Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Period 4
12/21/10
Homework #17 : Chapter 17 (due Mon)
ONE Concept Map: 10 points
Gene to Proteins
Objectives
The Connection Between Genes and Proteins
1. Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties.
Dwarf peas are shorter than tall varieties because they lack gibberellins, the growth hormones
which normally stimulate the stem elongation. Their failure to make gibberellins is due their
lack of the enzyme required for its synthesis. This protein is missing due to a malfunction of
the gene coding for it.
2. Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate
phenotypes through enzymes.
Archibald Garrod was the first to suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through the proteins
that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the cell... enzymes. His ideas were based upon
inherited diseases which caused an inability to produce certain enzymes, particularly
alkaptonuria. This condition causes urine to turn black to due the presence of a chemical
which turns dark when exposed to air. Garrod believed that most people have enzymes that
break down alkapton. Many decades later, research was conducted that supported his
hypothesis. It was confirmed that genes dictate specific enzyme production.
3. Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution they
made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
Beadle & Edward Tatum’s experiments involved assailing the bread mold, Neurospora with
X-rays. Then, they searched among the survivors to find mutants whose nutritional needs
differed from the norm. These mutants could not live on the minimal medium given to normal
Neurospora. They couldn’t not synthesis important molecules from the nutrients given. Once
given complete growth medium, however, the mutants could survive. Beadle & Tatum tried to
characterize the specific metabolic defects by growing them on various complete mediums in
different vials. The supplement added that allowed for growth would indicate the defect.
Then, they went on to determine the mutants’ three classes based on genetic crosses.
Each mutant was found to be defective in only 1 gene. Beadle & Tatum were thus able to
demonstrate the relationship between enzymes and genes. In addition, their experiment was
strong support for their hypothesis: one gene, one enzyme, which stated that a gene’s function
is to dictate a specific enzyme’s production.
4. Distinguish between the “one gene–one enzyme” hypothesis and the “one gene–one
polypeptide” hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
The “one gene—one enzyme” hypothesis was altered because genes code for proteins, and
not all proteins are enzymes. The hypothesis of “one gene—one protein” was then altered
again when it was discovered through later research that proteins are composed of several
polypeptides, and that each polypeptide has it’s own gene. Thus, the hypothesis is now “one
gene—one gene polypeptide.”
5. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
While DNA and RNA are chemically similar, the former has deoxyribose and the latter
ribose. In addition, for nitrogenous bases, thymine in DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA.
RNA is the nucleic acid which links DNA and protein synthesis, as genes cannot build
proteins directly. RNA molecules are always single stranded.
6. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
Information in DNA is in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides, or genes.
Transcription occurs, synthesis a copy of the DNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA
and mRNA contains the same information. Protein synthesis is then directed during
translation, when polypeptides are produced using the direction from mRNA.
7. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
Transcription is RNA synthesis under DNA’s direction. The end product is messenger RNA,
which is generally referred to as mRNA. Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide under
the direction of the mRNA from transcription.
8. Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
In prokaryotes, mRNA produced by transcription is immediately translated. On the other
hand, eukaryotes much process the mRNA before translation can occur. The nuclear envelope
separates the two steps. In addition, prokaryotes have sequences that signal the end of
transcription. With eukaryotes, polymerase eventually falls off DNA.
9. Define codon and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on mRNA
and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
The mRNA transcribed from DNA forms triplets called codons. Codons specify the
placement of amino acids along a polypeptide. The series of codons, however, must be read in
the correct frame for the correct linear sequence of amino acids.
10. Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the triplets
UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC.
The early technique for identifying the amino acids synthesized by the base triplets UUU,
AAA, GGG, and CCC were discovered by Marshall Nirenberg. By creating an artificial
mRNA molecule made only of the specific repeated base, Nirenberg knew that the one amino
acid produced would have been coded by the codon containing the base repeated three times.
11. Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
Polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized because that amino acid is a
promoter, or codon that initiates the process. Methionine indicates the start of translation.
12. Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
The genetic code is redundant, but unambiguous, meaning that while several codons can be
for the same amino acid, no codons can specify two amino acids. The codons that do code for
the same amino acid tend to differ only in their third base.
13. Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
The reading frame is significant during translation because the genetic code’s message will
not be correct if the starting point is not right. Then, from the start, all codons must be read in
groups of three nucleotides.
14. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
The genetic code is almost universal, meaning it is shared by organisms ranging from bacteria
to plants to animals. This means that in lab research, genes can be transcribed and translated
from one species to another. Bacteria can thus synthesize specific human proteins after the
appropriate genes are inserted. In terms of evolutionary significance, the genetic code shows
that all living things arose from a common ancestor. It is a reminder of the kinship of all life
on Earth.