DESIGN OF PYRAMID ROOFS BY J. S. TERRINGTON BSc, (Lond,), A.C.G.L, AMInst.CE, PUBLISHED BY CONCRETE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED 14 DARTMOUTH SIREET, LONDON, S.W.1First published (1,000 copies) . Reprinted (2,000 copies). . Reprinted . 7. A list of “CONCRETE SERIES” books is given on page 23. 1939 1957THE DESIGN OF PYRAMID ROOFS. A RooF consisting of plane surfaces triangular in shape and bounded on each side by a sloping ridge forming the intersection of the adjacent planes and cul- minating in a common vertex is known as a pyramid roof. Examples of such types of construction are shown in Fig. 1; a three-sided or triangular pyramid at (a), a square pyramid at (8), a hexagonal pyramid at (c), and an octagonal pyramid at (d). O44 Fig. 1. A section which cuts each ridge at the same distance from the vertex is, by definition, a normal cross section ; in general, a regular figure whose normal cross section has axes of symmetry at right angles to one another is desirable in this form of construction. Five- or ‘seven-sided figures are therefore unusual and, in fact, the number of sides is often limited to four. The axis of a pyramid may be defined as the line passing through the centre of all cross sections and the vertex. From the point of view of appearance the axis should be vertical. Stability. Investigation of the stability under vertical loading is more complex for the pyramid than for the arch, the dome, or the cone. In the cases of arches, the stifiness of the rib, by enabling it to resist a bending moment, and the strength of the material of which the rib is made, by enabling it to take thrust and shear, contribute to the stability of the whole structure. These effects, however, act only in the plane of the arch profile. In the case of domes, stability is maintained by direct thrust and tension and is not generally dependent upon the resistance of the shell to transverse bending or shear stresses. This is due to the curvature. in two directions. In this structure the direct stresses act in two planes at right angles. The conditions of stability for the cone are similar to those for the dome. With regard to the pyramid, however, stability is maintained by bending and direct thrust in two directions at right angles, and as the surface is a series of planes inclined at an angle to the vertical, simple thrust or tension alone is insufficient as explained in the following analysis. Proceeding to the investigation of the forces in the pyramid three general types should be studied.Case I.—A structure having no connection between the adjacent planes at the ridges, and supported vertically and horizontally along the lower edges as in Fig. 2. Case II—A structure connected at the ridges and supported vertically only along the lower edges as in Fig. 4. Case III.—A structure connected at the ridges but supported vertically at the lower corners only. Case I. Take the simplest case (I) and examine the forces acting on the structure. Consider the model shown in Fig. 2, consisting of four equal triangular faces made of cardboard. Let each triangular face be set up so that two edges are supported by the sloping edges of the other faces, whilst the third and lower side stands on a polished surface. The pyramid so formed will remain in position provided the lower edges are prevented from sliding outwards by placing a paper-weight at each lower edge to supply the required horizontal resistance. v ter omit lengh ad) be ig 8 Yo per omit lengh, Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Erect A.—Consider a horizontal cross section abed taken at any intermedi- ate level. Clearly, the weight of the portion of the pyramid above this level is transmitted across the section by means of a thrust ¢ per unit length acting normally to the section down the triangular faces. ‘These unit thrusts ¢ are proportional to the weight of the pyramid above the level under consideration and may be compared with the meridional thrust acting down lines of longitude in the dome. It follows, therefore, that these meridional or primary thrusts, as they may be termed, are proportional to the depth from the vertex and that they are a maximum of T per unit length at the bottom edge shown in Fig. 3 (which is a vertical section AA through the vertex Fig. 2), and that the sum of the vertical components V of the unit thrusts T are equal in magnitude to the total weight of the pyramid. The vertical reaction, V per unit length, provided by the polished surface in the illustration, together. with the horizontal thrust H per unit length, provided by the paper- weight, both V and H acting along the lower edges, can be resolved and their 4resultant must be equal and opposite to the thrust T per unit length acting down the sloping surface. It will be seen that there are no complications along the lower edges because the horizontal thrust H is taken directly all along its length. Errect B.—In addition to the primary thrust ¢, down the triangular sur- faces, there exists a corresponding “ secondary” thrust h (Fig. 4) at right angles to it, that is, parallel to the bottom edges. This secondary thrust exists at all levels and its magnitude is directly proportional to the primary thrust. The total horizontal thrust along the lower edge is equal to the total resistance pro- vided by the adjacent planes acting in a horizontal direction. As indicated above, this resistance + per unit width varies from zero at the vertex of the pyramid to a maximum at the bottom. : Under vertical loading, as all the sloping planes are subjected to the same horizontal thrust, it is evident that each plane is subjected to two forces at right angles to each other. An analogous condition is present in the forces acting in the cone, where, in addition to the ptimary lines of force acting down the surface from the vertex to the bottom, there are also horizontal ring compression forcés at all intermediate levels. Erect C.—The forces dealt with in the foregoing description are all pure thrusts, As the triangular panels are inclined at an angle to the vertical a com- ponent of the weight of each panel acts normally to the plane of the surface and causes bending as in a triangular slab supported on three edges. The manner in which triangular slabs bend and moments are induced are discussed later. At this stage it is sufficient to state that generally the magnitude of the bending moment must be calculated in two directions at right angles, that is, parallel to and at right angles to the lower edge. Any of the triangular surfaces has therefore to resist bending and direct thrust simultaneously in two directions at right angles in the plane of the surface. Case II. Considering now the second case in which the triangular sides are con- nected at the ridges, and no external horizontal restraint is provided along the lower edges which are simply supported vertically, the analysis shows the following. “5 *Errecr A.—The meridional thrust is present at all levels, exactly as described in Case I. The value of the meridional thrust ¢ at any intermediate depth y from the vertex (Fig. 5) in a pyramid whose sides make an angle « with the ver- tical is obtained by equating the vertical components of the unit thrusts ¢ to the weight of the portion above. Hence, if the pyramid weighs w per unit of area, the weight of the triangular portion above section ab is dav.ab.Ve per side iz = bvaay. tan. Also the vertical component of the thrusts ¢ along one side is tab, cos @ = tay tan a. cos a. y Whence tay tan a. cosa = $.w.2y.tan 2 O 4 y COS & ic “cos? a! and day, This expression gives the magnitude of the meridional thrust per unit width at any intermediate level. Errect B.—The “ secondary” horizontal thrust exists at all intermediate levels as for Case I irrespective of the connection between the triangular sides at the ridges, and therefore no direct horizontal tension is present at intermediate levels. This may be demonstrated by considering an elemental strip of length ds cut from the structure by two horizontal planes, one abcd at a depth y from the vertex and the other, efgh at a depth y + dy from the vertex (Fig. 6). The meridional thrust, f, is shown in connection with effect A to be = te. + ba 6The horizontal component of ¢, which is ¢, sin, causes outward thrust on the elemental portion, and the horizontal component of the supporting thrust t+ dt causes inward thrust. The outward force per strip ds =, sin a.ab 4, sin @.ay. tan a = hwy 2% coat gy tan. The inward force per strip ds = (¢ + di) sin wef = (¢-+ di) sin w.2(y + dy) tana, The net result of these two forces is an inward thrust over the width ds. This is resisted by two equal horizontal reactions in the planes at right angles. Let the magnitude of this horizontal thrust be # per unit width of strip. The horizontal compression induced in the adjacent planes is therefore hds = (t+ dt) sina.(y + dy) tana —¢ sinay tana hdy cosa h d[w, sing oma Pars ae tan | 7 that is, = dff, sin wy tana]= ato 2 2 Sf for un ve = uw. tanta, see aE 2) Le 2 w. tan? a, sec a.2y 23 wy tan® a, sec «, wy. tan? a oh This expression gives the magnitude of the “‘ secondary ” horizontal thrust h at any depth y from the vertex. ErrEct C.—This effect is described geterally in Case I, and consists of the stresses set up due to the triangular panels bending under loads normal to their surface. The panels of the pyramid must have stiffness and be capable of resisting bending and thrust unless the whole structure is framed by beams down the ridges and along the bottom edges, in which case the panels have to resist bending only. In regard to the unframed structure with which this discussion is con- cerned, the relative importance of the bending stresses to the direct thrust stresses depends on the angle which each panel makes with the horizontal. That is, if the surfaces are at a small inclination to the horizontal, the bending stresses induced are of greater importance than these stresses due to direct thrust ; similarly, if the planes are almost vertical the bending effect is small and the direct thrust stresses are predominant. ‘A pyramid built in reinforced concrete differs from the cardboard examples in that the joints at the ridges are monolithic and produce a restraint at the edges by their connection with the adjacent panels, Also, whatever form of support is provided along the lower edge, there must inevitably be some restraint to the bending of the panels along the lower edges. Apart from this question of restraint and continuity, which complicates most problems in reinforced con- crete design, the actual proportions of each triangle forming a panel influence the manner in which the panels tend, A consideration of the contours of equal deflection in panels of varying proportions should help to make this point clear. In an equilateral triangle these contours are of the form shown in Fig. 7, and their uniformity indicates that the bending effect is symmetrical and analogous to the conditions existing in a square panel. In an acute-angled triangle (Fig. 8), as would occur in a sharply pointed pyramid, the contours are more closely spaced near the longer sides, showing that most of the bending is taken horizontally from ridge to ridge. This con- dition may be compared with a long, narrow, rectangular panel where one side tends to zero, In long rectangular panels it has been shown that, ignoring the moments across the diagonals at the corners, most of the bending is taken across the shorter span, the distribution of the moments being approximately in accor- dance with the coefficients enunciated by Rankine, the French Government, and M. Pigeaud. At the opposite extreme is the case of a panel of an obtuse-angled triangle (Fig. 9) in which the base is very long in comparison with the sides. Here the 8contour lines of equal deflection are closer between the base on one side and the two ridges on the other, showing that most of the bending is taken in the sloping direction of the slab. It will be noted that the moments compared in these three cases are those that occur horizontally and in the sloping direction (that is up and down) of the slab. Actually in any triangular panel the distribution of maximum moments is undoubtedly across the corners as indicated in Fig. 10, particularly in triangular Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. panels which approximate to equilateral proportions. From the point of view of the moments, therefore, the reinforcement might more reasonably be disposed along the lines shown in Fig. 10, However, it is generally more convenient to reinforce the slab in two directions at right angles, that is, horizontally and up and down the slab as indicated in Fig. rr. Hence the necessity of estimating the moments and direct thrusts in these two directions at the point of maximum deflection, which is approximately situated at the “centre of pressure,” defined in the next paragraph. In regard to the moments to be resisted, the exact mathematical analysis of triangillar panels is too abstruse for practical design, but a fairly close estimate of the effective span may be made with sufficient accuracy. For the purpose of 9the calculation this effective span may be taken as the diameter of the inscribed circle which touches all three sides (Figs. 12, 13, 14), and for convenience the centre of this circle is referred to as the “ centre of pressure.” To sum up, therefore, at the point of maximum deflection or centre of pres- sure the following effects, all acting simultaneously, have to be calculated : (@) Across a horizontal section : (t) “ Meridional” direct thrust (#) [Effect A]. (2) Bending—base to vertex [Effect C]. (®) Across a vertical section : (x) “Secondary” direct thrust (#) [Effect B]. (2) Bending—tidge to ridge (Effect C}. VY A B Fig. 12. Fig. 13. YY) Fig. 14, To find the bending moments to be allowed for it is convenient to consider three conditions : 10() A panel approximating to an equilateral triangle (Fig. 12), (i) A panel with an obtuse angle at the vertex (Fig. 13), and (ii) A panel with an acute angle at the vertex (Fig. 14). ()) The conditions at the supports are an indeterminate fixity of the slab at the lower edge along the supporting beam and continuity in the horizontal direction along the ridges forming the side supports. Comparing these con- ditions with a square slab spanning in two directions at right angles, it is a funda- mental law that if two opposite edges are continuous supports and the other two edges are only partly fixed, the larger moment is taken in the direction of greater fixity. From this analogy the moment in the horizontal direction will tend to be greater than the moment in the sloping direction. For a panel approximating to an equilateral triangle (Fig. 12), the follow- ing moments may be taken to cover self weight and the effects of superimposed loading including wind, which actually causes a thrust on the windward side and an outward pull on the leeward side. In the horizontal direction oa M =w.sina.— 1 in the span and over the ridges. In the sloping direction, at right angles to AB, aanar M =w.sin wy (ii) Where a panel has an obtuse angle at the vertex (Fig. 13) practically all the bending is taken in the sloping direction. The following bending moment may therefore be taken to cover the effects of superimposed loading and self weight. In the sloping direction a da? M=wsina— ‘0 in the span and over the ridges. In the horizontal direction distribution steel, equal to about 20 per cent. of the main reinforcement, is required. (ii) In the other extreme case, where a panel has a particularly acute angle at the vertex (Fig. 14), practically all the moment is taken in the horizontal direction. ‘The following bending moment may therefore be taken to cover the effects of superimposed loading and self weight. In the horizontal direction . dt M = wsino— 12 in the span and over the ridges. In the sloping direction distribution steel equal to about 20 per cent. of the main reinforcement is required. IrErrecr D.—It was noted in the discussion of Case I that the conditions along the lower edges were simplified by assuming that the horizontal component H of the meridional thrust T is resisted by an external agency, namely, the paper-weight. Case II differs from Case I in that, not only are the sides con- nected at the ridges, but the lower edges are only supported vertically. The horizontal component of the meridional thrust along the lower edge is therefore not resisted directly. Accordingly the lower edge must be reinforced to take this horizontal thrust. (See also note on page 22.) where AB = 12Horizontal bending is also induced along the lower edges, and the magnitudes of the moments are: AB? In the span: M=H x 5 24 ABt = V. tang A 24 w Y¥ (2Y tan o)® =. tan oo 2 cos & 24 w At the corners: M=H x= Case III. Considering now the third case in which the triangular sides are linked down the ridges and the only supports provided are vertical reactions at the corners, the various effects may be dealt with as before. Errect A.—The meridional thrust is operative as in the previous conditions, but is increased and decreased at certain levels due to Effect D as explained later. Errect B—The “ secondary” horizontal thrust is analysed in the same way as for Case II, but is increased and decreased in a similar fashion to Effect A. Errect C.—The way in which the panels bend is simplified due to the fact that no support is afforded along the lower edges. At any depth y from the vertex, the bending moment to cover superimposed load and self weight may be taken as (zy tan a)? 12 ‘w. sin a: = @y9 tanta, sina. Errecr D.—As the lower edges are not subjected to any restraint and the reactions are taken vertically at the corners, the sides act as girders spanning from corner to corner, which carry the load represented by the meridional thrust of T per unit length along the lower edges as indicated in Fig. 16. If the material of which the panels are made is homogeneous and not, for example, reinforced concrete, the principal stresses are distributed as shown in Fig. 16. The neutral axis may then be about half way up the sides. Above this 13level compressive forces, additional to those due to the effects previously described, are developed; and below this level, tension occurs and tends to reduce the compression forces referred to. This additional compression or tension varies according to the level above or below the neutral axis. If the material is reinforced concrete, a band of steel will be placed along the lower edges AB, BC, etc., as in a reinforced beam, and the height of the neutral axis can only be guessed, due to the triangular shape of the beam. This tension steel to complete the girder action which actually resists the vertical _ loading is distinct rom the reinforcement required to take the horizontal thrust és Bineipal compressive stresses. Principal tensile stresses Fig. 16. H, which was described under Case II, Effect D. Accordingly reinforcement in the base is required for these two effects in Case III. Shear forces at right angles to AB are inseparable from the function that the panel has to perform ; these are greatest along the ridges AV, BV, etc., and amount to a value of R (Fig. 16) given by 2R cosf = T x AB. The foregoing effects are involved in the statics of Case III. ‘The total load on the support at each corner of the roof is clearly one-quarter of the total weight of the roof and superimposed load. Example. Design a square pyramid in which the base is 30 ft. by 3o ft. and the height. from the base to the apex 16 ft. (Fig. 17). The length of the side VE of the sloping plane is Vi5? + 16? = V48r = 22 ft. 14Assume that the thickness of the slab is 4 in. From practical considerations it would not be advisable to have a thinner slab. The weight w of the slab together with covering (if any) and superload (wind, snow, etc.) may be taken as about 1 owt, per square foot. Draw one triangular panel to scale and inscribe a circle touching all sides (Fig. 18). Then tan f = }$ 682 and tana = 7} 0-938, cB = 34° 20" and p = 55° 40’. r= AES “2 15-0 ft. r=2x tan 2 = 1570 X 0-528 79 ft. and d= 15-8 ft. OV = 22-1 = 22— 79 = 147 ft, The vertical height VO, or (Fig. 19) from the vertex to the centre of pres- sure is r OV. cosa = 14:1 x 44 = 10-95 ft. Errect A—The average meridional thrust (é) across the section ab is wy _ m2 costa 2 Errect B.—The magnitude of the “secondary” horizontal thrust along ab is = 1085 Ib, per lineal foot. wy. tanta 112 X 10-25 x (0-938)? xoro Ib. per lineal foot. Errecr-C.—The triangular panels in this example are approximately equi- lateral. The formulz stated for condition (i) (Fig. 12) are therefore adopted. The bending moment in the sloping direction @ =m sina gt = 172,558", 22) 18 = 12,700 in-Ib. The bending moment in the horizontal direction a = sin a ge =mB5". = 14,300 inlb. Having obtained the thrusts and bending moments at the centre of pressure, the stresses in the slab may be found as follows. 16 12Stresses in the Slab. Across section ab Meridional thrust ¢ — 1085 1b. per lineal foot. Moment across ab = 12,700 in-Ib. 875 in, (Fig. 20). Overall depth of slab = 4 in,; effective depth d = Eccentricity of thrust = Fig. 20. Where this eccentricity factor e, is greater than 1-6 the stresses are ae as for pure bending, adding to the maximum compressive stress so obtained won due to direct thrust and subtracting from the tensile stress A+ = M___ 12,700 Hence for pure bending Q = 575 = S75, = 128, and, for a limiting 12 x (28738 stress of 18,000 Ib. per square inch in the steel, and m= 18, m, = 0-42; a = 0-86; lever arm = 086 x 2°875 = 247 in. = 5150 “18,000 centres give 0-296 sq. in. Area of tensile steel required = 0286 sq. in. Three-cighth-inch bars at 434 The depth of the neutral axisMaximum compressive stress due to bending 20 _2= 5150 ~ Gn ex TaT _ Compressive stress due to direct thrust ps 1085 a Ant in xox), (Gaxra ~ Total maximum compressive stress 765 Tensile stress in steel due to bending = 5150 = 38 7,400 Deduct for direct thrust SS = 990 am © 0296 4 2H Stress in steel 6,410 (lb. per square inch) Stresses across the section at right angles to ab. Secondary thrust = toro Ib, per foot run. Moment at right angles to ab = 14,300 in.Ib. per foot. Overall depth = 4 in. ; effective depth d = 3f in. (Fig. 21): a and, for a limiting stress of 18,000 Ib. per square inch in the steel and m = 18, ny=040; a,=1— 24° — 0867; lever arm = 0867 X 3} = 282 in, Total tension = total compression = . 14300 _ 5070 Ib. Area of tensile steel required = 2°79 — o-282 sq, in. 38,000 8Three-eighth-inch bars at 4}-in. centres give 0-296 sq. in. Depth of neutral axis = = m d = 0-40 X 3:25 = 13 in. Maximum compressive stress due to bending (ib. per square inch) 2C _ 2X 5070 ——— = 6 in X13 — Compressive stress due to direct thrust T Toro 49 = fm tin (0296 x 18) + AX TS) Total maximum compressive stress Tensile stress in steel due to bending — 5970 ae = 17,100 Deduct for direct thrust - Tr ba = = 88 At 0296 + mm Stress in steel Errect D.—The tension P along the lower edge = secu ->: =? 50124 Se = 17,350 Ib. The bending moment on the span = seca 96 _ 312 22 =r = 43,400 ft-Ib. = 520,800 in-Ib. ‘The bending moment at the corners = tS seca 6 112. 22 =e = 86,800 ft.-Ib. = 1,041,600 in.-Ib. 19In a similar manner to the stresses in the slab, the stresses along the lower edges are largely due to bending and not to the direct force, which in these lower edges is tension. Accordingly the stresses are obtained as for pure bending, and 7-7; is subtracted from the maximum compressive stress so obtained and Am bn Tis added to the tensile stress, 442 mm If the rib is made to project inside the slab, the latter at mid-span is of no assistance to form an L-beam, Consequently equal steel is required on both faces. At the corners, the slab, together with the projection of the rib, forms an L-beam, and the main tensile steel is placed on the inside to take the negative moment. Let the rib be 9 in, wide and project 15 in. At mid-span, the main tensile steel, say three r-in. bars, is placed on the outside and an equivalent area of steel is placed in the rib, that is, on the inside. The approximate distance between the centre lines of the reinforcement is 19 — 3 = x6 in, and the moment of resistance, ignoring the concrete in compression, is 3 X 0-785 X 18,000 X 16 = 678,000 in.-Ib. At the corners the main tensile steel is placed in the rib, that is, on the inside. Here the L-beam effect is realised. The overall depth is 19 in. ; effec- tive depth = 16} in.; lever arm 16} — $= 144 in. Using six r-in. bars, the moment of resistance is 6 X 0-785 X 18,000 X 144 = 1,230,000 in.-Ib. The additional stress in the main steel due to the direct tension is a m At the middle of the span the steel-beam theory is adopted because the concrete in the rib is insufficient to take the compression without being overstressed. The term - must logically be taken as 2-353. A, the tensile steel area, is, of course, also 2-355. The additional tensile stress in the tensile steel at mid-span is therefore 17,350 2355 + 2355 The tensile stress due to bending is 18,000 x 520820 _ 13.800 Ib. per 7000 % 78,000 731800 TP. square inch. At mid-span the combined stress in the tensile steel due to bending and direct tension is therefore 13,800 ++ 3600 = 17,400 Ib. per square inch. At the comers the effective area includes the slab in the compression flange for a width of 4 x 4 in. +9 in. = 25 in, Also m is approximately 4 in., hence sh ee ac, nas x4 er eer = 3600 Ib. per square inch. 20