Foundations

Definition
 Foundation is the lowest part of a structure which
provides a base for the super- structure proper.

Purpose of Foundation
 To distribute the weight of the structure over large
area son as to avoid over-loading of the soil
beneath.
 To load the sub-stratum evenly and thus prevent
unequal settlement.
 To take the structure deep into the ground and thus
increase its stability ,preventing overturning.
 Types Of Foundations
 Foundations can be broadly classified
into two types
 (i). Deep Foundations

 (ii). Shallow Foundations

 Again Deep Foundations can be classified

as Pile, Cofferdams and Caisson Fall
Foundations.
Shallow Foundations
 When the foundation is placed immediately beneath
the lowest part of the super structure, it is termed as
the Shallow Foundations.
 The object of this type of foundation is to distribute
the structural loads over a wide horizontal area at
shallow depth below the ground level.
 Various types of Shallow Foundations are as follows
 1.Spread Footings 2.Grillage Foundations
3. Eccentrically Loaded footings 4. Combined
Footings
5. Mat or Raft Foundations.
Spread Footings
 As the name suggests, in case of Spread Footings
,the base of the member transmitting load to the
soil is made wider so as to distribute the load over
wider area.
 The various Footings described under this category
are:
 (a). Wall Footings
 (b). Reinforced Concrete footings
 (c ). Inverted Arch Footings
 (d). Column Footings
Wall Footings
 It consists of several courses of bricks ,the
lowest course being usually twice the breadth
of the wall above
 The depth of each course is usually 10 cm.

 A bed of lean concrete of uniform thickness is

first spread over the entire length of the wall.
 The concrete bed provides a plain surface
upon which the masonry work for wall footing
can be started directly.
 Reinforced Concrete Footings
 In places where the wall are subjected to relatively
heavy loading and the bearing capacity of the soil
on which the wall footing is to rest is low.
 In such cases it is desirable to provide reinforced
concrete footing below the wall.
 This appreciably reduces the volume of masonry
work in footing and depth of bed concrete and as
such proves to be economical.
 A 7 to 8 cm. thick bed of lean concrete is provided
below the reinforced concrete footing to perform the
function of concrete bed block.
 Inverted Arch Footings
 This type of foundation used to be provided
for multistoried buildings in olden times.
 However with the advent of reinforced
cement concrete construction practice
,inverted ach construction is rarely done these
days.
 The advantage of inverted arch construction is
that in soft soils the depth of foundation is
greatly reduced.
 Column Footings (Independent)
 An Independent footing is one which is provided
under the column or other similar member for
distributing the concentrated loads in the form of
uniformly distributed load on the soil below.
 The footings may be square, rectangular or
circular in plan.
 Depending upon the load to be carried and the
bearing capacity of the soil, independent footing
may be of brick masonry, stonemasonry, R.C.C.,
steel Grillage Etc.
 (i). Footing for brick pillar: Square footing is the
simplest and most economical to be provided under
pillar ,columns.
 (ii). R.C.C Column Footings: On account of their low
bending strength the footings constructed with
brick ,stone or plain concrete require considerable
depth to be safe to carry loads. R.C.C column
footings may be circular, rectangular, or square in
plan.
 (iii). Stone Pillar Footings: This type of footing is
similar in construction to the footing for brick pillar.
In this case, the regular offsets on all the four sides of
pillar are slightly bugger in width and depth.
 Grillage Foundations
 When heavy structural loads from columns , piers or
stanchions are required to be transfer to a soil of low
bearing capacity ,grillage foundation is often found
to be lighter and economical.
 This avoids deep excavation and provides necessary
area at the base to reduce the intensity of pressure
within safe bearing capacity of soil.
 Grillage Foundations can be broadly divided in the
following two categories.
 1.Steel Grillage
 2.Timber Grillage
 Ecentrically Loaded Footings
 As far as practically , the foundation, should be so
shaped and proportions that the centre of gravity of
the imposed loads coincide with the CG of the
supporting area of base.
 However, when walls or columns are to be placed
close to property lines, the required supporting areas
of the base cannot be placed concentrically with the
imposed loads without overlapping the property
lines.
 Hence , different methods are adopted to ensure the
stability of wall or column without encroaching the
area outside the property line of building.
 Combined Footings
 A combined footing is so proportioned that the
centre of gravity of the supporting area is in line
with the CG of the two column loads.
 A Combined Footing may be rectangular or
trapezoidal in shape.
 Rectangular shape is only possible where loading
condition is such that either the two columns are
equally loaded or the interior column carries greater
load.
 On the other hand, in case of trapezoidal footing , no
such condition is applicable.
 Raft Foundation
 In made-up ground , soft clay or marshy site
having low value of bearing capacity, heavy
concentrated structural loads are generally
supported by providing raft foundation.
 It provides an economical solution to difficult
site conditions.
 Raft foundation consists of thick reinforced
concrete slab covering the entire area of the
bottom of the structure like a floor.
 Deep Foundations
 In case, the strata of good bearing capacity is not
available near the ground, the foundation of the
structure has to be taken deep with the purpose of
attaining a bearing stratum which is suitable in all
respects.
 The most common forms of construction pertaining
to Deep foundation are
 (a). Piles
 (b). Cofferdams
 (c ). Caissons
 Pile Foundations
 Pile Foundation is generally used when simple spread
foundation at a suitable depth is not possible either because
the stratum of required bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 Depending upon their function or use of Piles may be
classified into the following types.
 (i). Bearing Piles
 (ii). Friction Piles
 (iii).Sheet Piles
 (iv).Anchor Piles
 (v). Batter Piles
 (vi). Fender Piles
 (vii). Compaction Piles.
 Bearing Piles: Bearing Piles are those which are
driven into the ground until a hard stratum is
reached. Such piles act as pillars supporting the
super structure and transmitting the load down to the
level at which it can be safely borne by the ground.
 Friction Piles: When piles are required to be driven
at a side where the soil is weak or soft to
considerable depth, the load carried by a pile is
borne by the friction developed between the sides of
the pile and the surrounding ground.
 Sheet Piles: Sheet Piles differ from bearing or
friction piles in that they are rarely used to furnish
vertical support but are used to function as retaining
wall.
 Anchor Piles: When Piles are used to provide
anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling
walls are pulling forces, they are termed as Anchor
Piles.
 Batter Piles: When Piles are driven at an inclination
to resist large horizontal or inclined forces ,the piles
are termed as Batter Piles.
 Fender Piles: When the Piles are used to protect
concrete deck or other water front structures from
the abrasion or impact that may be caused from the
ships they are called Fender Piles.
 Compaction Piles: When Piles are driven in
grannular soil with the aim of increasing the bearing
capacity of the soil. These are Compaction Piles.
 Depending upon the materials used in their
manufacture, piles can be broadly classified as

 1. Timber Piles
 2. Concrete Piles

 3. Composite Piles

 4.Steel Piles.
 Cofferdams
 A Cofferdam May be defined as a temporary structure
constructed in a river or lake or any other water bearing
surface for excluding water from a given site to enable
the building operation to be performed on dry surface.
 Considering the materials used in construction ,
cofferdams may be divided into the following categories
 1. Earthen Cofferdam
 2. Rockfill Cofferdam
 3.Single Walled Cofferdam
 4.Double Walled Cofferdam
 5. Crib Cofferdam
 6.Cellular Cofferdam
 Earthen Cofferdam: It essentially consists of an earthen
embankment built around the area to be enclosed. It is
constructed in places where the depth of water is not much,
and the velocity of the current is very low.
 Rock fill Cofferdams: If the depth of water to be retained by
the embankment of cofferdam is of order 1.8 to 3 m. Stone
or rubble is used for the embankment .
 Single Walled Cofferdam: This type of Cofferdam is used in
places where the area to be enclosed is very small and the
depth of water is more.
 Double Walled Cofferdam: For Cofferdams required to
enclose larger areas in deep water, single walled type
becomes un economical as larger sections trussed struts
would be necessary to resist the water pressure.
 Crib Cofferdams: In deep waters where it is
difficult to penetrate the guide piles or sheet piles
into the hard bed below crib cofferdam is used.
 Cellular Coffer dam: This type of cofferdam is
mostly used for dewatering large areas in places
where the depth of water may be of the order of
18-21m.
The two common shapes of cellular cofferdam are
1. Circular type cellular Cofferdam

2. Diaphragm type cellular Cofferdam

 Caissons
 A Caisson may be defined as a water light structure
made up of wood, steel or reinforced concrete
constructed in connection with excavation for
foundation of bridges ,abuttments in rivers and
lakes.
 Types of Caissons
 1.Open Caisson
 2.Box Caisson
 3.Pneuamtic Caisson
Open caisson
Box caisson
Pneumatic caisson
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