b e s ) . Commands a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d t o s p a c e c r a f t from t h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n Opera-
t i o n s C o n t r o l C e n t e r t h r o u g h t h e DSN s t a t i o n s .

T r a c k i n g w i l l b e by t h e DSN's g l o b a l network o f 2 6 - m
( 8 5 - f t . ) and h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s . The 6 4 s
w i l l be used d u r i n g c r i t i c a l p h a s e s of t h e m i s s i o n s u c h a s
r e o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y c o r r e c t i o n s , o r b i t i n s e r t i o n , and
e n t r y of t h e f o u r p r o b e s i n t o Venus' atmosphere -- as w e l l
a s f o r s p e c i a l s c i e n c e e v e n t s such a s o c c u l t a t i o n . A t t h e
end o f t h e O r b i t e r p r i m a r y m i s s i o n , Venus w i l l be 2 0 3
m i l l i o n km ( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r from E a r t h t h a n a t
Orbiter arrival.

During t h e c r i t i c a l two-hour p e r i o d o f a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y by t h e Bus and f l i g h t s down t o t h e s u r f a c e by t h e
f o u r p r o b e s , b o t h t h e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s a t G o l d s t o n e ,
C a l i f . , and a t C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , w i l l be u s e d t o re-
c e i v e and r e c o r d Venus atmosphere d a t a , coming i n s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y from a l l f i v e p r o b e c r a f t .
The Deep Space N e t w o r k w i t h f a c i l i t i e s l o c a t e d a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 120-degree i n t e r v a l s a r o u n d t h e E a r t h , w i l l
s u p p o r t t h e P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t . The p r i m a r y m i s s i o n
o f t h e O r b i t e r i s 1 5 , m o n t h s : s i x months i n t r a n s i t and e i g h t
months i n o r b i t . A s t h e O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e " s e t " a t
one s t a t i o n due t o t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l r i s e
a t t h e n e x t one.

The D S N , o p e r a t e d by t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y
( J P L ) , P a s a d e n a , C a l i f . , h a s s i x 26-ml ( 8 5 - f t . ) p a r a b o l i c - r e -
f l e c t o r d i s h antennas, t w o a t Goldstone, i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s
Mojave D e s e r t ; two a t Madrid, S p a i n and t w o a t C a n b e r r a .
T h e r e are a l s o t h r e e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s , one e a c h a t Gold-
s t o n e , Madrid and C a n b e r r a .

Radio s c i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l estimate wind s p e e d s

and d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e Venus atmosphere by computinq t h e
t h e e x a c t f l i g h t p a t h s of t h e f o u r probes u s i n g DSN d a t a .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e G o l d s t o n e and C a n b e r r a s t a t i o n s , two
NASA STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam and S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l sup-
p o r t t h i s e f f o r t . Radio i n t e r f e r o m e t r y i n a t r i a n g u l a t i o n
p r o c e s s w i l l be used i n t h i s c o m p u t a t i o n . (See M u l t i p r o b e
E x p e r i m e n t s - Radio S c i e n c e . )

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PIONEER VENUS COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
GOLDSTONE,
DEEP SPACE MADRID,
NETWORK (DSN)

SANTIAGO, SPACECRAFT G U ~ M , CANBERRA,

TRACKING A N D D A T A STDN DSN
NETWORK (STDN)
 -125-

At all times, incoming telemetry data from the spacecraft

is formatted at DSN stations for high-speed transmission to
Ames computers. These computers will check for unexpected or
critical changes in data and provide information for analysis
by specialists in the spacecraft, experiments and ground sys-
tem. Their analyses will be used for spacecraft control. Out-
going commands are verified by Ames computers and sent to DSN
stations where they are reverified by computer and then trans-
mitted. Navigation data and trajectory computations for the
Pioneer spacecraft are furnished by JPL's Navigation System
Section under contract to Ames. They do computer analysis of
DSN Doppler and range tracking information to provide spacecraft
trajectories for calculation of Venus orbit and planetary
targeting.
For Pioneer Venus, the DSN has made a number of special
modifications. Added receivers are needed to handle the five
different data streams at once of the four probes and Bus.
Special wideband recorders are required to cope with the large
frequency shifts which will happen with the changes in velocity
at entry -- and atmospheric effects on signal propagation as
the probes descend to Venus' surface. To save all of the one-
change-only data, due to variances outside the predicted range
of frequency changes, the DSN has provided special equipment to
automatically tune the receivers to the signal transmitted by
each probe.
Incoming telemetry is formatted at DSN stations for trans-
mission via NASA Communications System (NASCOM) high-speed cir-
cuits to the pioneer Mission Computing Center (PMCC). There it
is processed to supply various types of real time display infor-
mation on spacecraft and instrument status.
In addition to use of telemetry for providing mission
operations and quick-look data, all telemetry will be processed
at the PMCC to provide data records for the individual experi-
menters in the form of Experimenter Data Records. Provided to
principal investigators, it becomes the raw material for use by
them in producing mission findings.
For all of NASA's unmanned missions in deep space, the DSN
provides tracking information on course and direction of the
flight, velocity and range from Earth. Its global stations
also receive engineering and science telemetry and send com-
mands. All communications links are in S-band frequency (though
Venus Orbiter occultation experiments are X-band carrier only).
No telemetry data are sent.
DSN stations relay spacecraft Doppler tracking to JPL. High
speed data links allow real time transmission of all data from
spacecraft directly to the PMCC at Ames. Throughout the mission,
scientific data recorded on magnetic tape will be sent from DSN
stations to Ames for processing.

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PIONEER VENUS TEAM

NASA H e a d q u a r t e r s

Dr. N o e l Hinners Associate Administrator

f o r Space S c i e n c e

Andrew J . S t o f a n Deputy Associate A d m i n i s -

t r a t o r f o r Space S c i e n c e

A. Thomas Young D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y Programs

Dr. Geoffrey A. Briggs Deputy D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y

Programs

Fred D . Kochendorf e r P i o n e e r Venus Program Manager

P a u l Tarver Deputy P i o n e e r Venus Program

Manager

Dr. R o b e r t E . Murphy P i o n e e r Venus Program

Scientist

John F. Yardley Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r f o r

Space T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Systems

J o s e p h B . Mahon D i r e c t o r , Expendable Launch

V e h i c l e Programs

F. Robert Schmidt Manager, A t l a s C e n t a u r

D r . W i l l i a m C. Schneider Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r f o r
S p a c e T r a c k i n g and D a t a
Systems

Arnold C . B e l c h e r Network O p e r a t i o n s

Maurice E . B i n k l e y Network S u p p o r t

A m e s Research C e n t e r

C . A. Syvertson Director

Dr. Dean R . Chapman Director o f A s t r o n a u t i c s

Charles F. H a l l P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

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Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ( c o n t ' d . )
Dr. Lawrence C o l i n P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t
Scientist
Ralph W . H o l t z c l a w S p a c e c r a f t Systems Manager

J o e l Sperans Experiment S y s t e m s Manager

Robert U . H o f s t e t t e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s Manager

Henry Asch R e l i a b i l i t y and Q u a l i t y

Assurance
Ernest J. Iufer Magnetics

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

Dr. Bruce C . Murray Director

Richard B. M i l l e r T r a c k i n g and Data Systems

Manager

Eugene S . Burke, J r . S u p e r v i s o r , DSN O p e r a t i o n s

P l a n n i n g Group

L e w i s Research C e n t e r

Dr. J o h n McCarthy Director

Dr. Seymour C . H i m m e l Associate Director

Lawrence J . R o s s Chief, Vehicles Engineering

Division

C a r l B . Wentworth C h i e f , Program I n t e g r a t i o n
Division

Edwin Muckley Mission P r o j e c t Engineer

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Kennedy S p a c e C e n t e r

D r . Lee R. Scherer Director

Gerald D. G r i f f i n Deputy Director

D r . Walter J . Kapryan Director o f S p a c e V e h i c l e

Operations

George F . Page D i r e c t o r , Expendable V e h i c l e s

John D. Gossett Manager, C e n t a u r O p e r a t i o n s

Donald C . Sheppard Manager, S p a c e c r a f t and

Support Operations Division

C . A . Terhune Chief Engineer, A t l a s Centaur

Barry O l t o n KSC P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r f o r
P i o n e e r Venus

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o .

S . D. Dorfman P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

f o r Hughes

CONTRACTORS

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . ( P r i m e contractor) S p a c e c r a f t
S p a c e and Communications Group and Radar Mapper
E l Segundo, C a l i f .

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . D a t a Storage U n i t
D a t a Systems D i v i s i o n
Culver City, C a l i f .
General E l e c t r i c C o . Deceleration Modules
Philadelphia, Pa.

Motorola, I n c . Transponders
Phoenix, A r i z .

T h i o k o l Chemical C o . O r b i t I n s e r t i o n Motor
E l k t o n , Md.
B a l l B r o t h e r s R e s e a r c h Corp. S t a r Sensors
B o u l d e r , Colo.

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N o r t h r o p Corp. Thermal Louvers

L o s Angeles, C a l i f .

Frequency E l e c t r o n i c s , I n C . Stable Oscillators

N e w Hyde P a r k , N . Y .

General Electric C o . Nickel-Cadmium B a t t e r y C e l l s

Gainesville, Fla.

Eagle-Picher I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . Silver-Zinc Battery C e l l s

J o p l i n , Mo.

Spectrolab, Inc. S o l a r C e l l s and Covers

Sylmar, C a l i f .
A r c t u r n s Manufacturing C o . Pressure V e s s e l Forgings
Oxnard, C a l i f .

Newbrook Machine Corp. P r e s s u r e V e s s e l Machining

S i l v e r Creek, N.Y.

Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e Pressure V e s s e l Testing

San A n t o n i o , Texas

Siliconix, Inc. Input Buffers

Santa C l a r a , C a l i f .

U n i v e r s i t y of Texas a t L a r g e P r o b e N e u t r a l Mass
Dallas Spectrometer

Western Aerospace L a b o r a t o r i e s L a r g e and S m a l l Probe Atmos-

Gardena, C a l i f . phere S t r u c t u r e Instruments,
O r b i t e r P l a s m a Analyzer

Sys tron-Donner L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e

Concord, C a l i f . Accelerometers

U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a Large Probe Solar Flux

Tucson, A r i z . Radiometer S e n s o r

M a r t i n M a r i e t t a Corp. L a r g e Probe S o l a r F l u x
Denver, Colo. Radiometer E l e c t r o n i c s

B a l l B r o t h e r s R e s e a r c h Corp. Large P r o b e I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Boulder, Colo. and Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e
Spectrometer

TRW Systems Group L a r g e P r o b e G a s Chromatograph,

TRW, I n c . L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e Nephelo-
Redondo Beach, C a l i f . meters, O r b i t e r E l e c t r i c
F i e l d Detector

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U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n S m a l l P r o b e N e t Flux
Madison, W i s . Radiometer
Aiken I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . M u l t i p r o b e Bus and O r b i t e r
C o l l e g e P a r k , Md. I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r s

Lockheed Missiles and S p a c e Co. O r b i t e r Retarding P o t e n t i a l

Sunnyvale, C a l i f . Analyzer
IPW Orbiter Retarding P o t e n t i a l
F r e i b u r g , W e s t Germany Analyzer Sensor

U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o O r b i t e r Ultraviolet Spectrometer
Boulder, C o l o .

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a t O r b i t e r Magnetometer
L o s Angeles

Westinghouse, I n c . O r b i t e r Magnetometer
B a l t i m o r e , Md.

J e t Propulsion Laboratory O r b i t e r I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Pasadena, C a l i f .

M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s ti t u t e M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground
o f Techno l o g y Based R a d i o S c i e n c e
Cambridge, Mass. Experiments

P a r t i c l e Measuring S y s t e m s , I n c . L a r g e P r o b e Cloud P a r t i c l e
Boulder, C o l o . S i z e Spectrometer
DCA R e l i a b i l i t y L a b o r a t o r y E l e c t r o n i c P a r t s Procurement
Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . and S c r e e n i n g
Bendix F i e l d E n g i n e e r i n g Corp. Missions O p e r a t i o n s and
Sunnyvale, C a l i f . S o f t w a r e Development
G e n e r a l Dynamics Launch V e h i c l e s
Convair D i v i s i o n
San Diego, C a l i f .

L o s Alamos S c i e n t i f i c O r b i t e r G a m m a Ray B u r s t
Laboratory Detector
L o s A l a m o s , N .M.

Sandia Laboratories O r b i t e r Gamma R a y B u r s t

Albuquerque, N M .. Detector

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S a n t a Barbara Research
Center
Santa Barbara, C a l i f .
U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota
M i n n e a p o l i s , Minn.
U n i v e r s i t y of Bonn
Bonn, Germany
J e t Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, C a l i f .
SR I I n t e r na t i 0 na 1.
Menlo P a r k , C a l i f .
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O r b i t e r Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r
M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l Mass
Spectrometer
M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l Mass
S p e c t r ome t e r
M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground
Based R a d i o S c i e n c e
Experiments
M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r
Ground Based Radio S c i e n c e
Experiments
 -132-

VENUS STATISTICS

Orbital

Mean d i s t a n c e from Sun: .723 a s t r o n o m i c a l u-.... t s

1 0 8 . 2 m i l l i o n km
67.2 m i l l i o n m i .

I n c l i n a t i o n of o r b i t t o
p l a n e of e c l i p t i c : 3 . 3 degrees

Sidereal period (relative

t o stars): 225 E a r t h d a y s

Mean o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y : 1 2 6 , 1 8 0 km/hr
78,408 mph

C l o s e s t approach t o E a r t h : 4 2 m i l l i o n km
26 m i l l i o n m i .

Planetary

D i a m e t e r (solid surface) : 1 2 , 1 0 0 km
7,519 m i .

D i a m e t e r ( t o p of c l o u d s ) : 1 2 , 2 4 0 km
7,606 m i .

Mass: 0.815 E a r t h masses

Density: 5.26 gm/cm3

Axial rotation period 2 4 3 . 1 E a r t h days

(retrograde)

Rotation period, cloud tops: 4.0 E a r t h days (aPProx-)

(r e t r o g r a d e )

Length of s o l a r day: 116.8 E a r t h days

I n c l i n a t i o n of r o t a t i o n a x i s : 6.0 degrees

Surface atmospheric pressure: 9 5 atmospheres

9 , 6 1 6 kPa
1,396 p s i

Surface tempersture: 480 d e g r e e s C ( a p p r o x . )

9 0 0 d e g r e e s F. ( a p p r o x . )

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