An Integrated Grounding Practice for Digital Systems Neil D. Ames, Member, IEEE, Earl F. Montgomery, and James S. Leak, Member, IEEE Abstract—The paper discusses the challenges encountered fm the design of groonding systems for digital systems which meet both the requirements of the National Electrical Code (NEC) {1}, andthe” equipment manufacturer's site planning ‘manuals and instalation Instructions. The paper point out the NEC requirements and the inconsistencies between the NEC and the manufacturer's requirement. An integrated grounding Practice Is deseribed which can be followed by the equipment ‘manufacturers, enginering and construction ‘companies, and process and manafacturing companies. 1 InrRopucTion ‘UCH OF THE information available on the subject of grounding of digital systems js lacking in detail 3s 9 ‘what the NEC requirements ae that aply tothe grounding of digital systems. In addition, very lite guidance is available on how to integrate the signal common and shield into the overall, ‘grounding scheme. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, ‘wold, First, the paper will describe and explain the NEC re- quirements that apply to the grounding of digital systems ‘The paper discusses some of the most common recommended installation requirements that do not comply with the NEC, and the applicable NEC sections which apply to thse instal: Iation requirements. This provides the necessary information to respond to recommendations that do not comply with the NEC. Second, the paper will describe an integrated grounding practice for Digital Control Systoms which meets the re- {uirements and recommendations of the 1990 NEC, Federal Information Processing Standard Publication Number 94 (FIPS Pub. 94) [2], and the soon tobe released IEEE Standard P1100 (tobe called “the Emerald Book") [3]. The grounding practice is designed to function as a standard practice for typical installations and to meet the ow electrical noise requirements ‘of equipment suppliers. ‘The paper primarily addresses the grounding of digital systems from the standpoint of digital control systems for facilities and plants. The principles and practices, however, apply to most any installation of digital systems. Pager PID 92:12, approved by the Pooler snd Chemical ndsey Comite of the TEE Insry Aplatons Soi Tx presentation tthe 1991 TERE Peseum and Cami! Indy Conftencey Ton Ca Seplembe 9-1, Mana wind fer palaon Jy 181982 "XD. Aes wth Ber Dai! ne Haka CA 3312 ELP Mowtgmey and, & Lea te wih Par Dani Ta, vine, CA TEEE Log Nomber 20710, I, WHY THE SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON ‘THE GROUNDING OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS? Special emphasis is placed on the grounding of lita systems for a numberof reasons, including the following, A. Safety Versus Noise The NEC provides the basis for virually every local code fn the country. It is typically either adopted by the local authorities, or supplemented by more stringent requirements, ‘The function of the NEC is to provide the requirements forthe safe installation of electrical equipment. All systems supplied with AC power must be grounded for safety and fin accordance with the NEC as @ minimum, In addition to boeing grounded for safety, electronic equipment provided for digital systems is normally grounded t0 minimize noise in the system. This is referred to signal grounding. As will be noted in the subsequent paragraphs, the NEC requires that all grounding systems in a facility or plant be bonded together. It is essential, therefore, that safety grounding and signal grounding be integrated so thatthe safety requirements of the NEC will be met, while still mecting the needs of the equipment suppliers. Reliability and Grounding: Equipment manufacturers ge erally fall into 00 categories. ‘Those in the ist category have designed their equipment to operate properly when grounded in accordance with the NEC. These manufacturers may recommend additional noise reduction techniques, such as signal reference grids, for the reduction of nose, but do not rely on special high quality” ‘or “isolated” ground systems as the primary noise reduction technique “Those in the second category rely on the use of special rounding systems as a primary noise reduetion technique, ‘These manufacturers require the installation of an expensive, separate, isolated ground system. typically with less than ohm ground resistance. These arc the types of systems jormally refered to as “high quality,” “quiet,” oF rounds. Besides the fact these systems do not meet the requirements of the NEC, they are difficult to install and maintain, particularly in areas where it i dificult ro obi even a4 ohm ground resistance. In addition, these systems are generally neither “clean” nor “quit” When the reliability of the two. grounding techniques is considered, the simpler method of grounding per the NEC is more reliable since standard installation practices and equip- ment are used, When the reliability of the equipment is considered, the equipment designed for simpler, easier (0 maintain, and more reliable ground system, should operate more reliably. ps. o9949180300 © 1999 TERECost Considerations: The design and installation cost of 4 separate “isolated” ground system is generally much higher than that of nonisolated or integrated systems. Without consi ring the use of special noise reduction techniques (which may bbe required for either the isolated or the integrated systems), the additonal cost for an isolated grounding system can be very expensive, depending on the size of the system and how easily the low resistance requirement can be met, Overall Goal 10 Grounding Digital Systems: ‘The key to ‘rounding digital systems is to minimize the differences in ‘ound potential between components in the system, over the ‘ange of signal frequencies in use. One ofthe primary means of ‘meeting this goal is to provide an integrated grounding system which meets the requirement ofthe NEC and minimizes noise Jn the system, IIL, NEC RrQUIREMENTS THAT AFFECT A TYPICAL SYSTEM The following 1990 NEC requirements are described and summarized as to their effect on the grounding of digital systems. These NEC sections aze the primary requirements for the safety grounding of digital systems, Section 250-5(d)—(Alternating-Current Circuits and Systems to BeGrounded), Separately Derived Systems ‘This article provides the definition of a separately derived system for the purpose of applying Section 250-26, which covers the grounding of separately derived systems. As de- fined in Section 250-S(4), a separately derived system is 4 “premises wiring system whose power is derived from a generator, transformer, or converter winding and has no direct electrical connection, including a solidly connected grounded circuit conductor (neutral), to supply conductors originating in another system” ‘One ofthe points inthis definition that should be considered is thatthe neural of the transformer or generator must not be Connected to the neutral of the supply 0 the transformer or ‘generator. The second is that the separately derived system must be a premises wiring system, As shown in Fig, I. if the altemate source connection to & 3 phase, 4 wise UPS system was not provided with an isolation transformer, and the neutral of the alternate source was connected to the neutral ‘of the output ofthe UPS, the UPS could not be considered a separately derived system. It should be noted that from both 4 power-conditioning standpoint and grounding standpoint, ‘an isolation transformer should be provided forthe alternate source. The isolation transformer provides filtering for noise in the power system when the altemate source is supplying power to the system, allows the UPS to be considered a separately derived system, and establishes 2 common grounding point closer to the digital system. In regard to the premises wiring consideration, » 480/120 \VAC or 120/120 VAC isolation transformer provided to supply power to control panel which controls equipment external to the panel would be considered part of a separately derived system. In contest, a control power transformer in a motor Starter with no extemal controls would not be considered part of a separately derived system. Section 250-26—~Grounding Separately Derived Systems Section 250-26(a}—Bonding Jumper: This section states that “A bonding jumper, sized in accordance with Section 250-79(d) shall be used to connect the equipment grounding ‘conductors ofthe derived system to the grounded conductor.” ‘The section further states that this connection may be made ‘at any point on the system between the transformer and the first disconnecting means of overcurrent device, except as permitted by Exception No. 4 in Section 250-234, ‘As an example, if a shielded isolation ansformer and separate panelboard is provided to distribute UPS power, the bonding jumper could be installed at the panelboard, between neutral and ground bus assemblies, rather than at the transformer. This not only allows for easier inspection ‘of the bonding jumper, it is usually easier to install at the panelboard than at the transformer lugs. Exception No. 4 in Section 250-23(a) allows for a single bonding jumper for systems with multiple sources. This exception is more fully explained in Paragraph 44 later in’ this paper. Section 250-26(b)-Grounding Electrode Conductor: This Section states that « grounding electrode conductor shall be provided to connect the grounded circuit conductor t0 the ‘rounding electrode. The conductor must be sized fr the phase ‘conductors in accordance with Section 250-94: Similarly t0 Section 250-2646), the connection may be made at any pont in the system between the transformer and the fist disconnecting ‘means o overcurrent device, except as permitted by Exception No, 4 in Section 250-23(a). Note that this section does not reference Exception No. 5 in Section 250-23(a). Refer to the discussion on Exception No. 5 of Section 250-2) in the subsequent paragraphs Section 250-26(c}-Grounding Electrode: “The grounding clectrode shall be as near as practicable to and preferably in the same area as the grounding conductor connection to the system. The grounding electrode shall be: 1) the nearest available effectively grounded strucural metal member of the structure; or 2) the nearest available effectively grounded meta water pipe; or 3) other electrodes as specified in Section 250- BI and 250-83 where electrodes specified by 1) oF 2) are not available Sections 250-81 and 250-83, as referred to in Section 250-26(c), primarily cover the grounding electrode system, including made electrodes, which are allowed to be used only if an effectively grounded structural metal member or ‘metal water pipe isnot available. The practice of running an insulated grounding electrode condictor from the secondary of an isolation transformer to the ground ring oF grid is not permitted if tem 1) or 2) is avaiable, An effetively grounded structural metal member near an isolation transformer is ac- tually 1 preferred grounding electrode. Most of the metal equipment in a facility is inditeely or directly connected to the structural steel, and good design practice dictates that all structural sicel be grounded. Equipment enclosures are connected to the grounding electrode through the equipment grounding conductor. The differences in voltage potential between equipment enclosures and the surounding metal areBet ‘minimized when the structural metal member is used as the ‘grounding electrode. This reduces the potential for nose in the system. Section 250-81—Grounding Electrode System “If available on the premises at each building or structure served, each item (a) through (d) below, and any made cleetrodes in accordance with Section 250-83¢) and (@), shall be bonded together to form the grounding electrode system.” ‘This section of the NEC, along with Section 250-70 ((Bond. ing] General), requires that all electrode systems be bonded together, thus preventing differences in voltage potential be- tween the grounded pants of diferent systems and to provide the electrical continuity and fault capacity between grounded systems. This isa safety requirement. I also helps to achieve the objective of minimizing noise between systems. Iategated grounding schematic fer dg coml systems: Sb Section 250-21—Objectional Current ‘Over Grounding Conductors Section 250-21 discusses arrangements and alterations of ‘rounding conductors to prevent the objectionable flow of current through grounding conductors and ground paths. Section 250-21(b)—Alerations to Stop Objectional Cur- vents: If there are multiple grounding paths, this section provides acceptable alterations, including disconnecting one ‘or more grounding connections, changing the location of the ‘ground connections, and interrupting the ground path between ‘ground connections. Ths section, however, doesnot allow the climination ofall the ground connections. Section 250-21(d}—Limitations to Permissible Alterations: ‘The permissible alteration are limited as follows: “The pro- visions of this section shall not be considered as permitting clectronic equipment being operated on ac systems or branch cieuits that are not grounded as required by this articleSe (Amicle 250—Grounding). Currents that introduce noise or data errors in electronic equipment shall not be considered the objectionable currents addressed in this section.” This ‘means thatthe equipment may not be isolated from ground and the equipment grounding conductor (green wire) must be ‘connected. Section 250-51—Effective Grounding Path “The path to ground from circuits, equipment and metal en- closures for conductors shall: 1) be permanent and continuous; 2) have capacity to conduct safely any fault current likely t0 be imposed on it; 3) have sufficiently low impedance to limit the voltage to ground and to facilitate the operation of the circuit protective devices in the cect Section 250-74, Exception No. 4—Connecting Receptacle Grounding Terminalio Box Exception No, 4 allows the use of isolated. grounding Inept sounding shemic fo ia contol systems: Sheet 2 receptacles, typically colored orange. The ground terminal of, the receptacles is isolated from the mounting assembly and the box. An insulated equipment grounding conductor, typically green with a yellow tracer, is run with the cireuit conductors, ‘The equipment grounding conductor is allowed to pass through any panelboards and to terminate directly atthe equipment ‘rounding bus or temminal at the derived source or service ‘The raceway or conduit and the box forthe receptacle must siill be grounded in accordance with the applicable setions of the NEC. Section 250-75-—Bonding Other Enclosures This section requires that all metallic noncurent-carying ‘components in a system, including raceways, tays, enclosures, that will serve as grounding conductors, must be effectively bonded to ensure continuity and fault capacity. The exception 'o this section states that a nonmetallic isolation fiting may be inserted between the metal raceway or conduit and the pane,if required to reduce electrical noise. An insulated equipment {rounding conductor must be provided inside of the raceway 10 ground the enclosure. The insulated equipment grounding conductor must be installed in accordance with Exception No 4 of Section 250-74, Section 250.86-—Use of Lighting Rods Made electrodes for lightning protection systems shall not be used in place of the made electrodes required by Section 250-83 for grounding of equipment and systems, All made lecttodes, including those for lightning protection systems, must sill be bonded together in accordance with Section 250-81, Section 250-23(a}—System Grounding Connections Section 250-23 covers the grounding requirements for servicesupplied ac systems, while Section 250.26 covers separately derived ac systems. The grounding requirements forthe two different types of systems are generally the same, Section 250.26 primarily addresses the unique requirements {or separately derived systems, Section 250-23(a), Exception No, 4: “For services that are ual fed (double ended) in a common enclosure oF grouped together in separate enclosures and employing a secondary tic, single grounding electrode connection tothe te point of the grounded circuit conductors from each power source shall be permitted” An example of thsi the system contol cabinet for a multi-module (parallel redundant) UPS system, a illustrated in Fig. 1. The output of each UPS module is ted rogether in the system control cabinet. The transfer switch in the cabinet switches between the UPS output and the alternate source. Section 250-26(b), fr separately derived systems, references ‘and allows this exception, Section 250-23(a). Exception No, 5: This exception allows. for the connection of the grounding electrode conductor 10 either the equipment grounding (ground) terminal bar ofthe {grounded circuit (neutral) terminal bar, when the main bonding Jumper is & wire or busbar (a is generally the ease) and i is insaled between the to terminal bars. Sections 250-53b) and 250-79 provide the detailed requirements for the main bonding jumper. This allows for the correct placement of a ground-retum {ype ground fault sensor to accurately sense the fault current In addition, it may be more convenient for certain types of equipment to connect the grounding electrode conductor tothe equipment rounding terminal br. Note that Section 250-26(b) for separately derived systems does not make any reference to this exception, therefore, this exception would apply only to Service-supplied ac systems. Section 645-15—(Electronic Computer/Data Processing Equipment) Grounding This section applies only to electronic computerfdata pro cessing rooms. The NEC does not specify any criteria 3s to what constitutes an electronic computeridata processing room. By reference and assumption, however, a computen/ata processing room is defined as meeting the’ requirements of [NFPA.7S, Standard for the Protection of Electronic Com: puter/Data Processing Equipment. One of the advantages of classifying a room in this manner is that interconnecting cabling can be laid dreetly on the lor, without the use of tray or conduit. NEPA-75 has strict requirements which must be followed for fie protection in the room, which usually negate any cos advantage of classifying the room as electronic ‘computer/data processing room. Equipment meeting UL. 478, Electronic Data Processing Units and Systems is acceptable for use in this type of room per NFPA-75, Normally. very few of the installations are classified as electronic computerldata processing rooms. The use of raised computer Roors and “computer power centers” of “power disibution centers” does not automatically classify the room asa electronic computeridata processing room. In fact, most installations where digital systems are installed are not clas- sified as such, ‘When a room is classified as an electronic computer/data processing om, Section 645-15 states “power systoms de- ‘ved within listed electronic computerfdata processing equip ‘ment that supply electronic computerdata processing systems through receptacles or able assemblies supplied as part ofthis equipment shall not be considered separately derived for the [purpose of applying Section 250-5) ‘The inient of this statement is that if a piece of data processing equipment is provided with an isolation transformer Iegral with the equipment, a new grounding electrode and grounding electrode conductor is not required, The wans- former can be grounded back at the power source through the equipment grounding conductor. The purpose of this isto minimize the difference in voltage potential of the grounded ‘components in the system berween interconnected equipment. Unfortunately, the NEC also includes the “computer power center” type of equipment in this definition. This negetes the advantage of the separately derived system in providing 4 new ground reference point close to the system, which helps minimize the differences in voltage potential between equipment enclosures and the surrounding metal structure. IV. Tyrica. VeNoOR REQUIREMENTS THAT ARE NOTIN ACCORDANCE WITH THE NEC A. Isolated “High Quality Ground Systems Description: Isolated “high quality” ground systems are special grounding systems employing a separate ground elec- trode from the safety grounding system, These ate also referred {o as “clean” or “quiet” grounds. The ground system is typically equired to have a resistance to ground of 1 ob oF less, and is physically isolated fom the “dit,” “noisy” safety ground system, except, of cours, the connection trough the certh. Originally, the “high quality” ground was intended to serve as both he safety ground andthe signal ground reference for the digital system, despite the fact that it would not be in cordance with the NEC. Most manufacturers (but aot all) have moved away from using the "high quality” ground as the safety ground, bur many still recommend its use for the signal reference ground.Applicable NEC Requirements: Section 250-81 requires that all grounding electrodes be bonded together, Section 250- 21(@) states that noise is not an objectionable current for ‘he purposes of isolating equipment from the safety ground, ‘The “high quality” ground electrode must be bonded 10 the safety ground electrode per the NEC. What is the point of installing an expeasive, “high quality” ground system if twill have to be bonded to the safety ground system anyway? In Addition, since the "high quality” ground system has a lower impedance to ground by design, more ofthe fault current will flow tothe “high quality” ground system when the two systems are bonded together. Note that per Section 250-21(c), ground faut currents are defined as temporary currents, and are not classified as objectionable cuents, The section in the NEC that really defines the philosophy behind the grounding requirements in the NEC is Section 250- Si, lem (3). lem (3) states thatthe ground path must have 4 low enough impedance to limit the voltage to ground 10 prevent a shock hazard and to operate the protective devices in the circuit. The use of un isolated ground system can cause a shock hazard due to the impedance ofthe earth between the {wo ground electodes if they are not bonded together. This is applicable to either the use of the isolated ground as both the safety and signal reference ground, of only as a signal reference ground, Reliability: As diseussed at the beginning of this pape! when the reliability of the two grounding techniques is con sidered, the simpler method of grounding per the NEC is more reliable since standard installation practices and equipment are used, When the reliability of the equipment is considered, the equipment requiring a simple, easier to maintain, and more reliable ground system, should operate more reliably The length ofthe ground conductor to the isolated ground system is also a factor in the effectiveness of the system, A long ground conductor can present @ high impedance to high frequency noise and render the isolated ground system Ineffective atthe higher frequencies, Difficulty of Insallation: "The isolated “high quality round systems are difficult to install and maintain, particularly im some areas of the country here it is dificult to obtain even a 4 ohm ground resistance, In addition, in many of the facilities where the isolated “high quality” ground system had been provided forthe signal reference ground, as directed by the manufacturer, a significant quantity of data wansmission ferors were experienced with the digital systems, preventing Droper operation of the systems. The data transmission errors Wete eliminated when the “high quality” ground and safety ‘ground systems were bonded together, and the digital system ‘operated correctly thereafter. B, Isolating Conduit Bushings, Disconnected Equipment Grounding Conduetors.and Cabinet Isolation Description: Originally, wo provide an isolated “high qual- ity” ground system, manufacturers stated in thee site planning ‘manuals that isolation bushings shovld be provided for the ‘conduit containing the ac power conductors feeding the sys tem. In addition, they stated that the equipment grounding conductor (he green wire) should not be connected, but be Jeft coiled and taped. The enclosure would be isolated from te surrounding structural stel and computer floor and then lied to the isolated “high quality” ground system, Applicable NEC Requirements: The practice of using an isolated ground system and its associated nonconformance to the NEC is covered in paragraph 5.a. above. There are nu- merous other NEC sections which also disallow this practice, but are not covered in this paper. The practice of using an isolation bushing to isolate the enclosure from the conduit and insaling an isolated equipment grounding conductor from the equipment to the derived source is allowed by the Exception in Section 250-75, More recently, some manufacturers have recommended the practice of using an isolation bushing t0 isolate the enclo- sure from the conduit and installing an isolated equipment ‘grounding conductor from the equipment. a8 allowed by the xception in Section 250-75, This is similar to the connection of an isolated ground receptacle allowed by Section 250-74, Exception No. 4. Is important to note tha, if the conduit is used as the equipment grounding conductor, a allowed for in Section 250-91(b, the Isolation bushing must not be installed. The Effectiveness Of An Isolation Bushing: The effective: ness of the addition ofan isolation bushing, as allowed by the Exception in Section 250-75, in reducing noe due to ground loops is questionable. One of reasons given fr the installation ‘ofthe isolation bushing is tha it eliminates a potential ground loop. There is litle substantiation for this and the potential for the misapplication ofthis Exception is enormous. The isolation bushing should not be installed as a standard practice and is tnnecessary’ if the integrated grounding practice describe in this paper is followed. V. AN INTEGRATED GROUNDING PRACTICE A. Application ‘The integrated grounding practice shown in Fig. 1 can be applied to virually any installation or faciity. and is based on digital systems where a UPS supplies power for the system. Iti in accordance with the 1990 edition of the [NEC and incorporates many of the recommendations from FIPS Pub. 94. This practice is also intended to conform 10 the as yet unpublished TEEE standard P1100, (#0 be known a5 the “Emerald Book”). Since this standard is unpublished, and is still being worked by the P1100 committee, there may be some minor discrepancies between this practice and the fina published standard, B, Description ‘The grounding practice is designed to minimize the die: fences in ground potential over the range of signal frequencies encountered. While the marily ofthe practice fs depicted in Fig. |, the following should be considered in the application of the practice, Use of Separately Derived Systems: A separately derived system is provided which establishes a new ground point close to the system, This elps minimize the dtferences in potentthat could occur due tothe impedance in the ground conductor back tothe service. An alternate source transformer is provided with the parallel redundant UPS system. The alternate source \wansformer should be a shielded, isolation type tansformer. [As noted inthe discussion on Section 250-5(), the isolation transformer provides filtering for common mode noise on the power system when the allemate source is supplying power ‘o the system. In addition, the isolation transformer allows the UPS to be considered a separately derived system, which establishes @ grounding point closer to the digital system. If te UPS output power is three phase, the alternate source transformer would be delta-wye connected. Ths is effective in preventing the harmonics generated by the power supplies in the digital system from passing through to the power system upstream of the altemate source transformer. The harmonics ae trapped as circulating currems in the transformer. Note that the transformer capacity must be derated for this application de to the heating effect of the circulating currents Bonding Jumpers: Two types of bonding jumpers are pro- vided in the system. One type of bonding jumper is installed per the NEC for safety, typically bonding an enclosure to a ‘ground bar or lug. The ther type isa supplemental type bond- ing jumper provided to minimize the differences in potential between the metal components in the system and is called 4 signal ground bonding jumper. The signal ground bonding Jumper should be sized to minimize the impedance over the range of frequencies to be encountered. The impedance of the wire at high frequencies is a function of the length, not the circular cross-section of the wire. IC is recommended that the length of the bonding jumper be as short as posible 10 ‘minimize its inductance, Multiple bonding jumpers may be required for longer distances Grounding ofthe Signal Common Bus: The signal con mon bus or busses are provided within a system to collect the ‘commons ofthe de circuits which are inherently isolated from the ac power system by the power supplies within the digital system, Depending on the system design, these de commons can have varying potential differences relative to each other, as well as, to the plant or building safety ground system. Its recommended to tie each signal common associated with the various de power systems within a digital system tothe safety around system through a signal reference ground system. If 8 signal reference ground system isnot avilable or practical, the signal common should be ted to the safety ground at each cabinet as shown in Fig. I. This reduces the possibility for noise and crosstalk between de systems of a digital system, ‘Tying the signal common bus to the safety ground system ‘through the signal reference system reduces the differences in potential between grounded parts ofthe sysiem, Reducing the potential difference between the grounded portions of the system also helps reduce the possibility of ground loops Grounding of Shields: Shields are provided on signal wiring to prevent extemally generated noise from being induced into the signal being tansmited. Noise can distor the signal so that transmission errors occur in communication circuits and wrong values are derived in analog circuits ‘When shields are used, they become part of the overall signal grounding system, and must be integrated into the overall design. When and where (0 use shields should be considered inthe design of the signal reference system. Ic is recommended that double shielding be used for low level sensitive signals. An outer and inner shield would be provided. The outer shield would be grounded at multiple locations, the inner would be grounded at one location only. Ina typical installation, the conduit or metallic raceway (cable tray) acts asthe outer shield, The shield provided on the cable would be the inner shield. The iner shields should normally be grounded at the source of power forthe signal. The inner shields of signals powered by the digital system should be grounded at the system. Shields of signals powered extemal to the system, such as thermocouples, should be grounded at the extemal source, which for thermocouples is at the thermocouple. Inner shields should be grounded at one point {o minimize ground loops, and should be continuous over the entre length ofthe circuit. In all eases, it is important to know where all the system ground connections are and why. Minimizing Ground Loops: Ground loops occur when con- nections are made between grounding nodes, and the ground nodes are at diferent potential. Even though the differences in potentials are minimized through the use ofthe integrated ‘grounding practice, some differences stil exist over varying frequency ranges. Circulating currents could occur and could induce noise into sensitive circuits. Ground loops can be avoided by the proper design ofthe grounding system. It must bbe decided where the ground connections are to be made and the system must be analyzed (0 minimize the ground Joops which could affect sensitive circuits. Even though the integrated grounding practice provides the basic guidelines, it is important to design the system, not just let it happen. Use of Signal Reference Grids: Signal reference grids are copper strips or wires interconnected to form a grid. The arid is bonded to the equipment grounding terminal ofthe derived source and i also bonded to all the equipment enclosures, the ‘ised floor, and any metal pipes or structural steel supports oF columns that penetrate the grid. The grid provides numerous low impedance paths to ground for nose over various signal frequencies. The grid is very effective in. minimizing the Aiferences inthe ground potential between pars ofthe system, The grid is typically used where large quantities of microprocessor-based equipment is used, where high fre quency data transmissions are used, or for ertical systems, ‘where high reliability and availability i required. In particu itis recommended in installations where the cables are laid direely on the floor. Note that each installation is diferent and that good engineering judgement should be applied to ‘each application. It should be noted that the cost of the signal reference grids for material and installation is relatively inexpensive if peemanufactured grids used, The installed costs are decreasing as more grids are installed, installers become more familiar with th installation, and additional research is performed on the effectiveness of lower cost grid ‘The use of the raised floor as a signal reference grid is rot recommended, since the electrical connections between the stringers and supports are not reliable or consistent. In addition, the effectiveness of the grid in eliminating noise is ‘Increased by locating it closer to the cables on the floor.Design of Power Distribution to Minimize Nolse: While this tpic is too extensive to cover in this paper, correctly designed power distribution system is also effective in mini mizing noise in a system. The following important techniques are recommended, Distribute power to the digital system at a higher vot age than the utilization voltage and use delta-wye connected shielded, isolation type step-down transformers. Large UPS systems typically have an output voltage of 480 Vac, which is an excellent distribution voltage for this application. While surge protection on ac power citcuits is recom- ‘mended, special power conditioners are not. Isolation tans- formers and an integrated ground system are a mone effective approach Motors and arcing type equipment and the digital system should be fed from different sections of the power distribution system, as isolated from each other as possible, ©. Successful Applications ofthe Integrated Grounding Practice This practice has been successfully applied on numerous plants and feciltes of various types, including facilities where it has been impractical or virtually impossible to achieve ‘extremely low impedances to ground. A majarity of equip. ‘ment manufacturers have accepted this practice. Unfortunatly, 4 minority of manufacturers stil specify an isolated “high quality” ground system, which does aot meet the NEC. D. Other Considerations fects of the Ground Potential of the Safety Ground System: The integrated grounding system described in this paper is not directly affected by the variance of the potential to ground ofthe plant safety ground system, since the integrated round system is essentially ted or referenced to the plant Safety ground system. The integrated ground system will rise and fall with the plant safety ground system. Noise de to differences in the voltage potential to ground is minimized by esign. ‘Where systems are connected by data highways between areas of varying ground potentials, iti usualy ess expensive to isolate the data highways to prevent large ifferences in potential from damaging components or disabling com- ‘munications. Fiber optics have become an extremely cost effective means of accomplishing this isolation and have the added advantage of being immune to any electromagnetic imerterence Separate Grounding and Isolating of @ PLC Chasis: Inthe ‘quest to separate and correctly ground the signal common of 4 system, it has been recommended or specified by some in the indasry 10 isolate the metal chassis of the PLC from the enclosure and separately ground the chassis back at the derived source, Since te signal common is usually not accessible ina PLC and is grounded to the chassis inside of the PLC. the recommendation is to place a piece of insulting. material ‘between the PLC chassis and the mounting panel in the enclosure. A. separate insulated ground wire is run back 0 the derived source. In some applications ofthis practice. the ground wire is not always run in the same raceway as the circuit conductors. This practice is sometimes recommended so thatthe signal common ean be “correctly” grounded, This practice is not in accordance with the NEC and is both dangerous and ineffective for several reasons, AS Fig. 1 shows, the circuit conductors provide power tothe PLC power supply. The equipment grounding conductor must be run with the circuit conductors per Section 250-57(b), Numerous studies hhave shown that if the ground conductor is not routed in the same raceway as the circuit conductors, the impedance to ground is very high, which i the reason for Section 250-57(b), If there was a fault wo the PLC chassis, the ground impedance would be very high and the circuit protection may not operate This is notin accordance with Section 250-51(3) ‘This amangement can also cause the exact problem which itis intended to solve, which is minimizing noise through the ground system and eliminating ground loops. The PLC chassis will be at a different volage potential to ground than the enclosure. This could contibute to the noise in the system due to the differences in ground potentials. The chasis, Insulating material and enclosure are two picses of metal separated by dielectric material, which is the definition of a apacitr, Various frequencies could cause a coupling between the chassis and enclosure allowing current to Row, causing ground loops Another argument against isolating the PLC chassis from, ‘he enclosure is the fact that it s generally notin accordance With the manufacturers’ recommendations and requirements. ‘The PLC manufacturers have been providing systems for years in which systems are grounded per the NEC, where each chassis is bonded to the enclosure, and the where systems communicate and operate reliably. It is @ function of the ruggedness of the equipment and the environment that it was designed to operate in, ie. electrically noisy and “dit.” that allows it to operate reliably when grounded per the NEC. Use of Signal Reference Grids in Stel Modules or Skids: Signal reference grids are not requited in installation where steel decking or floors are provided, When correctly bonded, the steel floor makes an effective signal reference grid Vi Susmany An inlegrated grounding practice for digital systems has been presented which mects the requirements and recommen: dations of the 1990 NEC, Federal Information Processing Standard Publication Number 94 (FIPS Pub. 94), and the soon to be released IEEE Standard 1100. The grounding practice Will function as a standard practice for typical installations and fo meet the low electrical noise requirements of equip- ment supplies. Some of the most common recommended installation that do not comply with the NEC have been discussed, with the applicable NEC sections which apply to those installation requirements. The integrated grounding practice provides the basic guidelines, It i8 important 10 understand and design the grounding system, and not to blindly follow unproven or dangerous practices, |As mentioned at the beginning of the paper, the key to grounding digital systems is 19 minimize the differences inround potential between components in the system, over the range of signal frequencies in use or encountered. REFERENCES (0) Phe National xecrical Cade, National Fits Poeton Asse NFPA 10. 950 (2) Gideine on Bical Power for ADP nsilatins, Feder tem. Frocsing Si (HPS) Pub 9. Sop 21, 98h [8] Recommended Pace or Powering ad Granding Sensitive Fe. tri Eimer Sted 10, EEE Nel D. 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